Copyright For Librarians

copyright
for Iibrarians
copyright
for Iibrarians
LLe essenLIaI LandbooR
bo.kn.r orto. |c. |rto.rot .rJ Scc|oty
ul Hurvurd Un|vers|ly
Fiist publishcd in zoz by EIFL,
Stichting cIFL.nct, Giaadt van Roggcnwcg ,o, ,,,n Uticcht, Thc Ncthcilands
www.ci.nct
This couisc is liccnccd undci a Cicativc Commons Attiibution liccnsc.
Libiaiians and thc public at laigc aic cncouiagcd to usc, distiibutc,
tianslatc, modily, and build upon thcsc matciials, piovidcd that
thcy givc EIFL and thc Bcikman Ccntci appiopiiatc cicdit.
Dcsigncd and typcsct in on 6 Calluna and Myiiad Pio by illuminati, Giosmont
Covci dcsign by Lucy Moiton at illuminati
www.illuminatibooks.co.uk
Contents
Preface 1
Introduction q
Copyright theory q
Palrness (
welfare
Personhood 6
Culture ;
AdditionaI resources 8
Contributors
module : Copyright and the pubIic domain 1c
Learning objective 1c
Case study 1c
Lesson 1c
what ls copyrlght! :o
what ls the publlc domaln! ::
who makes copyrlght law! ::
what does copyrlght law cover! :z
who gets a copyrlght! :
what rlghts come wlth copyrlght! :
The llmlts of copyrlght :(
Copyrlght llcenses :
ack to the case study 1y
Assignment and discussion questions 1)
Contributors 1)
module z 7he internationaI framework 18
Learning objective 18
Case study 18
Lesson 18
The ratlonale for the lnternatlonal system :8
|nternatlonal lnstruments :p
Perspectlves for developlng countrles zp
ack to the case study 1
Assignment and discussion questions
Contributors
module 7he scope of copyright Iaw q
Learning objective q
Case study q
Lesson q
what does copyrlght law protect! (
what ls an author! 8
The relatlonshlp between copyrlght lnfrlngement and other
unauthorlzed actlvltles (:
Copyrlght duratlon (z
Lxtenslons of the scope of copyrlght protectlon (
ack to the case study qy
AdditionaI resources qy
Assignment and discussion questions q
Contributors q)
module ( Rights, exceptions, and Iimitations q8
Learning objective q8
Case study q8
Lesson q8
Lconomlc rlghts (8
Moral rlghts :
Nelghborlng and su| enet|s rlghts z
Pental and lendlng rlghts
Lxceptlons and llmltatlons (
Llbrary exceptlons 8
Compulsory llcenses 6:
AdditionaI resources z
Contributors
module Managing rights q
Learning objective q
Case study q
Lesson q
|ndlvldual management 6(
Collectlve management ;o
Technologlcal protectlon measures ;
Orphan works ;(
ack to the case study )y
AdditionaI resources )
Assignment and discussion questions ))
Contributors )8
module 6 Creative approaches and aIternatives )
Learning objective )
Case study )
Lesson )
Physlcal and dlgltal commons ;p
Pree software llcenses 8o
Creatlve commons 8:
The Open Access movement 8
AdditionaI resources 8)
Assignment and discussion questions 8)
Contributors 88
module ; nforcement 8
Learning objective 8
Case study 8
Lesson 8
what lnfrlnges copyrlght! 8p
Procedures and penaltles pz
The complex responslbllltles of llbrarlans p6
ack to the case study
AdditionaI resources )
Assignment and discussion questions )
Contributors 8
module 8 7raditionaI knowIedge
Learning objective
Case study
Lesson
what ls tradltlonal knowledge! pp
How lndlvldual natlons deal wlth tradltlonal knowledge :oo
Peglonal codes governlng tradltlonal knowledge :o8
|nternatlonal legal lnstruments ::
Pollcy arguments :z:
ack to the case study 1z
AdditionaI resources 1z
Assignment and discussion questions 1z8
Contributors 1z8
module p Activism 1z
Learning objective 1z
Case studies 1z
The Swedlsh Plrate Party :zp
"Cllck wrap" llcenses and the Unlform Commerclal Code :z
Copyrlght law and folklore :6
AdditionaI resources 1q1
Contributors 1qz
CIossary 1q
Index 18z
COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
Preface
Copyiight loi Libiaiians is a joint piojcct ol thc Bcikman Ccntci loi Intcinct
8 Socicty and EIFL (Elcctionic Inloimation loi Libiaiics), a nctwoik ol libiaiy
consoitia in ,o countiics in Aliica, Asia, and Euiopc. Thc goal ol thc piojcct
is to piovidc libiaiians in dcvcloping and tiansitional countiics with inloima-
tion conccining copyiight law. Moic spccilcally, it aspiics to inloim libiaiians
conccining:
- copyiight law in gcncial,
- thc aspccts ol copyiight law that most afcct libiaiics,
- how libiaiians in thc lutuic could most cfcctivcly paiticipatc in thc pioccsscs
by which copyiight law is intcipictcd and shapcd.
