Biodiversity

1/9/2013 8:27:00 AM

Introduction Biodiversity is the variety of genes, species and ecosystems Shaped by billions of years of evolutionary history of interaction between environments and life forms (natural phenomenon, other species, etc.) Human activity can have lasting impacts at large scales that are difficult to predict Descent with modification from common ancestors Mussels What factors contribute to the threats to native freshwater mussel biodiversity in the Great Lakes Region? o MASS PROPAGATION OF MUSSELS o POLLUTION o HUMAN IMPACTS o INVASIVE SPECIES o POLLUTION o OVERFISHING o TEMPERATURE FLUCTUATION

Bivalves develop in 3 ways (Ontogenic Variation; not all freshwater mussels develop in the same way) By passing early development as a parasitic stage on a host (Unionids) By producing veliger larvae ( in Dreissena polymorpha) By releasing fully developed young mussels (rare) Dioeceous (Male and female; both genders) Production: releases sperm from the exhalant siphon, female takes in sperm from the inhalant siphon; female now has sperm and egg in the same area internally; once the egg is fertilized it is an embryo, the embryo is then held within a little chamber within the gills called a marsupium; those embryos develop and then release

Glochidia which attach to a fish gills by clamping down onto the finger-like gill extensions, suck nutrients out of the blood of the fish; Eventually leave the fish and grow till the become a full sized adult) Glochidia Cannot swim or crawl Attach to host fish gills Sometimes release a few million of these glochidia

 As few as 10 out of a million can attach to a fish gill Strategies for Infection Using Lures to attract the fish (modified mantle tissue that mimics fish or invertebrate prey to attract fish host) Conglutinate : a membranous sac that is released by the mussel, attached by a thread that is filled with glochidia Host capture: Mussel may physically grip host and pump glochidia over the gills (snuffbox mussel) Veliger Larvae

Trocophore (stage at which larvae are released into the water column) Veliger larvae that can move in the water and are carried a long distance away and do not require a host to complete their life cycle Go under metamorphosis after the Pediveliger stage to form a juvenile Starts are Embryo, embryo becomes veliger larvae, undergoes some transformations and undergoes complete tissue and structure metamorphosis into a juvenile settled larvae until it grows into an

adult (think of a tadpole -> Frog; lungs develop, loses fins and gills, gains limbs) Biological Variation

A secondary source of genetic variation is Recombination Gene Flow: Movement of genes among populations that brings variation into a population Genetic Drift: Evolution By chance due to a random event . Random changes in allele frequencies due to chance. Can cause the population bottle neck, when a population is severely reduced in size. Loss of individuals not related to particular traits (happens at random) usually because of a catastrophe of some sort. Founder effect is the loss of genetic variation that occurs when a new smaller population is established.

Natural Selection Variations useful to any organic being do occur, assuredly individuals thus characterized will have the best chance of being preserved From the principle of inheritance they tend to produce offspring similarly characterized this principle of preservation is called Natural Selection If useful allele appears it is passed on and with time allele frequency for this allele increases. Heritability and Overproduction are key components of natural selection as well as variation in alleles Mutations Mutations are random Good, bad and neutral mutations happen with equal probability Beneficial mutations increase in frequency and deleterious once decrease in frequency under natural selection (Change in proportion of mutations is non-random under natural selection) Mussel Anatomy Surface area of gills is high, these Mussels have to extract oxygen from the water Water is drawn in through the inhalant siphon and passes over the gills and then water is expelled from exhalent siphon All molluscs have mantle but within the phylum there is great disparity Mantle: Folding of the body wall that lines shell and secrets shell substance (CaCO3) and houses gills Note: Adaptation is the evolutionary change over thousands of generations, enhances survival and reproduction through natural selection Co-option of a functional tissue into a new and additional function. (I.E: Mantle -> Complex lure) Extirpated: Disappeared from a region, but not extinct yet Extinction

Failure to adapt to a changing physical environment or find a new suitable habitat (Not enough variation? No gene flow?) Failure to keep up with the evolution of a competitor, predator, host pathogen, etc. Being driven to extinction by a newly encountered competitor, pathogen, or predator Losing an essential host , prey, or partner species HOW DO THESE RELATE TO MUSSELS? What matters most for speciation is that there is a barrier to gene flow, which allows one species to split into two. What kind of Barriers? New Rivers, mountain building, continental drift, reproductive biological barrier, behavior Allopatric speciation (different place) : Species is split due to a geographic barrier or because some individuals move to a separate place. Through natural selection have evolved and changed, the animals that are moved away can no longer breed together and are not compatible. When viable offspring cannot be created, they are now different species. Sympatric speciation (same place): Species is split by reproductive separation without any geographic barriers. For example Maggots were only laid on hawthorns, 200 years ago immigration brought in apple trees, now the maggots are laying eggs on apple and hawthorn trees 2 populations begin to differentiate a lot because of the different locations that the maggots are born on. Maggots born on apple trees only like apples, maggots born on hawthorns prefer laying eggs on hawthorns.

