Prospects (2009) 39:6989 DOI 10.

1007/s11125-009-9113-2 OPEN FILE

Teacher management and educational reforms: Paradigm shifts

Yin Cheong Cheng

Published online: 24 September 2009 UNESCO IBE 2009

Abstract In the past 15 years, numerous reforms and initiatives in many countries in the Asia-Pacic region have aimed to change education and promote new learning to prepare the new generation for the future. Unfortunately, despite good intentions and huge investments of resources, many of these reforms have been found to be ineffective and unsustainableif they succeed at all. Reecting on the trends and waves of educational reform in the Asia-Pacic region, this paper introduces an international lesson on the emerging syndrome of educational reform across the region and illustrates its negative impacts on teacher ecology and teacher management. Then, the paper outlines the implications of this lesson and of a study of the worlds best-performing educational systems, using them to develop a holistic approach to managing teachers and planning for their sustainable professional development. Finally, it highlights the paradigm shifts in teacher management, reviewing the three waves of educational reform in the last two decades, and draws further implications for formulating teacher management policies in ongoing and future educational reforms to support students new learning and sustainable development. Keywords Teacher management Education reform Asia-Pacic region

The reform syndrome and teacher management In the past two decades, nine trends in educational reforms have occurred at four levels of the educational systems in the Asia-Pacic region and other parts of the world. At the
This paper was adapted from the authors keynote speech at the International Conference on Teacher Development and Management organized by the World Bank, the UK Department for International Development (DfID), the European Commission, UNICEF, and UNESCO, with the technical support of Indias Ministry of Human Resource Development, National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT), National University of Educational Planning and Administration (NUEPA) and National Council of Teacher Education on 2325 February 2009, at the Vidya Bhawan Society, Udaipur, India. Some of the material in this paper was adapted from Cheng (2006a, 2007). Y. C. Cheng (&) Hong Kong Institute of Education, 10 Lo Ping Road, Tai Po, N.T., Hong Kong e-mail: yccheng@ied.edu.hk

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macro level, the main trends are re-establishing a new national vision and educational aims, restructuring educational systems at different levels, and privatising and diversifying a market-driven approach to education. At the meso level, a salient trend is increasing parental and community involvement in education and management. At the site level, the major trends are ensuring educational quality, standards and accountability; increasing decentralization and school-based management; and enhancing both teacher quality and the continuous lifelong professional development of teachers and principals. At the operational level, the main trends are using information technology in learning and teaching, applying new technologies in management, and making a paradigm shift in learning, teaching and assessment (Cheng 2005a, ch. 7). The reform syndrome Because of serious international or regional competition, while one country in the AsiaPacic region was preparing to initiate educational reforms, other regional competitors also conducted reforms and initiated more changes in their education systems. Inuenced by globalization, most competitors would follow the emerging international trends in educational reforms (e.g., educational accountability, quality assurance reviews, school-based management, marketization, etc.) as quickly as possible. This was why so many countries and areas in the world shared similar patterns or trends in educational reforms (Cheng 2005a, ch. 7). Some key features of an educational reform syndrome could be seen across the region. First, countries educational reforms inuenced those of other countries and areas in the region, resulting in common patterns and behaviors. Second, administrators were often eager to meet the reform targets very quickly and to implement many initiatives in parallel. Third, they often ignored their own cultural and contextual conditions in implementing educational reforms. Fourth, they worried about losing their national competitiveness if they did not reform as quickly as possible. The result was too many parallel reforms, along with chaos and painful failures in the education sector (Cheng 2007). Unfortunately, over the past decade evidence has been emerging about the negative impacts this syndrome is having on the educational system and teachers in those countries or areas with many concurrent reforms. These included Australia, New Zealand, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Malaysia, Singapore, and Mainland China in the region and even some countries outside it such as the UK and Mexico. In the education sector, a range of problems are potentially damaging teachers well being and working conditions. These problems include extreme competition deriving from market forces, close control from accountability measures, an increased workload because of so many new initiatives, deprofessionalization of teachers work through excessive management and monitoring, and the high pressure caused by uncertainties and ambiguities in the educational environment. As a result, teachers have become burnt-out and overburdened with unnecessary busywork. Meanwhile, the status of the teaching profession is falling, competent teachers are leaving, and the quality of teaching and learning is deteriorating (Cheng 2006a, b, 2007). The bottleneck effect The negative effects of the reform syndrome can be further illustrated by the bottleneck effect in Hong Kongs reform process (Cheng 2009a). Any new educational initiative, even when launched with good will and sufcient support for teachers, can become an additional burden and limitation on teachers and schools. The initiatives themselves also clog the bottleneck and hinder the implementation of other new reforms, as illustrated in Fig. 1. As

