ECOLOGY AND

ECOSYSTEM

Ecology is the study of ecosystems and describes relationships between organisms and their chemical and physical environment

Ecosystems are biological systems consisting of organisms and their environment

ECOSYSTEM

STRUCTURE OF AN ECOSYSTEM
Ecosystem Biotic
Producer Consumer
Decomposer

Abiotic
Edaphic factors Climatic factors

Primary
consumer (herbivore)

Secondary consumer (carnivore)

Tertiary consumer (higher carnivore)

Autotrophs (producers)
A groups of organisms that can use the energy from sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into Glucose (food) Autotrophs are also called Producers because they produce all of the food Ex. Plants and Algae

Heterotrophs(Consumers)
Organisms that do not make their own food Another term for Heterotrophs is consumer because they consume other organisms in order to live Ex. Rabbits, Deer, Mushrooms,tiger,lion, etc.

2. Carnivores eat ONLY meat

Ex. Lions, Tigers, Sharks .

3. Omnivores eat BOTH plants and animals Ex. Bears and Humans

4. Scavengers/Detritivores feed on the tissue of dead organisms (both plans and animals) Ex. Vultures, Crows, and Shrimp

CONSUMER
Primary consumer herbivore Eg: Cow, Rabbit, Grasshopper Secondary consumerprimary carnivore Eg: Fox, snake, frog Tertiary consumersecondary carnivore Eg: Tiger, Hawk

DECOMPOSERS
Attack the dead bodies of producers and consumers and decompose them into simpler compounds E.g. bacteria, fungi These are called saprotrophs or micro consumers

ABIOTIC COMPONENTS Climatic factors Temp, humidity, light etc. Edaphic factors pH, soil, minerals etc.

Functions of an ecosystem
The important source of energy is the sun Climatic changes on functioning of ecosystem. In the ecosystem, biotic components and other materials like N,C, H2O circulated within and outside of the system. The energy is transferred from one tropic level to the other in the form of chain called food chain. Abiotic factors are responsible for high productivity Production, consumption and decomposition are the important functions of ecosystem.

ENERGY FLOW

ENERGY FLOW
heat Producers Consumers Decomposers heat

NUTRIENT CYCLE
Nutrients:

The elements which are essential for the survival of both the plants and animals are called nutrients. The cyclic movement of nutrient forms biotic to abiotic components and vice versa is known as nutrient cycle or bio geo chemical cycle.

NITROGEN CYCLE

NITROGEN CYCLE

The largest single source of nitrogen is in the atmosphere.

Nitrogen makes up 78% of our air!

Atmospheric nitrogen is converted to ammonia or nitrates.

N N

Atmospheric Nitrogen (N2)

N N

Ammonia (NH3)
Nitrogen combines with Hydrogen to make Ammonia

Nitrates (NO3)
Nitrogen combines with Oxygen to make Nitrates

Nitrogen is an essential component of DNA, RNA, and proteinsthe building blocks of life. Although the majority of the air we breathe is nitrogen, most living organisms are unable to use nitrogen as it exists in the atmosphere!

Four processes in the Nitrogen Cycle

(1) Nitrogen Fixation (4) Denitrification
Nitrogen Cycle

(3) Nitrification

(2) Ammonification

Nitrogen Fixation is the process that causes the strong two-atom nitrogen molecules found in the atmosphere to break apart so they can combine with other atoms.
Oxygen
Hydrogen

Hydrogen

N N

N
Oxygen

Nitrogen gets fixed when it is combined with oxygen or hydrogen.

There are three ways that nitrogen gets fixed!

(a) Atmospheric Fixation (b) Industrial Fixation

(c) Biological Fixation

Bacteria

Lightning fixes Nitrogen!

Atmospheric Fixation (Only 5 to 8% of the Fixation Process) The enormous energy of lightning breaks nitrogen molecules apart and enables the nitrogen atoms to combine with oxygen forming nitrogen oxides (N2O). Nitrogen oxides dissolve in rain, forming nitrates. Nitrates (NO3) are carried to the ground with the rain.

O Nitrogen combines with Oxygen

Nitrogen oxides forms (N2O) (NO3) Nitrogen oxides dissolve in rain and change to nitrates

Plants use nitrates to grow!

NN

Industrial Fixation Under great pressure, at a temperature of 600 degrees Celcius, and with the use of a catalyst, atmospheric nitrogen (N2) and hydrogen are combined to form ammonia (NH3). Ammonia can be used as a fertilizer.

