33.

Piaget's theory of cognitive development Piaget believed that reality is a dynamic system of continuous change, and as such is defined in reference to the two conditions that define dynamic systems. Specifically, he argued that reality involves transformations and states.

1. Sensorimotor stage - is the first of the four stages in cognitive development which "extends from birth to the
acquisition of language". "In this stage, infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with physical, motoric actions. Infants gain knowledge of the world from the physical actions they perform on it. 2. Preoperational stage

(Pre)Operatory Thought is any procedure for mentally acting on objects. The Symbolic Function Substage - Occurs between about the ages of 2 and 7. At 2-4 years of age,
kids cannot yet manipulate and transform information in logical ways, but they now can think in images and symbols. The Intuitive Thought Substage - Occurs between about the ages of 4 and 7. Children tend to become very curious and ask many questions; begin the use of primitive reasoning. 3. Concrete operational stage - occurs between the ages of 7 and 11 years use of logic.
[9]

and is characterized by the appropriate

Seriationthe ability to sort objects in an order according to size, shape, or any other characteristic. For example, if given different-shaded objects they may make a color gradient. Transitivity- Transitivity, which refers to the ability to recognize relationships among various things in a serial order. For example, when told to put away his books according to height, the child recognizes that he starts with placing the tallest one on one end of the bookshelf and the shortest one ends up at the other end. Classificationthe ability to name and identify sets of objects according to appearance, size or other characteristic, including the idea that one set of objects can include another. Decentering where the child takes into account multiple aspects of a problem to solve it. For example, the child will no longer perceive an exceptionally wide but short cup to contain less than a normally Reversibilitythe child understands that numbers or objects can be changed, then returned to their original state. For example, during this stage, a child understands that a favorite ball that deflates is not gone but can be filled with air again and put back into play. wide, taller cup. Conservationunderstanding that quantity, length or number of items is unrelated to the arrangement or appearance of the object or items. Elimination of Egocentrismthe ability to view things from another's perspective (even if they think incorrectly). For instance, show a child a comic in which Jane puts a doll under a box, leaves the room, and then Melissa moves the doll to a drawer, and Jane comes back. 4. Formal operational stage (adolescence and into adulthood): Intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. At this point, the person is capable of hypothetical and deductive reasoning. 34. Von Restorff effect - also called the isolation effect, predicts that an item that "stands out like a sore thumb" (called distinctive encoding) is more likely to be remembered than other items. A bias in favour of remembering the unusual. Zeigarnik Effect - the tendency to experience intrusive thoughts about an objective that was once pursued and left incomplete. The automatic system signals the conscious mind, which may be focused on new goals, that a previous activity was left incomplete. It seems to be human nature to finish what we start and, if it is not finished, we experience dissonance. Greenspoon effect - refers to an experimental effect found in some studies of verbal conditioning in which the speaker's use of certain classes of words may increase in frequency when reinforced by the listener making appropriate diffident gestures of assent. Mller-Lyer illusion - is an optical illusion consisting of a stylized arrow. When viewers are asked to place a mark on the figure at the midpoint, they invariably place it more towards the "tail" end.

35. The Gestalt Principles

Similarity occurs when objects look similar to one another. People often perceive them as a group or pattern. anomally an object can be emphasized if it is dissimilar to the others.

continuation when the eye is compelled object.

to move through one object and continue to move to another

Closure occurs when an object is incomplete or a space is not completely enclosed. If enough of the shape is indicated, people percieve the whole by filling in the missing infomation. Proximity occurs when elements are placed close together. They tend to be perceived as a group.

Figure and Ground The eye differentiates an object form its surrounding area. a form, silhouette, or shape is naturrally perceived as figure(object), while the surrounding area is perceived as ground(background).

38.

Rogers Self Theory - The three sides of the triangle are composed of the Perceived Self(how person sees self & and others see them) . The Real Self (how person really is). And the Ideal Self (how person would like to be). People enter counseling in a state of incongruence, or a point at which a discrepancy exists between the individual's self-perception and their experiences in reality. This means that the person is experiencing conflict between their perceived and real self. In fact, Rogers (1961) would often find himself utilizing the same phrase during his counseling sessions. The phrase was as follows, "So, you find it hard to believe that they would love and accept you if they knew who you really were."

