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The nervous and endocrine systems act as a coordinated interlocking supersystem, the neuroendocrine system. The endocrine system controls body activities by releasing mediator molecules called hormones. The nervous system controls body actions through nerve impulses. Parts of the nervous system stimulate or inhibit the release of hormones. Hormones may promote or inhibit the generation of nerve impulses.

Endocrine System Control body activities through HORMONES

Nervous System Control body actions through NERVE IMPULSES

Hormones released through bloodstream, Nerve impulses conducted through nerve has systemic actions cells Results may takes hours, long duration of effects Affect nearly all body tissues Alters metabolism, regulate growth and development & influence reproductive processes Results in miliseconds, brief duration of effects Affect muscle & glands Cause muscle to contract & glands to secrete

 Help regulate: extracellular fluid metabolism biological clock contraction of cardiac & smooth muscle glandular secretion some immune functions Growth & development Reproduction Hormones have powerful effects when present in very 4 low concentrations.

 EXOCRINE GLANDS secrete products into ducts which empty into body cavities or body surface sweat, oil, mucous, & digestive glands ENDOCRINE GLANDS secrete products (hormones) into bloodstream pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal other organs secrete hormones as a 2nd function Examples : hypothalamus, thymus, pancreas, ovaries, testes, kidneys, stomach, liver, small intestine, skin, heart & placenta

 Hormones only affect target cells with specific membrane proteins called receptors
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 Although hormones travel in blood throughout the body, they affect only specific target cells. Target cells have specific protein or glycoprotein receptors to which hormones bind. Receptors are constantly being synthesized and broken down.

 Receptors are constantly being synthesized & broken down range of 2000-100,000 receptors / target cell Down-regulation excess hormone leads to a decrease in number of receptors receptors undergo endocytosis and are degraded decreases sensitivity of target cell to hormone Up-regulation deficiency of hormone leads to an increase in the number of receptors target tissue becomes more sensitive to the hormone

 Hormones that travel in blood and act on distant target cells are called circulating hormones or endocrines. Hormones that act locally without first entering the blood stream are called local hormones. Those that act on neighboring cells are called paracrines. Those that act on the same cell that secreted them are termed autocrines.

Circulating hormone

Paracrine hormone

Autocrine hormone
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 Lipid-soluble hormones include the steroids, thyroid hormones, and nitric oxide, which acts as a local hormone in several tissues. Water-soluble hormones include the amines; peptides, proteins, and glycoproteins; and eicosanoids.

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 Steroids lipids derived from cholesterol on SER different functional groups attached to core of structure provide uniqueness Thyroid hormones tyrosine ring plus attached iodines are lipid-soluble

Nitric oxide is gas

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 Amine, peptide and protein hormones modified amino acids or amino acids put together serotonin, melatonin, histamine, epinephrine some glycoproteins Eicosanoids derived from arachidonic acid (fatty acid) prostaglandins or leukotrienes
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 Protein hormones circulate in free form in blood Steroid (lipid) & thyroid hormones must attach to transport proteins synthesized by liver improve transport by making them water-soluble slow loss of hormone by filtration within kidney create reserve of hormone only 0.1% to 10% of hormone is not bound to transport protein = free fraction

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 Hormone binds to cell surface or receptor inside target cell Cell may then synthesize new molecules change permeability of membrane alter rates of reactions Each target cell responds to hormone differently At liver cells---insulin stimulates glycogen synthesis At adipocytes---insulin stimulates triglyceride synthesis

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 Lipid-soluble hormones bind to and activate receptors within cells. The activated receptors then alter gene expression which results in the formation of new proteins. The new proteins alter the cells activity and result in the physiological responses of those hormones.

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 The hormone binds to the membrane receptor. The activated receptor activates a membrane G-protein which turns on adenylate cyclase. Adenylate cyclase converts ATP into cyclic AMP which activates protein kinases. Protein kinases phosphorylate enzymes which catalyze reactions that produce the physiological response. Since hormones that bond to plasma membrane receptors initiate a cascade of events, they can induce their effects at very low concentrations.