H3

Industrial Plant combines nitrogen and hydrogen

(NH3)

Ammonia is formed

Ammonia is used a fertilizer in soil

Free Living Bacteria Highly specialized bacteria live in the soil and have the ability to combine atmospheric nitrogen with hydrogen to make ammonia (NH3).
N N H NH3 Free-living bacteria live in soil and combine atmospheric nitrogen with hydrogen (NH3) Nitrogen changes into ammonia

Bacteria

Symbiotic Relationship Bacteria Bacteria live in the roots of legume family plants and provide the plants with ammonia (NH3) in exchange for the plants carbon and a protected home.

Legume plants

NH3

Roots with nodules where bacteria live Nitrogen changes into ammonia.

Very few plants can use ammonia (NH3)

(1) Nitrogen Fixation (2) Ammonification

but, fortunately the second process Ammonification can help!

Ammonification: Bacteria decomposers break down amino acids from dead animals and wastes into nitrogen ammonium.

Bacteria decomposers break down amino acids into ammonium

Because plants cannot use the organic forms of nitrogen that are in the soil as a result of: (1) wastes (manure and sewage) (2) compost and decomposing roots and leaves

Microorganisms convert the organic nitrogen to ammonium. The ammonium is either taken up by the plants (only in a few types of plants) or is absorbed into the soil particles. Ammonium (NH4) in the soil is stored up to later be changed into inorganic nitrogen, the kind of nitrogen that most plants can use.
Bacteria converts organic nitrogen to ammonium (NH4) Ammonium (NH4) is used by some plants
Bacteria

Ammonium (NH4) is stored in soil.

Nitrifying bacteria in the ground first combine ammonia with oxygen to form nitrites. Then another group of nitrifying bacteria convert nitrites to nitrates which green plants can absorb and use!
Nitrifying bacteria in soil combine ammonia with oxygen

Ammonia changes to nitrites

Nitrifying bacteria in soil convert nitrites to nitrates

Ammonia (NH3)

Nitrites (NO2)

Nitrates (NO3)

Plants absorb nitrates and grow!

Nitrification is a biological process during which nitrifying bacteria convert toxic ammonia to less harmful nitrate. Nitrification aids in the decomposition of nitrogenous material and thus in the recycling of nitrogen atoms since the decontamination of organic nitrogen produces ammonia that is subsequently oxidized to nitrate by nitrification. There two bacterial species involved. Nitrosomonas sp. Bacteria oxidize ammonia into nitrite, while Nitrobacter bacteria convert nitrite to nitrate, with both species utilizing the energy released by the reactions. Ammonia can be used by some plants. Most nitrogen taken up by plants is converted by chemoautotrophic bacteria from ammonia, which is highly toxic to many organisms, first into nitrite (NO2-), and then into nitrate (NO3-). This process is called nitrification, and these bacteria are known as nitrifying bacteria.

Nitrifiers such as Arthrobacter (heterotroph), Aspergillis (heterotroph), and Nitrosomonas (autotroph) are delicate organisms and extremely susceptible to a variety of inhibitors. They are extremely slow growing, unlike many bacteria that can double their numbers every hour or so. In order to thrive, nitrifying bacteria need a relatively clean environment with a steady supply of ammonia and oxygen.

Nitrification is a Two Step Process 1. First Step: Ammonium Oxidation The microorganisms involved are called the ammonia oxidizers. Nitrosomonas is the most extensively studied and usually the most numerous in soil. Nitrosospira is an aquatic nitrifier. Nitrosomonas Nitrosospira Nitrosococcus Nitrosolobus Ammonia-Oxidizing Bacteria: These organisms are chemoautotrophs, growing with ammonia as the energy and CO2 as the main carbon source. Species are distributed in a great variety of soils, oceans, brackish environments, rivers, lakes, and sewage disposal systems.

2. Second step: Nitrite Oxidation Microorganism involved: Nitrobacter These bacteria comprise a diverse group of rod, ellipsoidal, spherical, and spiral-shaped cells. At least one strain of Nitrobacter has been described that can grow by anaerobic respiration (denitrification). .

Through the fourth process called denitrification!