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School Marketing

Extended Services

School Review & Self Evaluation

School Accountability

Many meetings

Increased Extracurricular Duties

Parental Participation

Mandatory Staff Development

SBM

Increase in difficulties

School-based initiatives Inclusive education Increased student diversity

Bottleneck: Large workload, large class sizes, too many lessons

Reform Aims: High

Quality Education, Changes in Teaching & Learning

Source: Adapted from cheng(2009a)

Fig. 1 Reform syndrome: bottleneck effect

more and more reforms are initiated, more tasks become jammed into the bottleneck and teachers and schools experience more pressure. What created this bottleneck effect? It resulted from several interacting factors. The workload of Hong Kong teachers has always been very high: more than 30 lessons (normally 40 minutes each) each week. Also, the number of students in each class often ranged around 3540. The existing large workload and large class size became the structural part of the bottleneck, hindering efforts to change teaching and learning and thus move towards the high-quality student-centred education advocated in ongoing reforms. As part of the educational reforms, inclusive education was implemented without an appropriate package of support for teachers. This structural change immediately increased the difculties teachers faced, as it required more effort, time and energy from them. The educational reforms included school-based management, school-based curricula, schoolbased innovations, and integrated curricula; all these required teachers to give up their familiar teaching materials, methods, curriculum and styles and start from the beginning to prepare new curricula and materials according to the new curriculum framework and school-based needs. The process inevitably increased teachers challenges, difculties, and work pressure, well beyond their capacity. Since so many initiatives were being introduced at once, teachers and principals had to attend many kinds of training workshops and programmes in order to meet their requirements. Among them were language prociency benchmarks, degree qualications in subject areas, and training on curriculum development, information technology, middle management, individual subjects, and new concepts and skills for teaching and assessment. This kind of mandatory professional training and development inevitably became an additional source of pressure for them. Other parallel initiatives, also implemented with the best of intentions, added to the bottleneck effect and became serious sources of pressure. As shown in Fig. 1, they included school self-evaluation, external school reviews, parental

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involvement in school management, school marketing in the local community, extended professional services for parents and the community, more responsibilities for co-curricular activities, various types of quality assurance measures and reporting, and teacher participation in school-based management and development (Cheng 2009a). As multiple studies reported, the bottleneck effect of educational reforms had wide and negative impacts on teachers and the whole teaching profession in 2004 when the implementation of educational reforms was at its peak (Hong Kong Mood Disorders Centre 2004; Hong Kong Federation of Education Workers 2004; Hong Kong Cosmo Physiotherapy Centre 2004; Hong Kong Professional Teachers Union 2003; Ng and Koa 2003). Over 25% of Hong Kong teachers had mood disorders; among them, 20% had symptoms of depression, 14% had frequent anxiety, and 8% had both. Somewhere between 2,000 and 2,500 teachers (45.2% of the total) considered suicide. Around 50% of primary and secondary teachers felt their work was out of control and were suffering from high pressure. Other complaints were common, including insomnia (51%), loss of ones temper (49%), and physical discomfort (47%). Their morale was very low: between 37 and 56% of Hong Kong teachers considered resigning from their jobs. Early retirement became popular among competent teachers who worked too hard and were burnt out during the process of reforms. All this evidence indicated the long-term negative impacts of educational reforms on the well-being of teachers, the school ecology, and the teaching professionand on the sustainability and effectiveness of educational reforms. What lessons can be learned from this painful international experience of managing teachers in a context of educational reform? Internationally, people believe that continuing educational reforms are necessary for new learning in the new century and that teacher management should be planned and implemented to support these reforms, but unfortunately no holistic view or framework is available for analyzing and managing the dynamic relationship between reforms and management. Inevitably, this results in substantial gaps between educational reforms and teacher management in policy formulation and implementation; all parties suffer and the system as a whole is damaged, as described above.

Implications from the worlds best-performing school systems In September 2007, the renowned international consulting group McKinsey & Company (2007) published an inuential report on how the worlds best-performing school systems come out on top. Based on the results of the OECDs PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment) over the past few years, McKinsey identied the worlds ten bestperforming school systems. They are Alberta, Australia, Belgium, Finland, Hong Kong, Japan, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Ontario, South Korea and Singapore (which scored highest on the TIMSS, the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study). Then, they studied these systems in detail to see how they developed their high levels of performance. They concluded that three things matter most: 1. Getting the right people to become teachers. 2. Developing them into effective instructors. 3. Ensuring that the system can deliver the best possible instruction for every child. What are the implications of this study for developing policies and initiatives for teacher management? The rst element is attracting quality people to be teachers. The second is clearly associated with the effectiveness and relevance of teacher education and professional development. The third relates to the broader conditions at both site and system

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levels that can facilitate and empower teachers to be effective in their instruction. All three elements should be considered in policy and implementation related to teacher management.

