KINGDOM PLANTAE Evolutionary trends among plants 1.

Plants are thought to have evolved from multicellular green algae that lived in damp conditions. 2. During the course of their evolution, plants have become increasingly adapted to life on land. They developed roots, stems and leaves with a vascular system. Life cycles changed from haploid to diploid dominance. 3. The bryophytes (liverworts, hornworts & mosses) are small nonvascular plants that lack a specialized vascular system which restricts their size. They reproduce via haploid spores. 4. The ferns are seedless vascular plants that reproduce via spores. 5. The gymnosperms (cycads, ginkgos, gnetophytes and conifers) are seed-bearing vascular plants. 6. The angiosperms are flower and seed-bearing vascular plants.

Evolutionary trend among plants, from gametophyte (haploid) dominance to sporophyte (diploid) dominance in the life cycle.

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Classification of Kingdom Plantae (morphological characteristics at the phylum and class levels; sexual reproduction in Marchantia; Dryopteris; Pinus; Caesalpinia, sporulation in Dryopteris , vegetative reproduction in Allium, Solanum, Yucca, Zingiber) Phylum 1. Bryophyta Characteristics No true roots, body anchored by filamentous rhizoids; clear alternation of generations, with gametophyte independent, sporophyte dependent; gamete-producing cells surrounded by jacket of sterile vegetative cells; no asexual spores produced Examples

Thalloid gametophyte is flat ribbon or leafy Class 1: Hepaticae (liverworts) shoot; found in cool, moist, shady places Class 2: Musci (mosses) 2. Filicinophyta

Marchantia

- not in syllabus Prominent frond-like leaves; sporangia in clusters (sori); underground rhizomes; have a vascular system; true roots, stems & leaves Spores on leaves or special structures No protective case (e.g. ovary wall) around ovule; most have cones (not Ginkgo or Taxus); no vessels, only tracheids in xylem; many have needle -like leaves which are often evergreen. Naked seeds, often in a cone; needle-like leaves, mostly evergreen.

Funaria ______

Class 1: Filicineae 3. Coniferophyta

Dryopteris

Class 1: Gymnospermae

Pinus

4. Angiospermatophyta Flowers produced; ovules develop inside ovary; ovary wall develops into fruit; vessels in xylem. Class 1: Monocotyledonae Embryo has a single cotyledon; Leaves usually show parallel venation; Flower parts typically in multiples of 3; Stem contains scattered vascular bundles; No secondary growth Class 2: Dicotyledonae

Zea mays

Embryo has two cotyledons; Leaves have a network of veins; Flower parts often in multiples of 4 or 5; Stem contains ring of vascular bundles; Secondary growth occurs

Delonix regia

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Bryophyta Characteristics of the division (phylum) Bryophyta - clear alternation of generation where the haploid gametophyte is dominant. - no vascular tissues (xylem & phloem) - thalloid body, no true leaves, stems or roots. - Gametophyte possesses rhizoids which hold on to the ground - Sporophytes are dependent on gametophytes for their nutrition - Sporophytes produce spores - found in cool, damp & shady places Characteristics of class Hepaticae (liverworts) - Thalloid body - unicellular rhizoids - Capsule of sporophyte splits into 4 to release spores. - Elaters help to scatter spores from capsule.

Marchantia sp Morphology - green photosynthetic thallus - grows vegetatively by dichotomous branching - Asexual reproductive structures (gemma cups) are found at the ends of thallus - Antheridium & archegonium are sexual reproductive structures. Dichotomous branching

Gemma cups

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Sexual reproduction

Archegonium Antheridium - antherozoids (male gametes) are produced in antheridiums - oospheres (female gametes) are produced in archegoniums - antherozoids swim towards oospheres (chemotaxism) - after fertilization, the zygote develops into the sporophyte, which is a capsule, with many spore mother cells (sel induk spora). - meiosis takes place in the capsule, forming many haploid multicellular spores - when conditions are dry & windy, the capsule bursts open and spores are released - elaters help to push spores out of capsule - spores germinate into a filamentous protonema, which develop into a new haploid thallus. Asexual reproduction - occurs if conditions are suitable. - Gemma, multicellular bodies with short stalks are produced in cup-like structures - they are released & carried away by water - gemma produce rhizoids & become new thallus

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Filicinophyta Characteristics of the division (phylum) Filicinophyta - Alternation of generation, the sporophyte being dominant - Gametophyte reduced to a temporary prothallus - Sporophyte possesses true roots, stems and leaves (with vascular tissues). Characteristic of the class Fillicinae : - Large leaves called fronds - Sporangiums arranged in clusters - Homosporous (producing one type of spores)