(4) Denitrification (1) Nitrogen Fixation

(3) Ammonification

(2) Nitrification

Denitrification converts nitrates (NO3) in the soil to atmospheric nitrogen (N2) replenishing the atmosphere.
Nitrogen in atmosphere (N2)

Nitrates (NO3) in Soil

Denitrifying bacteria live deep in soil and in aquatic sediments where conditions make it difficult for them to get oxygen. The denitrifying bacteria use nitrates as an alternative to oxygen, leaving free nitrogen gas as a byproduct. They close the nitrogen cycle!

Nitrogen in atmosphere closes the nitrogen cycle! (N2)

(NO3) Denitrifying bacteria live deep in soil and use nitrates as an alternative to oxygen making a byproduct of nitrogen gas.

Other ways that nitrogen returns to the atmosphere

Emissions from industrial combustion and gasoline engines create nitrous oxides gas (N2O).

Volcano eruptions emit nitrous oxides gas (N2O).

(a) N2 N2O (4) Denitrification (1) Nitrogen Fixation (c) Nitrogen Cycle (3) Nitrification (2) Ammonification (b)

NO3 Ammonia is converted to nitrites and nitrates. Nitrates in Soil

Organic nitrogen is converted to ammonium.

NH3

CARBON CYCLE

OXYGEN CYCLE
Photosynthesis In green plants

Atmoshheric oxygen

Respiration

CO2 + water

In plants and animals

WATER CYCLE (HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE)

Evaporation

Precipitation

Transpiration

Condensation The movement through plants Transpiration The Clouds form

Precipitation The rain falls Evaporation The vapor rises

FOOD CHAIN
The sequence of eating and being eaten in an ecosystem is known as food chain

Types of Food chain

Grazing food chain Eg: forest community, marine community aDetritus food chain Eg: food chain in mangrove habitat Parasitic food chain Eg: tree community

Insects eat plants

Insects eat plants. Fish, frogs, and birds eat the insects that eat the plants. This begins the food chain.

Birds, Animals and People Eat Fish

Birds and other animals eat the fish. The fish eat the plants and insects. People eat fish too.

A Food Chain
Plant Insects Frog Bear

Fish

People

FOOD WEBTER
The interlocking of various food chains in an ecosystem is known as food chain

Significance of food chain and food web: There is transfer of energy and materials from one trophic level to another Food chains also help in maintaining and regulating population of an ecosystem and help to maintain ecological balance. Biomagnifications is a unique property of food chain. Ex: pesticides, heavy metals, are non biodegradable nature. These chemicals are not decomposed by microorganisms and the keep on passing from one tropic level to another. At every level they keep on increasing in concentration. This phenomenon is known as bio magnification or biomagnifications.

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID
Graphical representation of structure and function of tropical levels of an ecosystem, starting with producers at the bottom and each successive tropic level forming the apex is known as ecological pyramids.

HYPERPARASITES BACTERIA AND FUNGI

PARASITES LICE AND BUGS FRUIT EATING BIRDS PLANT -1 Inverted - PARASITIC FOOD CHAIN Upright- forest ecosystem

PYRAMID OF BIOMASS:
Illustrates the amount of biomass in each trophic level Biomass weight is determined after dehydration
upright

Shows the amount of matter lost between trophic levels.

Big fishes
Small fishes

Measured in Kg, grams or pounds

Insects
phytoplankt ons

inverted

PYRAMID OF ENERGY
Shows the energy available at each trophic level.
The size of the blocks represents the proportion of productivity Measured in Joules or Calories

Ecological succession
Pioneer community The first group of organisms which establishes their community Seres Various developmental stages of community Types of Ecological succession Primary Lifeless ground gradual establishment 1. Hydrosere 2. xerosere Secondary Establishment of biotic component, where biotic components already present

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Nudation: Succession begins with the development of a bare site, called Nudation (disturbance). Migration: It refers to arrival of propagules. Ecesis: It involves establishment and initial growth of vegetation. Competition: As vegetation became well established, grew, and spread, various species began to compete for space, light and nutrients. This phase is called competition. Reaction: During this phase autogenic changes affect the habitat resulting in replacement of one plant community by another. Stabilization: Reaction phase leads to development of a climax community.