A holistic approach to teacher management Based on my previous work (Cheng 2006a, b), the above international lesson on educational reform, and the McKinsey & Co. report, I propose a holistic approach or framework composed of key aspects of teacher ecology, in order to formulate policy and implement teacher management. Figure 2 illustrates the framework. Attracting teachers Two crucial concerns with the rst aspect of teacher management policy are how to raise the status of the teaching profession and how to provide higher starting salaries to attract quality young people to be teachers. Success in addressing these two concerns can ensure better prospects for teaching as a career and a better quality of teachers entering school systems. Thus, the key policy concepts in this aspect of teacher management are the prospect of the profession and the quality of teacher intake. Developing teachers The key concern in the second aspect of teacher management policy is how to ensure that pre-service teacher education and in-service professional development programmes develop teachers as professional practitioners in schools. If school systems are to perform well, teachers professional competence must be developed and must be relevant to the changing aims, content and practice in schools. This effort will help raise the professions

Fig. 2 Holistic approach to teacher management: an ecological perspective

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qualities and standards. Thus the key policy concepts in this aspect of teacher management are teachers professional competence or standards and the relevance of teacher education and professional development. Empowering teachers The key concern of the third aspect is how to ensure that working conditions at both institutional and system levels facilitate and empower teachers to perform effectively. They must also adapt smoothly to fast-changing educational contexts, including the new aims, content and practice of education and the diverse and demanding expectations of multiple stakeholders. Therefore the key concepts here are effectiveness of teacher practice and adaptation of teachers to changes in working conditions. Retaining teachers The key concern in the fourth aspect is how to retain high-quality teachers in the school system and how to ensure their physical and psychological well-being and long-term professional and career development in a challenging and demanding context. Here, the key concepts for policy formulation are the sustainability of high-performing teachers and the stability of the teaching profession, particularly in a context of continuing educational reforms. Dynamic and synergetic relationships The aspects of attracting, developing, empowering, and retaining teachers are mutually related and are inuenced by the ecology of the teachers in the school system. Changes in one aspect can have direct or indirect impacts on the others. For example, recruiting betterquality people to be teachers can directly enhance professional competence and standards through teacher education and professional development; it can indirectly improve teacher effectiveness and adaptation and make the profession more sustainable and stable. Conversely, as the profession becomes more sustainable and stable, that will attract high-quality teachers, enhance professional development, and improve teacher performance. In brief, the relationships between the four key aspects should be dynamic and synergetic. The policy initiatives and measures within these aspects should be planned and implemented in a coherent way to ensure synergy between the various teacher management policies and initiatives and to maximize their positive impacts, bringing them into the ecology of teachers and schools for healthy cyclic development, as indicated in Fig. 2. This is also the reason why the traditional approach to teacher management, with separate, fragmented or ad hoc policies for these four aspects, often cannot deliver the synergy or positive impacts of teacher management. The waves of educational reforms Since educational reforms are necessary in the new century, the initiatives and policies of teacher management in the four key aspects should not be isolated or separated from ongoing and future educational reforms. In particular, they should be placed into the context of trends and waves of educational reform. Then planners can consider how each can help them formulate and implement educational reforms and how the initiatives and teachers are inuenced and shaped by the reforms. More important, the teacher

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management initiatives and educational reforms must be formulated and implemented coherently to provide synergetic support for teachers so they can work effectively and sustainably. The international lesson shows how the gaps between teacher management and educational reforms may result in serious suffering, of both school systems and teachers. The context of global and regional change In addition, the initiatives of teacher management should be considered proactively and strategically within the larger context of global and regional changes. These include trends in population, global and local development, and resource provision, along with the impacts of globalization, advances in technology, and international and regional competition.

Attracting people with strong intellectual assets to be teachers In the holistic approach to teacher management, the crucial rst step is attracting quality people to be teachers. As indicated in Fig. 3, students learning experiences and outcomes may be thought of as divided into two layers: (a) explicit knowledge and skills; and (b) implicit intellectual assets and cultural capital such as personal qualities, attitudes, values, beliefs, language codes, mindsets and thinking models. In general, the high-quality intellectual assets and cultural capital tend to add more long-term value while knowledge and skills can quickly become outdated in this era of globalization and transformation. Similarly, teachers professional competence may also be classied into two layers: (a) explicit professional knowledge and skills they can gain through teacher education and professional development; and (b) implicit intellectual assets and cultural capital that derive mainly from the teachers own personal qualities developed and accumulated since early

Teachers Professional Competence

Explicit: Professional Knowledge and Skills
(from Teacher Education and Professional Development)

Teaching Process
Explicit Knowledge Delivery

Students Learning Experiences & Outcomes

Explicit: Knowledge and Skills

Implicit: Intellectual Assets and Cultural Capital

(from Teachers Own Qualities)

Implicit: Implicit Cultural Capital Transfer Intellectual Assets and Cultural Capital

Recruit high quality young people to be teachers.