How to use thls course
Thc couisc matciials can bc uscd in thicc difcicnt ways. Fiist, thcy can piovidc
thc basis loi a scll-taught couisc. A libiaiian can icad thc modulcs in scqucncc
oi locus on thc modulcs that addicss issucs that intcicst him oi hci.
Sccond, thc couisc matciials can bc uscd in a tiaditional classioom-bascd couisc.
In such a sctting, thc instiuctoi will dctciminc thc pacc at which thc matciials aic
icad and will sclcct topics loi discussion. Thc instiuctoi may lnd thc assignmcnts
wc havc includcd in thc modulcs usclul but will likcly posc additional qucstions.
Finally, thc matciials can bc uscd in a distancc-lcaining couisc, in which an
instiuctoi guidcs thc inquiiy, but thc libiaiians taking thc couisc paiticipatc
icmotcly.
Tcims piintcd in boId grey typc can bc lound in thc Glossaiy.
This book is availablc in scvcial languagcs as an onlinc couisc at www.ci.
nct/copyiight-loi-libiaiians, which contains additional links and iclcicnccs loi
studcnts who wish to puisuc any topic in gicatci dcpth.
Levels
Not all uscis will havc thc timc oi intcicst to icad all ol thc matciials containcd
in this cuiiiculum. Rccognizing this, wc havc aiiangcd and maikcd thc matciials
in ways that should assist instiuctois and uscis in dcciding how dccply to cxploic
this subjcct. Spccilcally, thc matciials aic oiganizcd into lvc lcvcls:
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- Lcvcl (appiopiiatc loi uscis who want a basic knowlcdgc ol how copyiight
law afccts thc woik ol libiaiians in dcvcloping and tiansitional countiics):
Rcad modulcs , ,-;. (In othci woids, skip thc Intioduction and modulcs z, 8,
and j.)
- Lcvcl z (appiopiiatc loi uscis who aic also intcicstcd in thc thcoiy undcilying
copyiight law and in thc intcinational dimcnsions ol copyiight law): Rcad thc
Intioduction and all ol thc modulcs.
- Lcvcl , (appiopiiatc loi usc in a onc-scmcstci undcigiaduatc couisc in this
subjcct oi loi uscis who wish to obtain an in-dcpth undcistanding ol thc
lcld and to scc how lcgislatuics and couits aic stiuggling to iclnc and apply
copyiight law): Rcad all ol thc modulcs and all ol thc documcnts maikcd with
icd links in thc onlinc couisc.
- Lcvcl (appiopiiatc loi usc in a giaduatc-lcvcl couisc in this subjcct): Rcad all
ol thc modulcs and all ol thc documcnts maikcd with icd and giccn links in
thc onlinc couisc.
- Lcvcl , (appiopiiatc loi a laculty mcmbci picpaiing to tcach this subjcct): Rcad
all ol thc modulcs and all ol thc documcnts maikcd with icd, giccn, and bluc
links in thc onlinc couisc.
Permlsslons
Thc couisc matciials picpaicd by thc piojcct aic liccnccd undci a Cicativc
Commons Attiibution liccnsc. Libiaiians and thc public at laigc aic cncouiagcd
to usc, distiibutc, tianslatc, modily, and build upon thcsc matciials, piovidcd
that thcy givc EIFL and thc Bcikman Ccntci appiopiiatc cicdit.