Abandoned area

Volcanic eruption

Rock

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

Pond
Marsh Submerged Plants

Swamp

Hard wood

Types of ecosystem
Ecosystem

Terrestrial Ecosystem
- Forest

Aquatic ecosystem

ecosystem - Grassland ecosystem - Desert ecosystem

Fresh water

Marine water -Neritic (pelagic) Lotic - River

zone -Euphotic (Littoral) zone -Bathyal (Profundal) zone -Abyssal (Benthic) zone Hydrothermal vent Estuaries Wetland Salt marshes Coral reef Intertitdal

Lentic -Lake Litttoral Limnetic Profundal Benthic -Pond

Aquatic ecosystem: It deals with water bodies Fresh water zone: ponds, streams,lakes, rivers Salt water life zone: oceans,
Estuaries

Pond:
It is a aquatic fresh water ecosystem. It is stagant, temporary It receives enough water during rainy season

Lake Ecosystem
Large water bodies Receive water from rain fall melting of show and streams. Permanent water body

Types of lakes:
Oligotrophic lakes- low nurtrient concentrations Eutrophic lakes over nourished by nitrogen and phosphrous Dystrophic lakes low PH, acidic water Volcanic lakes receive water from magma after volcanic eruptions Meromictic lakes- rich in salts Artificial lakes created due to construction of dams

Zones of lakes:
Littoral zones top layer of lake Limnetic zone: penetration of solar light takes place. Profundal zone deep open water it is too dark Benthic found at the bottom of the lake

Lake ecosystem

Littoral zone

The littoral zone encompasses the area near the shore at the top of the lake that receives sunlight, extending down to the depth where rooted plants stop growing. This zone has high biodiversity.

Limnetic zone
The limnetic zone is the sunlight part at the top of the lake, similar to the littoral zone. However, the limnetic zone is the open area away from the shore. Most photosynthesis occurs in this part of the lake.

PROFUNDAL The profundal zone is the deep open water, where it is too dark for photosynthesis.

BENTHIC ZONE
The benthic zone is the very bottom of the lake. Organisms here tend to tolerate cooler temperatures well. Organisms living in this zone are called benthos. They generally live in close relationship with the substrate bottom; many such organisms are permanently attached to the bottom For the profundal and benthic zones, low levels of photosynthesis result in low levels of dissolved oxygen.

River ecosystem (stream): Running water ecosystem, well oxygenated, dissolved oxygen content is more, it deposits large amounts of nutrients.

Marine ecosystem

Littoral zone
The littoral zone refers to that part of a sea, lake or river that is close to the shore. s often used to mean the same as the intertidal zone. However, the meaning of "littoral zone" can extend well beyond the intertidal zone.

INTERTIDAL ZONE
The intertidal zone (also known as the foreshore and seashore and sometimes referred to as the littoral zone) is the area that is exposed to the air at low tide and underwater at high tide(for example, the area between tide marks).

High tide

Low tide
Typical inhabitants of the intertidal rocky shore include sea anemones,chitons, crabs,seastars, and many marine mollusks

A hydrothermal vent is a fissure in a planet's surface from which geothermally heated water issues. Hydrothermal vents are commonly found near volcanically active places, areas where tectonic plates are moving apart. Tube worms form an important part of the community around a hydrothermal vent.

Hydrothermal vent

White smokers emitting liquid carbon dioxide

The black smokers typically emit particles with high levels of sulfur-bearing minerals, or sulfides.

Hydrothermal vent

White smokers emitting liquid carbon dioxide at the Champagne vent, Northwest Eifuku volcano, Marianas Trench Marine National Monument

A black smoker venting fluid at 312 degrees C at Magic Mountain hydrothermal field.

 Coral reefs are underwater structures made from calcium carbonate secreted by corals. Corals are colonies of tiny living animals found in marine waters containing few nutrients. They provide a home for twenty-five percent of all marine species, including fish, molluscs, worms, crustaceans, echinoderms, sponges

Coral reef

SALT MARSH
A salt marsh is an environment in the upper coastal intertidal zone between land and salty or brackish water, is dominated by dense stands of halophytic (salt-tolerant) plants such as herbs, grasses, or low shrubs

WETLAND
A wetland is an area of land whose soil is saturated with moisture either permanently or seasonally. Such areas may also be covered partially or completely by shallow pools of water.

Plant life found in wetlands includes mangrove, water lilies, cattails, sedges, tamarack, black spruce, cypress, gum, and many others. Animal life includes many different amphibians, reptiles, birds, insects, and mammals

Neritic zone
The neritic zone, also called coastal waters, the coastal ocean or the sublittoral zone It is a shallow depth extending from the low tide mark to about 200 meters. The neritic zone has generally well-oxygenated water, low water pressure, and relatively stable temperature and salinity levels. These, combined with presence of light and the resulting photosynthetic life, such as phytoplankton and floating sargassum, make the neritic zone the location of the majority of sea life.