Sustainable & high value-added personal qualities, attitudes, values, beliefs, & thinking models

Fig. 3

Teachers competence & students learning

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76 Table 1 Quality of teacher intake & starting salary Percentage of student cohort Korea Finland Singapore Hong Kong USA (lower-performing school systems) OECD average Source: Adapted from McKinsey & Co. (2007) Top 5% Top 10% Top 30% Top 30% Bottom 30%

Y. C. Cheng

Starting salary for teachers (% of GDP per capita) 141 96 96 97 81 95

childhood. To a great extent, effective teaching requires not only that teachers explicitly deliver knowledge and skills but also that they implicitly transfer highly-valued and sustainable intellectual assets and cultural capital to students (Althusser 1971; Collins 1971). Through the teaching process, the professional knowledge and skills of teachers, enhanced through teacher education and professional development, can help develop students knowledge and skills. But the development of students sustainable intellectual assets and cultural capital may depend heavily on teachers high-quality personal intellectual assets, which may not develop quickly through short-term teacher education and training. Therefore it is important to recruit potential teachers who already have strong intellectual assets so they can more successfully develop their students intellectual assets. As the McKinsey & Co. (2007) report pointed out, the quality of an educational system can never exceed the quality of its teachers. That explains why it is so crucial to recruit potential teachers with strong intellectual assets. It is no surprise that the highest-performing countries or areas reported in the OECD PISA studies, including Korea, Finland, Hong Kong and Singapore, adopted various initiatives to attract high-quality potential teachers. As indicated in Table 1, these countries can attract the top 530% of the graduating student cohort to be teachers as they offer starting salaries ranging from 95 to 141% of the nations GDP per capita. In comparison, in the U.S., some of the lower-performing school systems take in teachers from the bottom 30% of the student cohort; their average starting salary is 81% of GDP per capita. Thus the teaching profession in the U.S. is represented as less attractive than in other countries (McKinsey & Co. 2007).

Resources for teacher management and educational reforms A holistic approach to teacher management for implementing educational reforms or for assuring quality universal primary education often requires huge amounts of resources. Getting the resources that management initiatives require is often a great challenge for policymakers. Figure 4 shows the regional ow of teachers needed to maintain adequate stafng and to achieve universal primary education by 2015 as reported by the UNESCO Institute of Statistics (2006). As the population in the East Asia and Pacic region continues to decline,

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Fig. 4 Regional ow of teachers to maintain in stafng and achieve UPE in 2015

the numbers of teachers needed to implement universal primary education up to 2015 will also decline, by nearly one-third of the original total. This means that countries in the region may have golden opportunities to save resources and re-invest them into teacher management, including recruiting, developing, empowering and retaining high-quality teachers to engage in educational reforms and further professional development. In comparison, during the period up to 2015, South and West Asia, including India and Pakistan, will require more teachers to implement universal primary education and to meet the needs of their increasing student populations. Thus, these areas are experiencing a much more challenging situation and need many additional resources in teacher recruitment and management.

Paradigm shifts in teacher management The educational systems in many parts of the Asia-Pacic region have experienced three waves of movement and paradigm shift in recent decades, as Fig. 5 shows (Cheng 2001b, 2007). During each wave, a specic paradigm developed, conceptualizing the nature of learning and the role of the teacher, and formulating reforms for improvement, implementation and practice at the system, site, and operational levels. Each wave involves quite different implications for teacher management and planning, as Table 2 shows. The transition from one wave to the next in these reforms also represents a paradigm shift in teacher management.

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World Class Education Movements Effective Education Movements Quality/Competitive Education Movements

Y. C. Cheng

E
Effectiveness for Goals

Q
Quality for Satisfaction

R
Relevance to the Future

1980s-90s Internal Effectiveness

1990s Interface Effectiveness

2000s Future Effectiveness

Source: Adapted from cheng(2007)

Fig. 5 Paradigm shifts in educational reforms and teacher management

The rst wave and teacher management Since the 1980s, when basic education systems were successfully expanded to meet the needs of national economic development efforts, many policy-makers and educators in the Asia-Pacic region began looking at ways to improve internal processes, including teaching and learning in educational institutions. Their aim was to make educational institutions more internally effective so they could meet their educational aims and curriculum targets (Cheng 2007). In Hong Kong, India, South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, Malaysia, and Mainland China, many initiatives targeted important elements in internal school processes. Among the targeted elements were school management, teacher quality, curriculum design, teaching methods, evaluation approaches, facilities, and the environments for teaching and learning (Gopinathan and Ho 2000; Kim 2000; Cheng 2001a; Abdullah 2001; Rajput 2001; Tang and Wu 2000). A strong emphasis was placed on using the benchmarking concept (Bogan and English 1994) to ensure that the effectiveness or performance of internal factors met a certain standard. For example, in Hong Kong, English language teachers were asked to take a benchmark examination in order to show that their English language prociency reached a given benchmark (Coniam et al. 2000). In the rst wave of reforms, it was assumed that education would deliver knowledge, skills and cultural values from teachers and the curriculum to students in a comparatively stable industrial society; learning was often perceived as a process of students receiving a planned set of knowledge, skills and cultural values they needed for their future survival in such a society. Therefore the teachers role was mainly to instruct or deliver knowledge (Cheng 2006a, b). In this line of thinking, teacher effectiveness mainly relied on internal teacher effectiveness: teachers were to achieve the planned goals and tasks of knowledge delivery through teaching and other internal activities. Teachers who achieved more of the planned goals were seen as more effective. During the rst wave, teacher management focused on ensuring that teachers provided quality and quantity instruction and on arranging their