Dlsclalmer
This couisc docs not ofci lcgal advicc. It piovidcs gcncial inloimation conccin-
ing thc piinciplcs that undcilic thc copyiight systcm and indicatcs how vaiious
concictc pioblcms aic icsolvcd in most countiics. It cannot, howcvci, piovidc
icliablc guidancc conccining how a couit in a spccilc countiy would icspond
to a spccilc sct ol lacts. Thus, il you lnd youiscll coming closc to any ol thc
lcgal boundaiics dcsciibcd in thcsc matciials, you should consult a lawyci in
youi own juiisdiction.
Acknowledgment
This piojcct was madc possiblc with gcncious lunding liom thc Foid Foundation
and thc Opcn Socicty Foundations.
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Help us lmprove the course
Wc hopc to updatc and iclnc thcsc matciials pciiodically. To do so, wc nccd hclp
liom uscis. Plcasc lct us know il a piccc ol inloimation containcd in a modulc is
incoiicct oi out ol datc. Il you havc suggcstions conccining cithci thc contcnt ol
thc modulcs oi thc way in which thc contcnt is picscntcd, wc aic cagci to hcai
thcm. Finally, libiaiians aic stiongly cncouiagcd to lct us know how thc issucs
addicsscd in thc modulcs aic handlcd in thcii homc countiics, wc will tiy to
includc that inloimation in lutuic vcisions.
You can cmail us at c-lccdbackcybci.law.haivaid.cdu. Wc look loiwaid to
youi contiibutions.
Thc EIFL and Bcikman tcams
Introduction
Copyright theory
Bcloic plunging into thc dctails ol copyiight law, somc uscis may lnd it hclplul
to considci thc gcncial thcoiics that undcilic thc copyiight systcm. What is thc
puiposc ol copyiight? How you answci that qucstion may afcct not mcicly youi
ovciall attitudc towaid this cntiic body ol law, but also youi vicws conccining
how individual iulcs should bc intcipictcd oi modilcd.
Scholais havc dcvclopcd loui thcoiics ol copyiight law. Thcy aic not mutually
cxclusivc. Indccd, couits and lcgislatois licqucntly appcal simultancously to two
oi moic ol thc thcoiics. But thcy giow out ol difcicnt tiaditions in philosophy
and political thcoiy, and thcy havc difcicnt implications loi how thc law should
bc shapcd. So, at lcast loi analytical puiposcs, it is hclplul to kccp thcm scpaiatc.
Palrness
Thc hcait ol thc list thcoiy is thc piinciplc that thc cicatois ol litciatuic, ait, and
othci oiiginal woiks dcscivc cithci to contiol thcii cications oi to bc icwaidcd
loi thcii cfoits. In othci woids, cicatois havc moial cntitlcmcnts that thc law
should iccognizc and cnloicc. Put slightly difcicntly, to dcny lcgal piotcction to
cicatois would bc unlaii.
Thcic aic scvcial vaiiants ol this gcncial appioach. Thc most lully dcvclopcd
is thc so-callcd laboi-dcscit" thcoiy dciivcd liom thc wiitings ol thc Biitish
philosophci }ohn Lockc. In Chaptci , ol his Second Treatise oj Government, Lockc
aigucd that a pcison who labois upon a plot ol land that is owncd in common"
acquiics a natuial iight to that land - a iight that a govcinmcnt, oncc it is loimcd,
has a duty to scttlc" and icspcct.
Much ol thc loicc ol Lockc's aigumcnt dciivcs liom thc intuitivc appcal ol thc
stoiy upon which it is bascd. I comc upon a tiact ol wild, uncultivatcd land that no
onc pcison yct owns. I woik haid to icmovc thc stoncs, ticcs, oi piaiiic giass. I plow
thc land and plant sccds. I nuituic thc plants until thcy matuic. Finally, I haivcst
thc ciops and usc thcm to sustain myscll and my lamily. Suicly it would bc wiong
il an intcilopci, who has donc nothing to makc thc land pioductivc, could now
oust mc. Lockc ofcicd vaiious moic loimal aigumcnts - somc ol thcm gioundcd
in Chiistian thcology - to butticss this moial intuition, but thc stoiy itscll givcs
Lockc's thcoiy most ol its cnduiing powci.