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 The responsiveness of a target cell to a hormone depends on the hormones concentration, the abundance of the target cells hormone receptors, and influences exerted by other hormones. Three hormonal interactions are the permissive effect synergistic effect antagonist effect

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 Permissive effect a second hormone, strengthens the effects of the first thyroid strengthens epinephrines effect upon lipolysis Synergistic effect two hormones acting together for greater effect estrogen & LH are both needed for oocyte production Antagonistic effects two hormones with opposite effects insulin promotes glycogen formation & glucagon stimulates glycogen breakdown

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 Regulated by signals from nervous system, chemical changes in the blood or by other hormones Negative feedback control (most common) decrease/increase in blood level is reversed Positive feedback control the change produced by the hormone causes more hormone to be released Disorders involve either hyposecretion or hypersecretion of a hormone

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 The hypothalamus is the major integrating link between the nervous and endocrine systems. Hypothalamus receives input from cortex, thalamus, limbic system & internal organs Hypothalamus controls pituitary gland with 9 different releasing & inhibiting hormones The hypothalamus and the pituitary gland (hypophysis) regulate virtually all aspects of growth, development, metabolism, and homeostasis.

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 The pituitary gland is located in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone and is differentiated into the anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis), the posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis), and pars intermedia (avascular zone in between) Pea-shaped, 1/2 inch gland found in sella turcica of sphenoid Infundibulum attaches it to brain Anterior lobe = 75% develops from roof of mouth Posterior lobe = 25% ends of axons of 10,000 neurons found in hypothalamus neuroglial cells called pituicytes

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 The blood supply to the anterior pituitary is from the superior hypophyseal arteries. Hormones of the anterior pituitary and the cells that produce the: Human growth hormone (hGH) is secreted by somatotrophs. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) is secreted by thyrotrophs. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) are secreted by gonadotrophs. Prolactin (PRL) is secreted by lactrotrophs. Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) and melanocytestimulating hormone (MSH) are secreted by corticotrophs.

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 Controlling hormones enter blood Travel through portal veins Enter anterior pituitary at capillaries

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 Decrease in blood levels Receptors in hypothalamus & thyroid Cells activated to secrete more TSH or more T3 & T4 Blood levels increase

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 Oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions Uterine contractions stimulate oxytocin release

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 Human growth hormone (hGH) is the most plentiful anterior pituitary hormone. It acts indirectly on tissues by promoting the synthesis and secretion of small protein hormones called insulin-like growth factors (IGFs). IGFs stimulate general body growth and regulate various aspects of metabolism. Various stimuli promote and inhibit hGH production One symptom of excess hGH is hyperglycemia. (Clinical Application)

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 Produced by somatotrophs target cells synthesize insulinlike growth common target cells are liver, skeletal muscle, cartilage and bone increases cell growth & cell division by increasing their uptake of amino acids & synthesis of proteins stimulate lipolysis in adipose so fatty acids used for ATP retard use of glucose for ATP production so blood glucose levels remain high enough to supply brain

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 Low blood sugar stimulates release of GHRH from hypothalamus anterior pituitary releases more hGH, more glycogen broken down into glucose by liver cells High blood sugar stimulates release of GHIH from hypothalamus less hGH from anterior pituitary, glycogen does not breakdown into glucose

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Hypothalamus regulates thyrotroph cells Thyrotroph cells produce TSH TSH stimulates the synthesis & secretion of T3 and T4 Metabolic rate stimulated

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 Releasing hormone from hypothalamus controls gonadotrophs Gonadotrophs release follicle stimulating hormone FSH functions initiates the formation of follicles within the ovary stimulates follicle cells to secrete estrogen stimulates sperm production in testes
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 Releasing hormones from hypothalamus stimulate gonadotrophs Gonadotrophs produce LH In females, LH stimulates secretion of estrogen ovulation of 2nd oocyte from ovary formation of corpus luteum secretion of progesterone In males, LH stimulates the interstitial cells of the testes to secrete testosterone.
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 Prolactin (PRL), together with other hormones, initiates and maintains milk secretion by the mammary glands. Hypothalamus regulates lactotroph cells Lactotrophs produce prolactin Under right conditions, prolactin causes milk production Suckling reduces levels of hypothalamic inhibition and prolactin levels rise along with milk production
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 Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) controls the production and secretion of hormones called glucocorticoids by the cortex of the adrenal gland. Hypothalamus releasing hormones stimulate corticotrophs Corticotrophs secrete ACTH & MSH ACTH stimulates cells of the adrenal cortex that produce 37 glucocorticoids

 Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) increases skin pigmentation although its exact role in humans is unknown. Releasing hormone from hypothalamus increases MSH release from the anterior pituitary Secreted by corticotroph cells Function not certain in humans

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 Although the posterior pituitary gland does not synthesize hormones, it does store and release two hormones. Hormones made by the hypothalamus and stored in the posterior pituitary are oxytocin (OT) and antidiuretic hormone (ADH). The neural connection between the hypothalamus and the neurohypophysis is via the hypothalamohypophyseal tract
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 Two target tissues both involved in neuroendocrine reflexes