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Table 2 Paradigm shifts in educational reform and teacher management Second wave paradigm Third wave paradigm Education is to facilitate the multiple and sustainable development of students and society in a context of globalization and change

First wave paradigm

Nature of education

Education is to provide a service to satisfy the Education is to deliver the planned knowledge, needs and expectations of stakeholders in a skills and cultural values from teachers and competitive market curriculum to students in a comparatively stable society

Nature of learning

Students receive a set of knowledge, skills and cultural values they need to survive in an industrial society Teachers provide educational services

Students receive educational services and become Students develop contextualized multiple competitive in a job market intelligence (CMI) and high-level competence for multiple and sustainable development in a quickly changing era Teachers facilitate multiple and sustainable development

Role of teacher

Teachers instruct, deliver knowledge

Teacher management and educational reforms: Paradigm shifts

Conception of Internal effectiveness: The teacher delivers knowledge as planned through his/her teaching teacher effectiveness and other internal activities

Future effectiveness: The teacher contributes to the Interface effectiveness: The teacher satises multiple and sustainable development of stakeholders with educational services including educational process and outcomes; the teacher is individuals, the community, and the society for the future accountable to the school and the public

How can teacher management measures ensure the How can young people with strong intellectual Key concerns How can teacher management initiatives ensure assets be attracted and recruited as teachers? quality of teacher performance and professional that teachers perform effectively to achieve in teacher How can teacher management measures develop training to satisfy the diverse needs of planned goals of knowledge delivery in management and empower teachers to facilitate students new stakeholders in education and to meet the classroom? learning and multiple and sustainable publics accountability requirements? How can teacher management, including teacher development? training and provision, professional quality and How can a market be created within teacher How can teacher education and professional management to encourage competition that standards, and the teaching environment, be development be globalized, localized, and drives the service and performance of teachers improved to ensure that systems achieve their individualized to create unlimited opportunities planned goals (e.g., universal primary education, and schools to a high standard? to develop teachers sustainable and world-class curriculum change)? professional competencies? How can teacher management initiatives create an unlimited platform for teachers life-long professional learning through ICT, networking and various innovations in an era of globalization?

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Table 2 continued Second wave paradigm Third wave paradigm Adopt a holistic approach to teacher management including attracting, developing, empowering, and retaining teachers with strong intellectual assets and cultural capital Establish a life-long and sustainable teacher education and professional development framework for developing a new generation of teachers with new professional standards and competences for reforms and the new learning of the Third Wave Engage multiple stakeholders and build up local and international alliances to enhance teacher management policy, raise the status of teachers, and bring in diverse resources for professional development and teacher education Maximize the synergy of various teacher management and teacher education initiatives to create unlimited opportunities for teachers lifelong learning through globalization, localization, individualization and ICT in professional development and training

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First wave paradigm

Limited central resources are available to meet the The sources of resources and measures are Key features diversied to meet the diverse expectations and mass and diverse demands for quality teachers of teacher increasing demands on teachers and education. and education management School-based and district-based planning and Teacher management involves central planning, management of teacher provision are external control, and topdown approaches. emphasized, along with performance and Quantitative management emphasizes input and development to meet local needs technical aspects A stakeholder-oriented and market-driven The same standards or measures of teacher approach enhances competition and effectiveness management are applied across all districts or in teacher management schools. Management is decentralized, but with a strong School-based characteristics and stakeholders diverse needs are ignored. Key stakeholders and accountability framework and monitoring measures local communities are not engaged Teachers experience too much management control, close monitoring and use of their resources in marketing and non-educational work, resulting in loss of professionalism Orientation is too short-term and instrumental, contradicting long-term education values