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An impoitant gioup ol scholais aiguc that Lockc's aigumcnt has cvcn gicatci
loicc whcn applicd to woiks ol thc intcllcct (litciatuic, ait, and so loith) than it
docs whcn applicd to land. Thc iaw matciial uscd to gcnciatc a novcl (papci and
a lcw pcncils) has littlc valuc, by lai thc most impoitant input to thc valuc ol
thc lnishcd novcl is thc novclist's intcllcctual laboi. Thc novclist's moial iight to
contiol thc novcl is thus cvcn stiongci than thc moial iight ol thc laimci to thc
land hc has cultivatcd. Moicovci, unlikc ciops, novcls do not iot. Thus, wc nccd
not woiiy that, by giving a piopcity iight to thc novclist, wc will causc socially
valuablc pioducts to go to wastc.
To bc suic, scholais who lnd Lockc's aigumcnt pcisuasivc cncountci somc
dimcultics whcn applying it to copyiight law. Foi cxamplc, cxactly what soits ol
intcllcctual laboi" givc iisc to moial cntitlcmcnts? }ust sitting in liont ol a dcsk
loi houis attcmpting to wiitc? Only highly cicativc" laboi? Docs thc lact that
a paiticulai novclist lovcs hci woik sticngthcn oi wcakcn hci moial iights? Is
it possiblc that, by awaiding an cxpansivc sct ol lcgal iights to onc novclist (loi
cxamplc, by loibidding othcis to wiitc novcls with closcly similai plots) wc may
icducc thc cicativc oppoitunitics availablc to othci potcntial novclists? Il so, docs
that impaii thc moial claims ol thc list novclist? Scholais havc wicstlcd with thcsc
and othci complications - and will likcly continuc to do so in thc lutuic. (As wc will
scc, thc laiincss thcoiy is not uniquc in this icgaid. All ol thc copyiight thcoiics
iun into dimcultics and complications.)
Anothci vaiiant ol thc laiincss appioach is somctimcs callcd cquity thcoiy." It is
lcss claboiatc but, accoiding to social psychologists, cnjoys cvcn bioadci appcal. Thc
coic ol cquity thcoiy is thc notion that cach contiibutoi to a collcctivc cntcipiisc
dcscivcs a shaic ol thc liuits ol that cntcipiisc piopoitionatc to thc magnitudc
ol his oi hci contiibution. This has impoitant implications loi copyiight law. Foi
cxamplc, it would suggcst that thc law should bc oiganizcd to cnsuic that cach ol
thc many pcoplc who hclp makc a movic - liom thc stais to thc kcy giips" - gct
a shaic ol thc piocccds piopoitionatc to his oi hci contiibution. As wc will scc, it
is not at all clcai that thc cuiicnt law has this cfcct.
welfare
Thc sccond ol thc loui aigumcnts giows out ol thc philosophic tiadition ol
utilitaiianism. Thc ccntial piinciplc ol that tiadition is that thc law should bc
oiganizcd to maximizc total human wcllaic. (Many ambiguitics luik in that simplc
statcmcnt, but wc will put thcm to onc sidc.) Thc way in which that piinciplc is
most oltcn applicd to copyiight law is as lollows.
Novcls and othci intcllcctual cications lall into a small but impoitant catcgoiy
ol pioducts that cconomists iclci to as public goods." Thc dclning chaiactciistics
ol public goods aic that thcy aic noniivalious" (mcaning that thcy can bc cnjoycd
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6 COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
by an unlimitcd numbci ol pcoplc) and noncxcludablc" (mcaning that oncc thcy
aic madc availablc to onc consumci, it is vciy dimcult to picvcnt othci consumcis
liom gaining acccss to thcm). Thcsc chaiactciistics makc public goods socially
valuablc, but thcy also cicatc a dangci: Potcntial pioduccis ol thcm will not pioducc
thcm bccausc thcy lcai that thcy will bc unablc to cain any moncy. Foi cxamplc,
a potcntial novclist may dccidc not to wiitc a novcl, bccausc shc anticipatcs that,
oncc thc list copy is sold, othci publishcis will makc millions ol additional
copics and scll thcm loi pcnnics, picvcnting thc novclist liom caining any moncy.