Hypothesis Definition Hypothesis: A proposed explanation for a fairly narrow set of phenomena, usually based on prior experience, scientific background knowledge, preliminary observations, and logic. A testable statement about the natural world that can be used to build more complex inferences and explanations.

Measuring Ecosystem Diversity Identify the species in the area with a dichotomous key Ecosystem diversity includes the variety and relative abundance of species To measure we must define what organisms are sample, the spatial area sampled and when/how long we sampled (time) Abundance is a higher amount of individuals Seasonality is also an important figure, depending on what time of year you go out (I.E: you wont find very many butterflies in the winter) How long you spend in the environment and how much effort you put in The number of species per specified collection/sample area OR specified number of individuals

D is the correct answer. Evenness: Relative abundance of species in an area (Shannons Index) (2 pine: 2 Spruce: 2 Oak = High Evenness) ; (3 Pine; 5 spruce; 1 palm = Low Evenness) Woodlot A forest in a city (urban forest) Remnant forest in a farmers field Start off with a canopy and a dominant canopy that sticks over all the others (a Supercanopy).

Sub canopy: which could be shrubs Open area : forest floor Process: Not a lot of organic layer left in the forest floor Nutrient fallout comes through the leaves; lichens and mosses add nutrients to the ground

Ecosystem A system formed by the interaction of a community of organisms with their physical environment Ecosystems can be large (Canadian boreal forest ) or small (a pond) Temperature Deciduous Forest Biome Seasonal variation in mean temperature (5-20 degrees Celcius) Precipitation is even among the season (80-120cm/yr) Deciduous trees dominate Dominate because they outcompete conifers in summer because large leaves = greater photosynthetic capacity Why do deciduous trees lose their leaves in the fall o Why dont coniferous trees dominate wherever this is a winter season? o Time for growing season (In spring, deciduous have to regrow their leaves and it takes time to photosynthesize, in the spring, in the northern part of Ontario conifers can starts producing energy right away, once the deciduous trees have dropped their leaves theres no more chances to capture energy whereas Conifers can turn on the machinery at any time. What kind of Trees are found in tropical regions? Old Field Woods Forest Age Soil/water table 20 Shallow soil with Majestic Pine Woods 80 Deep organic soil Maple Ridge Woods 250 Shallow organic

mineral soil of sand and clay. Shallow water Woody Plant Diversity Birds Physiognomy Invasive Species Nuisance Species Endangered Soecues Very High High Shrub dominated Giant Hogweed Raccoons/ Skunk

with sandy mineral soil. Medium Water Medium Medium Trees

layer with sandy mineral soil. Deep water low low Trees

Population One species Number of individuals (abundance) Geographic distribution = area in which individuals occur Growth (increase or decrease in abundance over time) Community A community is composed of multiple species within an area Number of species (diversity) Trophic structure (plants, herbivores, carnivores) Composition (Abundance, evenness, dominance [one species dominating over others])

D is the answer. B is talking about POPULATION not COMMUNITY. What Ecological Factors place limits on a species geographic range? Dispersal (Nuts falling from a tree, spores from fungi) Biological Interactions (Dependence on animals around them e.g. parasites, symbiotic relationships, host-dependence) Habitat selection (Particular environments during life cycles that may limit where they are going to be, where birds decide to nest, etc.) Abiotic Factors o Climate (temperature, moisture) o Geology (rock type, land formations)

o o o o o o

Soil minerals, texture (silt, sand, clay), acidity Light (sun, shade) Nutrients (Nitrogen, Phosphorus , Potassium) Pollutants And others Interconnectedness between abiotic factors (Soil influences nutrients, geology influences soil, moisture influences nutrients, etc.)

How do Abiotic Factors influence the distribution of Plants and Animals? Restrict access to resources o Food/Nutrients o Habitat Limit Physical Tolerances o Hot/cold o Chemistry (toxins; heavy metals in soils [some plants can take them and sequester them away and survive]) Physical barriers o Rivers, Mountains, lakes, oceans

How would you determine which abiotic factor is limiting the distribution of a species? Field observation of actual range distribution Determine ecological tolerances Experiments (field transplant, controlled environment) o Transplanting trees into ranges until you get into a point where you can no longer transplant them Correlation between environmental gradients and a species optimum range (Birds dont go past a line) Transplanting

Light A B C Low High High

Water Low High low

% Survival 90 44 19

Light is the key factor Niche

Niche is the set of biotic and abiotic conditions in which a species is able to persist and maintain stable population sizes Or A niche consists of all the factors necessary for a species existence in terms of time, space and required resources Fundamental Niche o All the possible dimensions in which a species can survive in principle Realized Niche o The dimensions in which a species actually survives after the effects of biotic interactions Niche Differentiation o (In terms of Finches) Natural selection for bigger and smaller beak sizes due to competition for food Community Assemblage o Development of ecological niche in a forest along a gradient of time (or Succession)

Symbioses Commensalism o One organism benefits the other organism is unaffected Mutualism o Both Organisms benefit Parasitism / Predation o One organism gains nutrients and energy the other organism is injured or killed

1/9/2013 8:27:00 AM

1/9/2013 8:27:00 AM