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work at both site and system levels. Teachers needed the appropriate subject knowledge, professional skills and attitudes, and working ability to effectively deliver knowledge to students and achieve the schools planned goals. Correspondingly, the two key concerns in teacher management were (1) how teacher management initiatives could ensure that teachers performed effectively to achieve the planned goals of knowledge delivery in classrooms; and (2) how the teacher management effort, including teacher training and provision, professional quality and standards, and the teaching environment, could be improved to ensure that teachers achieved the planned system goals (e.g., universal primary education, curriculum change, etc.). In the rst wave, the central governments of many countries in the Asia-Pacic region (e.g., India, Pakistan, China, Vietnam and Thailand) had limited resources but faced wide and diverse demands for quality teachers and education. Teacher management, and professional training and development, often involved a topdown approach that emphasized central planning and external control. Teacher management initiatives tended to be quantitative, input-oriented and technical. Given the limits on resources, teacher management policies often ignored school-based characteristics, district-based expectations, and stakeholders diverse needs; they tended to apply the same standards or measures across all districts or schools. Key school stakeholders and local communities were rarely engaged in planning and implementing the initiatives of teacher management. In the past few decades, many initiatives of the rst wave were introduced in the region and elsewhere around the world (Cheng and Townsend 2000; Dimmock 2003). Internationally, researchers considered a wide range of issues including teacher qualications and competences (Cheng et al. 2004b; Gopinathan and Ho 2003; Wang 2004; Lee 2004; Walia 2004; Fidler and Atton 1999), improvement of teaching and learning processes (Renshaw and Power 2003; Bubb 2001; Morgan and Morris 1999), improvement of school management and classroom environments (Cheng 1996b), curriculum development and change (Baker and Begg 2003; Cheng et al. 2000), and evaluation and assessment (Mohandas et al. 2003; Leithwood et al. 2001; Headington 2000; MacBeath 1999, 2000; Sunstein and Lovell 2000). Though many resources and much effort were invested in the rst wave of educational reforms and related teacher management initiatives, the results were often very limited and could not satisfy the publics increasing needs and expectations. Inevitably the policies for improving teacher management could not effectively meet the diverse needs and expectations of parents, students, policy-makers, and concerned community members. How could teachers and schools be held accountable to the public? How relevant were the provision and arrangements of professional development and student outcomes to the fastchanging but diverse demands of schools and local communities? These questions, concerned with the interface between teacher management and the community, were not answered adequately in the rst wave of reforms.

The second wave and teacher management In the 1990s, in response to concerns about making education accountable to the public and having its quality satisfy stakeholders expectations, the second wave of educational reforms emerged in the region and its counterparts. In some areas, including Hong Kong, South Korea, India, Mainland China, Singapore, and Taiwan, a growing trend emphasized quality education or competitive education movements. These focused on quality assurance, school monitoring and review, parental choice, student coupons, marketization,

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parental and community involvement in governance, school charters, and performancebased funding. These were typical examples of the policy measures taken to enhance effectiveness at the interface between educational institutions and the community (Mukhopadhyay 2001; Mok et al. 2003; Cheng and Townsend 2000; Mohandas et al. 2003; Pang et al. 2003; Coulson 1999; Evans 1999; Goertz and Duffy 2001; Headington 2000; Heller 2001; Mahony and Hextall 2000). During the second wave, education was often seen as providing an educational service to satisfy the needs and expectations of stakeholders in a competitive market; learning was a process of students receiving certain kinds of educational services and becoming competitive in the job market. The teachers role was mainly to provide educational services. Therefore teacher effectiveness was mainly seen as interface effectiveness, dened as stakeholders satisfaction with teachers educational services (including the educational process and outcomes), along with teachers being accountable to schools and to the public. In this line of thinking, teacher management aimed to arrange for and ensure that teachers provided sufcient, and high-quality, services at both the site and system levels. These services were to meet community expectations, satisfying the needs of key educational stakeholders, and to demonstrate accountability to the public. The two key concerns during this era were (1) how teacher management measures could ensure the quality of teacher performance and professional training to satisfy the diverse needs of stakeholders in education and to meet the publics accountability requirements; and (2) how a market could be created within teacher management to encourage competition that would drive teachers and schools to serve and perform at a high standard. The second wave of educational reforms opened up a new paradigm in teacher management. The key areas and issues of teacher management and implementation were related to school-based management, school monitoring and self-evaluation, quality inspection, benchmarking, the involvement of key stakeholders, accountability to the community, and school development planning (Cheng 1997; Glickman 2001; Headington 2000; Jackson and Lund 2000; Leithwood et al. 2001; MacBeath 1999, 2000; Smith et al. 1999; Sunstein and Lovell 2000). During the second wave, several features of teacher management were key. Given their limited resources and the increasing demands they faced, it was difcult for the central governments of various countries in the Asia-Pacic region to satisfy all the expectations of stakeholders at different levels. Therefore they made great efforts to diversify the sources of their resources and the measures they used to manage the provision and quality of teachers at all levels. School-based or district-based approaches were quite common in the planning and management of teacher provision, performance and development. It was often very helpful to address the issues of diverse needs and expectations at the site or district level instead of the national or system level (Cheng 1996a; Caldwell 2003). In parallel with the school-based management movements, a market-driven approach placed great emphasis on satisfying stakeholders; it aimed to enhance competition and increase effectiveness in managing the provision, performance and professional development of teachers. In order to promote school-based management, it became necessary to decentralize authority in the procurement, allocation and utilization of resources, and often in the context of a strong accountability framework and related monitoring and evaluation measures. As can be seen in the international lesson that opened this paper, the second wave encountered problems in some countries, including too much control, monitoring and evaluation of teachers and their schools as well as the overuse of teachers time and effort in activities not related to teaching and learning, including marketization; these nally resulted in the de-professionalization of teachers The teacher management initiatives often

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suffered from orientations that were too short-term and instrumental, contradicting the basic values of education and long-term professional development.