During delivery babys head stretches cervix hormone release enhances uterine muscle contraction baby & placenta are delivered
After delivery Oxytocin stimulates contraction of the uterus and ejection (let-down) of milk from the breasts. Nursing a baby after delivery stimulates oxytocin release, promoting uterine contractions and the expulsion of the placenta (Clinical Application). suckling & hearing babys cry stimulates milk ejection
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 Stimulation of uterus by baby Hormone release from posterior pituitary Uterine smooth muscle contracts until birth of baby Baby pushed into cervix, increase hormone release More muscle contraction occurs When baby is born, positive feedback ceases

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 Antidiuretic hormone stimulates water reabsorption by the kidneys and arteriolar constriction. Also known as vasopressin. The effect of ADH is to decrease urine volume and decrease sweat production. Also conserve body water and increase BP. ADH is controlled primarily by osmotic pressure of the blood

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 Dehydration ADH released Overhydration ADH inhibited

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 The thyroid gland is located just below the larynx and has right and left lateral lobes Histologically, the thyroid consists of the thyroid follicles composed of follicular cells, which secrete the thyroid hormones thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), and parafollicular cells, which secrete calcitonin (CT)

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 Follicle = sac of stored hormone (colloid) surrounded by follicle cells that produced it T3 & T4 Inactive cells are short In between cells called parafollicular cells produce calcitonin

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 Thyroid hormones are synthesized from iodine and tyrosine within a large glycoprotein molecule called thyroglobulin (TGB) and are transported in the blood by plasma proteins, mostly thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG). The formation, storage, and release steps include iodide trapping, synthesis of thyroglobulin, oxidation of iodide, iodination of tyrosine, coupling of T1 and T2, pinocytosis and digestion of colloid, secretion of thyroid hormones, and transport in blood
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Iodide trapping by follicular cells Synthesis of thyroglobulin (TGB) Release of TGB into colloid Iodination of tyrosine in colloid Formation of T3 & T4 by combining T1 and T2 together Uptake & digestion of TGB by follicle cells Secretion of T3 & T4 into blood

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 T3 & T4 thyroid hormones responsible for our metabolic rate, synthesis of protein, breakdown of fats, use of glucose for ATP production Calcitonin responsible for building of bone & stops reabsorption of bone (lowers blood levels of Calcium)

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 Negative feedback system Low blood levels of hormones stimulate hypothalamus It stimulates pituitary to release TSH TSH stimulates gland to raise blood levels

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 The parathyroid glands are embedded on the posterior surfaces of the lateral lobes of the thyroid principal cells produce parathyroid hormone oxyphil cells function is unknown Parathyroid hormone (PTH) regulates the homeostasis of calcium and phosphate increase blood calcium level decrease blood phosphate level increases the number and activity of osteoclasts increases the rate of Ca+2 and Mg+2 from reabsorption from urine and inhibits the reabsorption of HPO4-2 so more is secreted in the urine promotes formation of calcitriol, which increases the absorption of Ca+2, Mg+2,and HPO4-2 from the GI tract
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 4 pea-sized glands found on back of thyroid gland

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 Principal cells produce parathyroid hormone (PTH) Oxyphil cell function is unknown Blood calcium level directly controls the secretion of calcitonin and parathyroid hormone via negative feedback loops that do not involve the pituitary gland
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 High or low blood levels of Ca+2 stimulate the release of different hormones --PTH or CT
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 The adrenal glands are located superior to the kidneys 3 x 3 x 1 cm in size and weighs 5 grams consists of an outer cortex and an inner medulla. Cortex produces 3 different types of hormones from 3 zones of cortex Medulla produces epinephrine & norepinephrine
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The adrenal cortex is divided into three zones, each of which secretes different hormones (Figure 18.15).
The zona glomerulosa (outer zone) secretes mineralocorticoids. The zona fasciculata (middle zone)
secretes glucocorticoids.

The zona reticularis (inner zone) secretes androgens.