PELAGIC ZONE
Any water in the sea that is not close to the bottom or near to the shore is in the pelagic zone. The word pelagic means "open sea."

BENTHIC ZONE The benthic zone is the ecological region at the

lowest level of a body of water such as an ocean or a lake, including the sediment surface and some subsurface layers. Organisms living in this zone are called benthos. They generally live in close relationship with the substrate bottom; many such organisms are permanently attached to the bottom. The superficial layer of the soil lining the given body of water, the benthic boundary layer, is an integral part of the benthic zone, as it influences greatly the biological activity which takes place there. Examples of contact soil layers include sand bottoms, rock outcrops, coral, and bay mud.

 Because light does not penetrate very deep ocean-water, the energy source for the benthic ecosystem is often organic matter from higher up in the water column which drifts down to the depths. This dead and decaying matter sustains the benthic food chain; most organisms in the benthic zone are scavengers or detritivores. Some microorganisms use chemosynthesis to produce biomass.

Microphotograph of typical benthic animals

MARINE FAUNA

ESTUARIES
Estuaries form a transition zone between river environments and ocean environments. The inflow of both seawater and freshwater provide high levels of nutrient.

Amazon estuary

Estauries:
The meeting place of sea and river is known as estuaries. Estuaries form a transition zone between river environments and ocean environments. Salinity is high during summer and less in winter. The inflow of both seawater and freshwater provide high levels of nutrient.

Characteristics: Dense trees, supports birds and animals Moderate and high rainfall depends on forest 40% of world land area is occupied by forest Plant support birds and animals and portect biodiversity Characterize by warm temperature and adequate rainfall Maintains climate and rainfall Soil rich in organic and inorganic nutrients Penetration of light is so poor, conversion of organic matter into nutrient is very fast

Types of forest:
Depending upon the climate conditions, forest can be classified into 5 types Tropical rain forest Tropical deciduous forest Tropical scrub forest Temperate rain forest Temperate deciduous forest

TROPICAL RAIN FOREST: The Tropical Rainforest has virtually no season change. There are THOUSANDS of species of trees in the rainforests. There is an even larger amount of species of animals, the vast majority of which have not been discovered yet. The soil is very poor, and the vegetation contains most of the nutrients. Most of the species live in the canopy of the Rainforest. Average Annual Rainfall: 157.5 in Average temperatures of Day- 93 F Average temperatures of Night- 68 F PLANTS Most plants in the rainforest are trees, and there are also several types of mosses and shrubs that grow on the ground. Because only a small amount of sunlight reaches the floor, these plants are generally very small. ANIMALS The animals in the rainforest are so diverse, that scientists speculate that they only know of .1% of all of the animals. Among these are hundreds of species of parrots, snakes, millions of other birds, the monkey, tigers, Sumatran Rhinos, and millions of other species.

 Rainforests are forests characterized by high rainfall, with definitions setting minimum normal annual rainfall between 17502000 mm (6878 inches). The monsoon trough, alternately known as the intertropical convergence zone, plays a significant role in creating Earth's tropical rain forests.

 A total of 40 to 75% of all species on the world's habitats are indigenous to the rainforests. It has been estimated that many millions of species of plants, insects, and microorganisms are still undiscovered. Tropical rainforests have been called the "jewels of the Earth", and the "world's largest pharmacy", because over one quarter of natural medicines have been discovered there. Rainforests are also responsible for 28% of the world's oxygen turn over, often misunderstood as oxygen production,[ processing it through photosynthesis from carbon dioxide and storing it as carbon through biosequestration.

Tropical rainforests
, found near the jamaica (between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn) and present in Southeast Asia (Myanmar to Philippines, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and northeastern Australia), Sri Lanka, Sub-Saharan Africa from Cameroon to the Congo (Congo Rainforest), South America (e.g. the Amazon Rainforest), Central America (e.g. Bosaws, southern Yucatn Peninsula-El Peten-Belize-Calakmul), and on many of the Pacific Islands

Tropical

The Daintree Rainforest in Queensland, Australia.

The Daintree Rainforest near Cairns, in Queensland, Australia.