Conliontcd with this hazaid, thc novclist may dccidc to bccomc a bankci, and thc
woild will bc loicvci dcpiivcd ol thc bcnclts ol thc novcls shc might havc wiittcn.
To maximizc social wcllaic, thc govcinmcnt must somchow cicatc an inccntivc
loi thc novclist to wiitc novcls. Thcic aic many ways that thc govcinmcnt might
do so, but onc tcchniquc is to giant thc novclist cxclusivc iights to icpioducc and
scll hci novcls. Piotcctcd against compctition, shc can chaigc cnough moncy loi
hci books to cnablc hci to cain a living - and kccp wiiting. That, in biicl, is what
copyiight law docs.
Sccn liom this pcispcctivc, copyiight law has impoitant social bcnclts but also
has a social cost. Thc icason is that, by cmpowciing thc novclist to iaisc thc piicc
ol hci books wcll abovc thc low lcvcl that would havc bccn gcnciatcd thiough licc
compctition, copyiight law picvcnts icadcis who cannot afoid thc highci piicc
liom obtaining and icading thc novcl. Thc icsult is to icducc thc wcllaic ol thosc
consumcis and thus icducc, to somc cxtcnt, total social wcllaic. Thc implication
ol this insight is that copyiight piotcction should only bc cxtcndcd to typcs ol
intcllcctual pioducts that would not bc pioduccd in thc abscncc ol thc lnancial
inccntivcs that thc copyiight systcm piovidcs.
Il wc applicd this guidclinc conscicntiously, which typcs ol woiks would wc
includc? It's haid to say, bccausc cicatois' motivcs vaiy. But, ioughly spcaking, wc
should bc cspccially willing to cxtcnd copyiight piotcction to kinds ol pioducts
that aic costly to pioducc, casy to copy, and bcnclt many pcoplc othci than thc
immcdiatc consumcis. Movics and computci soltwaic might bc cxamplcs. By
contiast, wc should at lcast hcsitatc bcloic gianting copyiight piotcction to kinds ol
pioducts that aic incxpcnsivc to pioducc oi whosc cicatois aic cspccially scnsitivc
to nonmonctaiy inccntivcs (such as thc dcsiic loi lamc oi thc hopc ol bcing awaidcd
tcnuic in a univcisity) that do not dcpcnd on copyiight law.
Personhood
Thc thiid thcoiy is dciivcd liom thc wiitings ol Kant and Hcgcl. It is wcakci in
so-callcd common law" lcgal systcms (such as thc Unitcd Kingdom, thc Unitcd
Statcs, Canada, and Austialia) than it is in so-callcd civil law" lcgal systcms (lound
in thc countiics ol contincntal Euiopc and thc countiics ol Aliica and Latin
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Amciica whosc lcgal systcms wcic oiiginally pattcincd on thosc ol contincntal
Euiopc).
Thc ccntial idca ol this thcoiy is that intcllcctual pioducts aic manilcstations oi
cxtcnsions ol thc pcisonalitics ol thcii cicatois. A paintci oi novclist dclncs hciscll
in and thiough hci ait. Thc lcgal systcm, scnsitivc to this phcnomcnon, should
giant aitists thc powci to contiol uscs oi modilcations ol thcii cications. Why
cxactly? Eithci bccausc injuiics to thosc cications causc coiicsponding injuiics to
thc cicatois - which thc law should scck to picvcnt oi icdicss. Oi bccausc giving
cicatois this contiol is ncccssaiy to cstablish a gcncial social cnviionmcnt in which
aitists can cstablish and maintain thcii idcntitics.
This thcoiy piovidcs cspccially stiong suppoit loi thc aspccts ol copyiight law
known as moial iights." Wc will considci moial iights in dctail in Modulc . As you
will scc, moial iights includc a iight to bc givcn cicdit loi things you havc cicatcd
(and not to bc blamcd loi things you havc not cicatcd) and a iight to picvcnt thc
mutilation oi dcstiuction ol youi cications.