Morphology 2006 NLN (SMKLBB) 5

- Ferns are diploid sporophytes - Possess true stems & leaves (with vascular tissues); rhizome = underground stem - Possess fibrous roots (akar serabut) - Reproductive structures are found on the underside (abaxial surface) of mature fronds (adaxial = upper surface) - Sporangium are arranged in clusters called sori (singular sorus), protected by the indusium - Young fronds are circinately coiled (circinate fr. circle) Asexual reproduction

- Ferns reproduce asexually by vegetative propagation rhizomes Sexual reproduction - Haploid spores are released from sporangiums (meiosis takes place in the sporangium) - Spores germinate to produce a haploid gametophyte called a prothallus. - Prothallus produces antheridiums & archegoniums. - Antherozoids fertilise ovum found in archegoniums. - Diploid zygote develops into the dominant sporophyte plant. Sub Division: Spermatophyta 2006 NLN (SMKLBB) 6

Characteristics of spermatophyta: - Plants which produce seeds - Subdivided into gymnosperms & angiosperms - Sporophyte generation dominant - Heterosporus microspores (male nucleus within pollen tube) & megaspores (embryo sac) - Not dependent on water for fertilization - Possess complex vascular tissues in stem, roots & leaves. Coniferophyta Characteristics of the Division Coniferophyta - Naked seeds not protected by ovary - Microspores develop in microsporangium found on microsporophylls in the male cone - Megaspores develop in megasporangium, found on megasporophylls of female cones - Does not produce fruits - Xylem tissues contain tracheids, but no vessels; phloem tissues contain albuminous cells, no companion cells. Pinus sp Morphology coniferous tree (sporophyte) which produce male & female cones - small needle-shaped leaves - main trunk and branches show unlimited growth coniferous tree (sporophyte) which produce male & female cones

Young and old female cones.

Female pine cones 5 species

Male pine cones

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Reproductive structures of Pinus sp. 2006 NLN (SMKLBB) 8

Angiospermatophyta Characteristics of the Division Angiospermatophyta: - Flowering plants - Divided into 2 classes i.e. monocotyledonae & dicotyledonae - Seeds produced in fruits - Dominant generation- sporophyte - Produce 2 types of spores i.e. microspore = male nucleus in pollen tube; megaspores = embryo sac in the ovary of the flower - Gametophyte generation is very short & totally dependent on the sporophyte. - Characteristics of the classes: Monocotyledonae Leaves have parallel veins Vascular bundles scaterred in stem cortex No vascular cambium Tap root Seeds have a single cotyledon Flower parts with three petals E.g. Sugar cane, corn, grasses, palms. Dicotyledonae Net venation on leaves Vascular bundles arranged in a ring near the outer edge of the stem Contain vascular cambium Fibrous roots Seeds have 2 cotyledons Flower parts with 4 or 5 petals E.g. nuts, roses, sunflower

Asexual reproduction: vegetative reproduction (rhizomes, stolons, bulbs, tuber, stem cuttings) Sexual reproduction - Male reproductive organs: filament & anther - Female reproductive organs: stigma, style & ovary - Meiosis occurs in anther & embryo sac - Double fertilisation occurs in the embryo sac - Diploid zygote & triploid endosperm tissue are produced

Development of pollen

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Development of the ovule and the embryo sac

Development of pollen tube

Double fertilisation

2006

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10

2006

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11

Summary: Sexual reproduction in plants (including algae) Kingdom Division (Phylum) Dominant Life cycle General diagram of life cycle generation Gametophyte Haploid Gonad: no special gonad except for oogonium in multicelular alga. Gamete: similar size / different in size; whole cellular content Zygote: zygospore Spore: Zoospore Types of sexual reproduction: isogamy, anisogamy, oogamy, conjugation. Alternate between gametophyte Haplodiplont & sporophyte Gonad: antheridium, archegonium Gamete: antherozoid, oosphere Sporophyte: produces capsules & sporangium Spores: homosporus (Gametophyte generation > dominant in Bryophyta, sporophyte generation > dominant in Filicinophyta) Sporophyte Diploid Gonad/Sporangium: Microsporangium- pollen sac Megasporangium - ovule Spore: Microspore: pollen grain Megaspore: embryo sac Gametophyte: Male gametophyte: reduced to 3 nuclei Female gametophyte: reduced to eight nuclei Gamete: male nucleus, egg cell Sporophyte: plant (draw out the opp. diagram in English as a practice)

Protoctista

Chlorophyta Phaeophyta

Bryophyta Filicinophyta

Plantae

Spermatophyta (coniferophyta & angiospermatophyta)

2006

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12