The third wave and teacher management At the turn of the millennium, rapid globalization, along with the long-lasting effects of information technology (IT), the drastic shock of the economic downturn, and strong demands for economic and social developments in international competition, stimulated deep reection on educational reforms in the Asia-Pacic region and beyond (Keeves et al. 2003). To ensure that the younger generation can respond to the challenges of rapid transformation in an era of globalization and IT, many researchers, policy-makers, and stakeholders in the region urged another paradigm shift in learning and teaching. They demanded reforms in the aims, content, practice, and management of education, to ensure that they would be relevant in the future (see, e.g., Ramirez and Chan-Tiberghein 2003; Burbules and Torres 2000; Cheng 2000a, b, 2003a, b; Daun 2001; Stromquist and Monkman 2000). In this global context in the twenty-rst century, the third wave of educational reforms is placing a strong emphasis on making education relevant to the future development of individuals and their society. It focuses especially on a new paradigm of education that involves contextualized multiple intelligences (CMI), globalization, localization, and individualization (Maclean 2003; Baker and Begg 2003; Cheng 2005a). Strong trends in globalization and international competition are driving this third wave of educational reforms to embrace the notion of world-class education movements. The belief is that educational effectiveness and improvement should be dened by world-class standards and global comparability to ensure that students and societies develop in ways that are sustainable in such a challenging era of globalization and competition. In the third wave, the focus of education is to facilitate students and society in developing in multiple and sustainable ways, in the context of globalization. Now learning is seen as a process of students developing CMI and high-level competence so they can respond to multiple and sustainable developments in a fast changing era. Therefore the teachers role is to facilitate students multiple and sustainable development (Cheng 2005a, 2006b, 2009b). Teacher effectiveness is now measured as future effectiveness, reecting teachers contributions to the future development of individuals, the community, and the society. In the third wave, teacher management aims to arrange for a sufcient quantity of highquality teachers, whose performance and professional development will be relevant and effective for pursuing the new vision and aims of education. It must also address the paradigm shift in learning, to provide the high-level abilities needed for sustainable development, along with lifelong learning, global networking, an international outlook, and the integration of IT into education (Peanco et al. 2003; Peterson 2003; Cheng 2001a). The new objectives of teacher education and professional development are to develop teachers as facilitators of life-long learning who themselves have CMI and the high-level professional competence to create unlimited opportunities for students to learn and develop in multiple and sustainable ways through triplization in education; that is, education must be an integrative process of globalization, localization and individualization (Cheng 2001c). In the third wave, four concerns in teacher management are key: 1. How can young people who have strong intellectual assets and contextualized multiple intelligence be attracted and recruited as teachers?

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2. How can the teacher management measures develop and empower third-wave teachers who can facilitate students new learning and multiple and sustainable development? 3. How can teacher education and professional development be globalized, localized, and individualized in order to create unlimited opportunities for developing sustainable and world-class professional competencies in teachers? 4. How can teacher management initiatives create a platform for teachers to continue their life-long professional learning through networking, ICT (information and communication technologies) and various other innovations in an era of globalization? In strong contrast to the rst and second waves of educational reforms, teacher management in the third wave is based on a new paradigm of teacher education and professional development and characterized by four key features (Cheng 2006d, 2009b; Cheng et al. 2004a). First, it adopts a holistic approach to teacher management that includes attracting, developing, empowering, and retaining teachers who have strong intellectual assets and cultural capital. Second, it establishes a framework for life-long and sustainable teacher education and professional development, in order to develop a new generation of teachers with the professional standards and competences needed for the reforms and new learning of the third wave. Third, multiple stakeholders are engaged and local and international alliances are developed to enhance teacher management policy, raise the status of teachers, and bring in diverse resources for professional development and teacher education. Finally, the synergy between various initiatives in teacher management and teacher education is maximized to provide far more opportunities for teachers to experience lifelong learning through globalization, localization, and individualization and to use ICT in professional development and training.