40. Negative transfer describes a pattern of error in animal learning and behavior, within the framework of behavioral psychology. It occurs when a learned, and previously adaptive, response to onestimulus interferes with the acquisition of an adaptive response to a novel stimulus that is similar to the first. A common example is switching from a manual transmission vehicle to an automatic transmission vehicle. Spontaneous recovery is a phenomenon of learning and memory which was first seen in classical (Pavlovian) conditioning and refers to the re-emergence of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a delay. Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. stimulus generalization is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses after the response has been conditioned. For example, if a child has been conditioned to fear a stuffed white rabbit, it will exhibit fear of objects similar to the conditioned stimulus such as a white toy rat. 41. Desensitization (also called inurement) is defined as the diminished emotional responsiveness to a negative or aversive stimulus after repeated exposure to it. Modelling is a general process in which persons serve as models for others, exhibiting the behavior to be imitated by the others.. Classical conditioning is a technique used in behavioral training. A naturally occurring stimulus is paired with a response. Then, a previously neutral stimulus is paired with the naturally Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. occurring stimulus.

43. Demand characteristics refers to an experimental artifact where participants form an interpretation of the experiment's purpose and unconsciously change their behavior to fit that interpretation. Hawthorne effect is that changes in participants' behavior during the course of a study may be "related only to the special social situation and social treatment they received.Halo effect or halo error is a cognitive bias in which our judgments of a persons character can be influenced by our overall impression of him or her. It can be found in a range of situations from the courtroom to the classroom and in everyday interactions. Random assignment refers to the use of chance procedures in psychology experiments to ensure that each participant has the same opportunity to be assigned to any given group. Study participants are randomly assigned to different groups, such as the experimental group, or treatment group. 44. Heuristic availability is a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to mind. When you are trying to make a decision, a number of related events or situations might immediately spring to the forefront of your thoughts. As a result, you might judge that those events are more frequent and possible than others. You give greater credence to this information and tend to overestimate the probability and likelihood of similar things happening in the future. 45.Gestalt therapy is an existential/experiential form of psychotherapy that emphasizes personal responsibility, and that focuses upon the individual's experience in the present moment, the therapist-client relationship, the environmental and social contexts of a person's life, and the self-regulating adjustments people make as a result of their overall situation. Reality therapy (RT) is an approach to psychotherapy and counseling. Developed by William Glasser in the 1960s, it is considered a form of cognitive behavioral therapy. RT differs from conventional psychiatry, psychoanalysis and medical model schools of psychotherapy in that it focuses on what Glasser calls psychiatry's three R's: realism, responsibility, and right-andwrong, rather than symptoms of mental disorders. Behaviour therapy or behavior therapy is an approach to psychotherapy in the behaviourism tradition that focuses on a set of methods designed for reinforcing desired and eliminating undesired behaviors without concerning itself with the psychoanalytic state of the subject. In its broadest sense the methods focus on behaviors, not the thoughts and feelings that might be causing them. Psychodynamic psychotherapy is a form of depth psychology, the primary focus of which is to reveal the unconscious content of a client's psyche in an effort to alleviate psychic tension. Psychoanalysis stress the strong influence of unconscious elements affecting people's mental lives. Person-centered therapy (PCT) is also known as person-centered psychotherapy, personcentered counseling, client-centered therapy and Rogerian psychotherapy. PCT is a form of talk-psychotherapy . The goal of PCT is to provide patients with an opportunity to develop a sense of self wherein they can realize how their attitudes, feelings and behavior are being negatively affected and make an effort to find their true positive potential. Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), previously called rational therapy and rational emotive therapy, is a comprehensive, activedirective, philosophically and empirically based psychotherapy which focuses on resolving emotional and behavioral problems and disturbances and enabling people to lead happier and more fulfilling lives. 46.contrast effect is the enhancement or diminishment, relative to normal, of a perception and related performance as a result of immediately previous or simultaneous exposure to a stimulus of lesser or greater value in the same dimension. Habituation is a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations. For example, a novel sound in your environment, such as a new ring tone, may initially draw your attention or even become distracting. Intensity: Strength, Amplitude, Level, Magnitude Repetition compulsion is a psychological phenomenon in which a person repeats a traumatic event or its circumstances over and over again. This includes reenacting the event or putting oneself in situations where the event is likely to happen again. This "re-living" can also take the form of dreams in which memories and feelings of what happened are repeated, and even hallucination.