Different layers

Tropical rain forest

Emergent layer The emergent layer contains a small number of very large trees called emergents, which grow above the general canopy, reaching heights of 4555 m, although on occasion a few species will grow to 7080 m tall. They need to be able to withstand the hot temperatures and strong winds in some areas. Eagles, butterflies, bats, and certain monkeys inhabit this layer.

canopy layer
The canopy layer contains the majority of the largest trees, typically 3045 m tall. The canopy, by some estimates, is home to 50 percent of all plant species, suggesting that perhaps half of all life on Earth could be found there. Epiphytic plants attach to trunks and branches, and obtain water and minerals from rain and debris that collects on the supporting plants.

Canopy layer

understory layer
The understory layer lies between the canopy and the forest floor. The understory (or understorey) is home to a number of birds, snakes, and lizards, as well as predators such as jaguars, boa constrictors, and leopards. The leaves are much larger at this level. Ins Only about 5% of the sunlight shining on the rainforest reaches the understory. This layer can also be called a shrub layer, although the shrub layer may also be considered a separate layer.

understory layer

forest floor
The forest floor, the bottom-most layer, receives only 2% of sunlight. Only plants adapted to low light can grow in this region. Away from riverbanks, swamps, and clearings where dense undergrowth is found, the forest floor is relatively clear of vegetation because of the low sunlight penetration. It also contains decaying plant and animal matter, which disappears quickly due to the warm, humid conditions promoting rapid decay. Many forms of fungi grow here which help decay the animal and plant waste.

forest floor

Amazon River rain forest in Peru

Amazon forest

Interestingly the flowers of forest trees are very large , colourful fragrant and attractive which helps in pollination by insects birds ,bats etc RAFFLESIA ARNOLDI , the biggest flower 7kg weight is known to smell like rotten meat and attracts flies and bettles which helps in pollination.

The silent valley in kerala is the only tropical rain forest lying in India which is the natural habitat for a wide variety of species.

Tropical deciduous forest

Tropical deciduous forest

Found little away form the equator, Warm climate and rain is only during monsoon, Shed their leaves during dry season, Deciduous trees maple,oak Animals: fox, deer, rabbit

Tropical food web

Temperate forest in Germany

Temperate rain forest Average Annual Rainfall 14-29.5 in. Average Temperatures in the Summer 57.2F. Average Temperatures in the Winter 14F Animals:squirrels, fox,cats, bear

Temperate rainforests

 Temperate rainforests are rainforests in temperate regions. They can be found in North America (in the Pacific Northwest, the British Columbia Coast, and in the inland rainforest of the Rocky Mountain Trench east of Prince George), in Europe (parts of the British Isles such as the coastal areas of Ireland, Scotland, southern Norway, parts of the western Balkans along the Adriatic coast, as well as in the North West of Spain and coastal areas of the eastern Black Sea, including Georgia and coastal Turkey), in East Asia (in southern China, Taiwan, much of Japan and Korea, and on Sakhalin Island and the adjacent Russian Far East coast), in South America (southern Chile) and also Australia and New Zealand.

Temperate deciduous forest

Temperate Deciduous Forest Biome The Latin word "Deciduous" means "to fall off" There for, a temperate deciduous forest is a forest that is not hot nor cold and has leaves that fall off in Autumn. These trees lose their leaves in order to conserve water. A Temperate Deciduous Forest contains numerous species of trees and hundreds of species of animals. Average Rainfall: 29.5 inches Average Temperatures in Summer: 82.4 F Average Temperatures in Winter: 42.8F PLANTS These forests consist of several layers of vegetation. These plants include shrubs, moss, ferns, and lichens because they do not need much sunlight. The trees in the forest are hardwoods such as oak, hickory, maple, beech, birch, and sweet gum. ANIMALS Animals in these forests are so high in quantity that the my website server would crash before I listed all of them. There is a very diverse population, all adapted to survive the season changes. Examples of animals include cardinals, deer, black rat snake, opossum, mice, squirrell, ect.

Temperate deciduous forest

A temperate deciduous forest, or temperate broadleaf forest or temperate broadleaved forest, It is a biome found in the eastern and western United States, Canada, central Mexico, southern South America, Europe, West Asia, China, Japan, North Korea, South Korea and parts of Russia. A temperate deciduous forest consists of trees that lose their leaves every year. Examples include oak, maple, beech, and elm.

 animals live in this kind of forest. Some examples are the Eastern Gray Squirrel, bears, beavers, foxes, deer, rats, snakes, mice, wolves, raccoons, and large birds of prey like red-tailed hawks. These animals have unique adaptations suited for seasonal life. For example, some rodents store up fat, then hibernate during cold winters. Birds include the bald eagle, nightingale, cardinals, hawks, and the snowy owl.

 trees shed their leaves in the winter. By shedding their leaves, they cannot transpire. Consequently, they are able to retain water for the winter. Plants also soak up nutrients from the soil. The temperate deciduous forest has a temperate climate, with summer temp highs of around 80 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit (27 to 32 degrees Celsius). Winter highs are around 30 to 55 degrees Fahrenheit (-1 to 15 degrees Celsius). Temperate forests get about 35 to 60 inches (900 to 1500 millimeters) of rain fall.