Culture
Thc louith ol thc thcoiics is as yct thc lcast inucntial but sccms to bc gaining
sticngth. Its kcy idcas aic that human natuic causcs pcoplc to ouiish moic
undci somc conditions than undci othcis, and that social and political institutions
should bc oiganizcd to lacilitatc that ouiishing.
What, moic spccilcally, aic thc conditions oi lunctionings" that cnablc pcoplc
to ouiish? Thc lists ofcicd by thc philosophcis and psychologists woiking in
this tiadition vaiy somcwhat, but thc lollowing would mcct with thc appioval ol
most:
- Lilc
- Hcalth
- Bodily intcgiity - piotcction against physical hazaids and against physical and
scxual assault
- Autonomy - in thc scnsc ol thc ability to choosc liccly onc's vocations and
avocations
- Compctcncc - thc ability to conliont and solvc pioblcms
- Engagcmcnt - activc involvcmcnt in piolcssional and lcisuic activity, as opposcd
to passivc consumption ol goods and sciviccs
- Scll-cxpicssion - thc ability to spcak onc's mind and cxpicss onc's cicativc
impulscs
- Rclationships - paiticipation in liccly choscn communitics
- Piivacy - acccss to zoncs ol intimacy in which iclationships can bc nuituicd
and idcntity dcvclopcd
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Piopcily shapcd, copyiight law can hclp lostci a cultuic that cnablcs most pcoplc
to livc livcs ol this soit. Foi cxamplc, it can hclp piomotc a iich aitistic tiadi-
tion, suppoit a stiong cducational systcm opcn to cvciyonc, cncouiagc pcoplc
to modily thc cultuial goods thcy consumc, and (last but not lcast) incicasc
acccss to knowlcdgc thiough a stiong and univcisally acccssiblc libiaiy systcm.
Pooily constiuctcd, copyiight law can impaii all ol thcsc valucs - cuib aitistic
innovation, liustiatc thc cfoits ol tcachcis to dcsign and dclivci pcdagogically
sound matciials, discouiagc usci modilcations ol cultuial goods, and makc thc
opciation ol libiaiics moic costly and dimcult. A gicat dcal thus dcpcnds upon
how copyiight law is loimulatcd and applicd.
AdditionaI resources
Thc litciatuic on copyiight thcoiy is vast, but unloitunatcly iclativcly littlc ol it
is availablc onlinc. Thc lollowing is a icasonably icpicscntativc sct ol matciials.
Many moic souiccs can bc lound in thc lootnotcs to thcsc aiticlcs.
0VRVlWS
William Fishci, Thcoiics ol Intcllcctual Piopcity," in Stcphcn Munzci, cd., êw Lssa,s in
tne Ieqa| and Io|itica| Tneor, oj Iropert, (Cambiidgc Univcisity Picss, zoo). Chincsc
tianslation, by Hailcng Huang, in Cninese Inte||ectua| Iropert, Review (zooz): .
Scanna Shifiin, Intcllcctual Piopcity," in A Companion to Contemporar, Io|itica| Ini|osopn,,
cd. Robcit Goodin, Philip Pcttit, and Thomas Poggc, Blackwcll, zoo;.
FAlRNSS 7H0RY
Robcit Mcigcs, Lockc loi thc Masscs: Piopcity Rights and thc Pioducts ol Collcctivc
Cicativity" (zooj), http://papcis.ssin.com/sol,/papcis.clm?abstiact_id=,z,o8.
Allicd C. Ycn, Rcstoiing thc Natuial Law: Copyiight as Laboi and Posscssion," Onio State
Iaw }ourna| , (jjo): ,;.
WLFAR 7H0RY
Pctci Mcncll and Suzannc Scotchmci, Intcllcctual Piopcity," in Handbook oj Iaw and
Lconomics, cd. A. Mitchcll Polinsky and Stcvcn Shavcll with S. Scotchmci (Noith Holland,
zoo;)
William Landcs and Richaid Posnci, Tne Lconomic Structure oj Inte||ectua| Iropert, Iaw
(Haivaid Univcisity Picss, zoo,).