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 Cortex derived from mesoderm Medulla derived from ectoderm

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 95% of hormonal activity due to aldosterone Functions increase reabsorption of Na+ with Cl- , bicarbonate and water following it promotes excretion of K+ and H+ Hypersecretion = tumor producing aldosteronism high blood pressure caused by retention of Na+ and water in blood

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 95% of hormonal activity is due to cortisol Functions = help regulate metabolism increase rate of protein catabolism & lipolysis conversion of amino acids to glucose stimulate lipolysis provide resistance to stress by making nutrients available for ATP production raise BP by vasoconstriction anti-inflammatory effects reduced (skin cream) reduce release of histamine from mast cells decrease capillary permeability depress phagocytosis
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 Negative feedback

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 Small amount of male hormone produced insignificant in males may contribute to sex drive in females is converted to estrogen in postmenopausal females

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 Chromaffin cells receive direct innervation from sympathetic nervous system develop from same tissue as postganglionic neurons Produce epinephrine & norepinephrine Hormones are sympathomimetic effects mimic those of sympathetic NS cause fight-flight behavior Acetylcholine increase hormone secretion by adrenal medulla

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 The pancreas is a flattened organ located posterior and slightly inferior to the stomach and can be classified as both an endocrine and an exocrine gland Histologically, it consists of pancreatic islets or islets of Langerhans and clusters of cells (acini) (enzyme-producing exocrine cells).

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 Organ (5 inches) consists of head, body & tail Cells (99%) in acini produce digestive enzymes Endocrine cells in pancreatic islets produce hormones
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Exocrine acinar cells surround a small duct Endocrine cells secrete near a capillary 1 to 2 million pancreatic islets Contains 4 types of endocrine cells
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Alpha cells (20%) produce glucagon Beta cells (70%) produce insulin Delta cells (5%) produce somatostatin F cells produce pancreatic polypeptide

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 Regulation of glucagon and insulin secretion is via negative feedback mechanisms Low blood glucose stimulates release of glucagon High blood glucose stimulates secretion of insulin

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 Ovaries estrogen, progesterone, relaxin & inhibin regulate reproductive cycle, maintain pregnancy & prepare mammary glands for lactation Testes produce testosterone regulate sperm production & 2nd sexual characteristics

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 Small gland attached to 3rd ventricle of brain Consists of pinealocytes & neuroglia Melatonin responsible for setting of biological clock

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 Melatonin secretion producing sleepiness occurs during darkness due to lack of stimulation from sympathetic ganglion
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 Important role in maturation of T cells Hormones produced by gland promote the proliferation & maturation of T cells thymosin thymic humoral factor thymic factor thymopoietin

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 Several body tissues other than those usually classified as endocrine glands also contain endocrine tissue and thus secrete hormones. Example other hormone: Eicosanoids Example growth factors : epidermal growth factor (EGF), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), fibroblast growth factor (FGF), nerve growth factor (NGF), tumor angiogenesis factors (TAFs), Insulin-like growth factor (IFG), cytokines

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 The stimuli that produce the general adaptation syndrome are called stressors. Stressors include almost any disturbance: heat or cold, surgical operations, poisons, infections, fever, and strong emotional responses. Stages of the General Adaptation Syndrome 1. Alarm reaction (fight or flight response) 2. Resistance reaction

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 Stress response is set of bodily changes called general adaptation syndrome (GAS) Any stimulus that produces a stress response is called a stressor Stress resets the body to meet an emergency eustress is productive stress & helps us prepare for certain challenges distress type levels of stress are harmful lower our resistance to infection

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 The alarm reaction is initiated by nerve impulses from the hypothalamus to the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system and adrenal medulla Dog attack increases circulation promote catabolism for energy production promotes ATP synthesis nonessential body functions are inhibited digestive, urinary & reproductive

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 Initiated by hypothalamic releasing hormones (long-term reaction to stress) corticotropin, growth hormone & thyrotropin releasing hormones Results increased secretion of aldosterone acts to conserve Na+ (increases blood pressure) and eliminate H+ increased secretion of cortisol so protein catabolism is increased & other sources of glucose are found increase thyroid hormone to increase metabolism Allow body to continue to fight a stressor Glucocorticoids are produced in high concentrations during stress. They create many distinct physiological effects.
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 Exhaustion is caused mainly by loss of potassium, depletion of adrenal glucocorticoids, and weakened organs. If stress is too great, it may lead to death. Resources of the body have become depleted Resistance stage can not be maintained Prolonged exposure to resistance reaction hormones wasting of muscle suppression of immune system ulceration of the GI tract failure of the pancreatic beta cells

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 Stress can lead to disease by inhibiting the immune system gastritis, ulcerative colitis, irritable bowel syndrome, peptic ulcers, hypertension, asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, migraine headaches, anxiety, and depression. people under stress are at a greater risk of developing chronic disease or of dying prematurely

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