Temparate food web

CONIFEROUS FORESTS It is characterised by needle like leaves of evergreen trees like popular brich , pine trees , spruce, fir are the dominant trees and anmials like black beer, porcupine , snow shoe , hare , lyrix red squrriel, northern flying squrriel , etc the presence of green plants increases the annual rate of primary production of this biome The Coniferous Forest is a forest of Conifers (too much to handle, isn't it?). A Conifer is a tree that produces its seeds in cones. The Pine tree is the most common example. Conifer leaves conserve water with the thick, waxy layer that covers their leaves, also known as needles. The vegitation in the Coniferous forest is small in size, but large enough to feed the vast herbivore population. Most of these animals survive the brutal winters by migrating or hibernating. Average Annual Rainfall- 14-29.5 in. Average Temperatures in the Summer- 57.2F Average Temperatures in the Winter- 14F

Trees average around 50-260 inches in height. Temperature range : 20-34OC. Average humidity between 77-88%. Rainfall : More than 100 in. per annum. Found in altitudes of around 3000 metres. Consists of trees like Alpine, Sedum, Saxifrage, etc.

Alpine forest

Grass land ecosystem :

20% of the world area is occupied by grass land It is occupied by grass Soil rich in nutrient an d organicmatter Low and uneven rainfall (250 750 mm) Rate of evaporation is high

Cows ,buffaloes, deer, sheep , goats etc some insects termites etc. feed on the leaves of the grasses , carnivores are the secondary consumers. Grasslands cover less than one percent of the province and are generally found east of the forested Coast and Cascade Mountains. The grassland climate is dry with hot summers. Many people are familiar with the grasslands of the Okanagan valley from Vernon to Penticton and along the Trans Canada Highway around Kamloops as places they see on their summer vacation. The view from the boat on the lake or from the car on the highway in the height of summer is one of hot, dry, brown landscapes.

Types of grass land:

Tropical grass land Temperate grass land Polar grass land

Tropical grass land

Near the boarders of tropical rain forest High temperature, moderate rain fall (1200 mm) Tall grass scattered shrubs, trees of 3-4m long Animals: zebras, girafies,

Temperate grass land

Centers of continents , sloped hills, trees of 1-2 m long Very cold winter, hot summer

Polar grass land:

severe cold, and strong winds along with snow During summer all annual plants grow Animals: arctic wolf, arctic fox

SAVANNAH-TREES

Palm Tree

Acacias Tree

 Rye grass

Fox tail

Wild oats

Buffalo Grass

Purple Needle Grass

Clovers

WILD FLOWERS

Goldenrods

Sunflower Asters

BIOMES IN INDIA : The Grass land are found in the Himalayan foot hills, Central India and Decan Plateau. The mammals like black buck, chinkara wolf and birds are common . Carnivores animals are also found in grasslands.Most of the Grassland have been used over utilized and degraded by human Interference

black buck

chinkara

California big sheep

ANIMALS

Marmot

Sharp tailed grouse

Vole

BURROWING ANIMALS Ground squirrels

Prairie dogs

Pocket gophers

BURROWING PREDATORS

Weasels

ferrets

Badgers

FAST RUNNING ANIMALS

Coyotes

Pronghorns

MAMMALS

Giant Anteater American Bison Przewalskis Horse

SAVANNAH-VERTEBRATES

Leopard

Cheetah

Giraffe

SAVANNAH-INVERTEBRATES

Grass Hopper

Termites

Bettles

Gazelles

Zebras

Rhinoceros

Meadow larks

owls

jackrabbit

quails

snakes

Blackbirds

Desert ecosystem

Desert land ecosystem:

35% of world land area is occupied by forest Temperature is very high Less than 25 cm rain fall Dry atmosphere. The soil is poor in nutrients and organic matter Vegetation is poor.