Conclusions The typology of the three waves provides an overview that educators, policy-makers, and scholars can use to understand the recent paradigm shifts in educational reforms and draw implications to develop their agendas and action plans for teacher management in Asia and beyond. Different countries or areas may face different historical and contextual constraints. Thus far, the progress and characteristics of their educational reforms and related teacher management may be different and move forward in different waves. Some areas may still be in the rst wave, struggling to enhance the internal effectiveness of teachers and focusing mainly on providing enough teachers and improving their internal process. Some areas may be moving forward in the second wave, or in a mix of the rst and the second waves, trying to improve both the internal and the interface effectiveness of teachers. Responding to the challenges of globalization and the inuences of IT, some areas may have already engaged with the third wave of educational reforms and teacher management to focus on teachers future effectiveness (Cheng 2007). Paradigmatic gaps Some areas, like Hong Kong, are in a difcult situation: they are making great efforts to implement the second wave initiatives including marketization, school-based management, and various accountability measures, but they are also aiming at third-wave targets such as the sustainable development of individuals and the society for the future (Cheng 2005b). Policy-makers, educators and school practitioners are often confused and frustrated, if not

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entirely defeated, when they face the paradigmatic gaps and dilemmas between the second and third waves of policy formulation and implementation. Given the very large scale at which many countries or areas are moving from the rst and second waves towards the third, they are creating an extremely strong demand to build a comprehensive knowledge base, using sophisticated research, to understand the key issues of each wave of reforms as well as the complicated dynamics of paradigm shifts and practical transitions across waves of reforms. Without this understanding, many educational reforms and related teacher management initiatives may lead to frustration and failure despite huge investments and the best of intentions. Impacts of the reform syndrome As the international lesson illustrated, evidence has been emerging about the negative impacts of the educational reform syndrome, particularly during the second wave and on teachers in particular areas (e.g., Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Malaysia). Among the most damaging problems were competition created by marketization, excessive control via accountability measures, an increased workload because of the many simultaneous initiatives, de-professionalization of teachers work, from the overemphasis on management and monitoring, and the high pressure caused by uncertainties and ambiguities in the educational environment. As a result, teachers became burnt out and overburdened with unnecessary busywork, and saw the status of their profession decline; meanwhile, the educational systems lost competent teachers, and the quality of teaching and learning deteriorated (Cheng 2006a, b). Why did these negative impacts occur and how could they be prevented? This is a very challenging question for policy-makers and researchers in teacher management. Given that so many large reform initiatives were proposed and implemented at different levels in such a short time, there was often no comprehensive research to support the policy formulation and implementation and to explain the policy impacts of so many simultaneous reforms on the educational environment and working conditions of teachers (Cheng 2007). Shifts in policy concerns Looking at the trends in educational reforms in the region, we can observe some shifts in the policy concerns related to teacher management. Traditionally, people in the region were mainly concerned with the quantity of teacher provision (e.g., number of teachers, teacher-student ratio, working hours, salary, etc.) in order to meet the needs of expanding school systems. Now they must place more emphasis on the quality of teachers (e.g., professional qualications, teaching performance, relevance of training, etc.) to satisfy the high and diverse expectations of educational stakeholders. Traditionally people employed local and internal perspectives as they made policy on teacher management, but now they are more concerned with the tremendous impacts and challenges of international competition, regional development, and globalization. Traditionally, the conception of policy problems in teacher management was often simplistic, with a focus on quantitative provision in a comparably stable local environment, but now the policy considerations are becoming more complex, involving multiple factors in qualitative provision to meet increasing internal and external challenges (Cheng 2006c). As teacher management policies developed through these years, we can see a shift from a traditional perspective, which was static, mechanical, and short-term, towards a new one that is more dynamic, ecological and long-term. Moreover, the management of policy

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implementation is generally shifting from the traditional approaches that emphasize standardization, centralization, maintenance, and control, towards new approaches that involve diversication, decentralization, development, and personal initiative (Cheng 2006c, 2007). Clearly, the implications from the international lessons, the changes in educational demands, the shifts in policy concerns, and the paradigm shifts in educational reforms in the region are signicant to future teacher management. Educational research, especially on holistic approaches and multi-disciplinary efforts, is urgently needed to study these implications, to understand the key emerging issues in policy-making and implementation, and to develop appropriate strategies and methods for teacher management in a context of major changes and reforms at different levels of the educational systems in the region.

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Author Biography
Yin Cheong Cheng (China, Hong Kong SAR) holds a doctorate from Harvard University. He is the Vice President (Research and Development) and Chair Professor of Leadership and Change at the Hong Kong Institute of Education. He is also the Past-President of Asia-Pacic Educational Research Association. Previously, he was the associate director of the Hong Kong Institute of Educational Research and professor in the Department of Educational Administration and Policy of the Chinese University of Hong Kong. His research interests focus on education effectiveness, leadership development, teacher education, and school management reform. Cheng has published 20 academic books and over 200 book chapters and journal articles; some of them have been translated into Chinese, Czech, Hebrew, Korean, Persian, Spanish and Thai.

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