 These roots go deep into the earth and absorb as much as water as possible. This Plant to cope with the hot and dry desert conditions. These plants store water in the specialized tissues, while others have small leaves with hair like structures which reduce the evaporation of moisture. Ex: Brittle bush, saltbush,Creosotebush, joshua tree, mojave aster, soaptree yucca Most of the desert animals are nocturnal, ie active during the night , and spend the entire day burrowing. This adaption helps them to fight the soaring tempratures during the persist during the day.Waters being scarce in deserts, these animals have also modified themselves to make the most of the available water. Some animals absorb water from plants , while others store it in their fatty tissues.

Types of desert:

Tropical desert Temperate desert Cold desert

 Tropical desert: Only few species, Wind blow sand dunes are very common Tropical deserts are found in Africa(sahara), rajasthan (thar) Temperate desert: Summer and very cool winter Ex: South California (majave) Cold desert: Cold winters and warm summer Ex:China (gobi)

Hot desert

The largest hot dessert is Sahara and is located near North Africa

HOT DESERT
They are usually near tropic of cancer and tropic of Capricorn CLIMATE Normally -20 to 25 0c, extreme-43.5 to 49 0c RAINFALL average 15cms per year Long summers and springs, very short winters VEGETATION, Vegetation is rare with ground hugging shrubs and short woody trees.ex- turpentine bush, prickly pear and brittle bush

FLORA AND FAUNA

Hot and Dry Deserts vegetation is very rare. Plants are almost all ground-hugging shrubs and short woody trees. All of the leaves are replete (packed with nutrients). Some examples of these kinds of plant are Turpentine Bush, Prickly Pears, and Brittle Bush the dry and hot desert has animals that remain hidden during daylight hours to control body temperature or to limit moisture needs. Some fauna includes the kangaroo rat, coyote, jack rabbit, and many lizards.

Ex- barrel cacti and armadillo lizard

Cold desert

COLD DESERT
Near arctic zones or polar regions CLIMATE Normal- 21-260 c extreme- -2 to 4 0c RAINFALL OR SNOWFALL The cold desert have lot of snow rain. 15- 26cms per year They have very long winters and rainfall but very short summers. Climate warm enough for grasses and weeds to grow

FLORA AND FAUNA

Most desert plants are drought- or salt-tolerant, such as xerophytes. Some store water in their leaves, roots, and stems. Cold Desert's plants are scattered. In areas with little shade,about 10 percent of the ground is covered with plants. In some areas of sagebrush it reaches 85 percent. The height of scrub varies from 15 cm to 122 cm. All plants are either deciduous and more or less contain spiny leaves. Cold Deserts have animals like Antelope, Ground Squirrels, Jack Rabbits, and Kangaroo Rats.

Like Hot deserts such as sahara and Majave, there are cold deserts as well the best example is antartica. One of the prominent difference between these two is the form of precipitation, which is snowfall in cold deserts and rainfall in hot deserts. Irrespe cive of whether it is hot or a cold desert, the characteristic traits of both almost remains the same.

DESERT VEGETATION Comes to our mind CACTUS . These plants store water in the specialized tissues, while others have small leaves with hair like structures which reduce the evaporation of moisture. BRITTLE BUSH SALTBUSH CREOSOTEBUSH JOSHUA TREE MOJAVE ASTER SOAPTREE YUCCA

African Welwitchsia

CREOSOTE BUSH

BLACK TAILED RABBIT

General structure of a desert ecosystem food chain

GILA MONSTER

CHUCKWALLAS

BASIC STRUCTURE

INSECT / RODENTS Thorny devil Sonoran desert toad

ARACHNIDS / REPTILES
bobcat Desert bighorn sheep

NOCTURAL CARNIVORE

coyote Banded gilla monster

A desert ecosystem food chain

ENERGY TRANSFER PYRAMID

Tundra ecosystem:
There must be permafrost present, and there should be very few trees Permafrost is the term given to frozen soil. During winter months, permafrost reaches the surgace of the tundra. It is very cold during the winter, with temperature reaching negative 60 degrees F. In summer time, the tundra changes. The sun is out almost 24 hours a day, so the tundra starts to warm up. The permafrost melts at the surface and plant life grows. However, the permafrost only disappears for a few inches below the surface. There isnt enough soil for trees to grow, so only small plants are found in the tundra. At the same time, a variety of animals come out to feast on the plants, insects come to feed on the animals, and birds appear to enjoy the insects. It results in a very busy ecosystem.

Arctic Fox

Musk Ox

TUNDRA

Grey wolf

Polar Bear

Caribou