}oscph E. Stiglitz, Economic Foundations ol Intcllcctual Piopcity Rights," ,; Duke Iaw
}ourna| 6j, (Apiil zoo8).
Stcvcn Shavcll and Tanguy Van Ypcisclc, Rcwaids vcisus Intcllcctual Piopcity Rights,"
NBER Woiking Papci No. w6j,6 (jjj).
PRS0NH000 7H0RY
Maigaict }anc Radin, Piopcity and Pcisonhood, in Reinterpretinq Iropert, (Univcisity ol
Chicago Picss, jj,).
}ustin Hughcs, Thc Philosophy ol Intcllcctual Piopcity," ;; Georqetown Iaw Review z8;
(j88).
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CUL7URAL 7H0RY
Ncil Nctancl, Copyiight and a Dcmociatic Civil Socicty," o6 Ya|e Iaw }ourna| z8, (jj6).
Madhavi Sundci, iI . YouTube, M,Space, Our Cu|ture (Yalc Univcisity Picss, zoz).
William Fishci, Thc Implications loi Law ol Usci Innovation," j Minnesota Iaw Review
, (zoo).
Contributors
This modulc was dialtcd by William Fishci.
o COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
ncJJ|o
Copyright and
the pubIic domain
Learning objective
This modulc cxploics thc basic conccpts ol copyiight law. It piovidcs a gcncial
intioduction to thc clcmcnts ol copyiight impoitant to libiaiians. Othci modulcs
will discuss thcsc topics in dctail.
Case study
"| want to bulld a course pack for my students. what materlal may | lnclude!"
Angela, a muslc professor, ls vlsltlng her school's llbrary to collect materlal to
bulld a course pack for her students. She would llke to lnclude excerpts from books,
electronlc resources, and muslc scores. She also wants to post selected muslc and
vldeo cllps onllne wlth her commentary. Nadla, the llbrarlan, wlll explaln to Angela
what she may and may not do under copyrlght law.
Lesson
what ls copyrlght!
Copyright is a lcgal conccpt that giants authois and aitists contiol ovci ccitain
uscs ol thcii cications loi dclncd pciiods ol timc. It limits who may copy, changc,
pciloim, oi shaic thosc cications.
As wc saw in thc Intioduction, thcic aic scvcial vicws conccining thc puiposcs
ol copyiight law. Onc vicw is that copyiight law cncouiagcs cicativity by allowing
cicatois to piolt liom thcii woik. This goal ol copyiight is iccctcd in thc woiding
ol many copyiight laws. Foi cxamplc, thc Copyiight Clausc" ol thc Unitcd Statcs
Constitution statcs that Congicss may giant authois copyiight piotcction loi thcii
woiks loi a limitcd timc in oidci to piomotc thc piogicss ol scicncc and usclul
aits" (US Constitution, Aiticlc , Scction 8, Clausc 8). Similaily, thc statcd puiposc
ol thc Statutc ol Annc, thc list copyiight statutc in England, was to cncouiagc
lcaining" (8 Annc Chaptci j (;o)). Anothci vicw is that copyiight law cnsuics
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that authois aic paid laiily loi thcii cfoit. A thiid vicw is that a cicativc woik is
an cxpicssion ol thc pcisonality ol its cicatoi, and thus should bc piotcctcd liom
bcing uscd without thc cicatoi's pcimission.
Although copyiight law giants authois many iights in thcii woiks, it also limits
thcsc iights in many impoitant ways. Most ol thcsc limitations aic quitc spccilc,
but a lcw aic bioad. Scvcial, as wc will scc, cnablc libiaiians to usc oi disscminatc
copyiightcd matciials moic liccly than thcy othciwisc could.
what ls the publlc domaln!
Thc pubIic domain is thc namc givcn to thc sct ol cicativc woiks that aic not
piotcctcd by copyiight law - cithci bccausc thcy aic no longci covcicd by thc
limitcd tcims ol copyiight law, bccausc thcii cicatois did not comply with vaiious
loimal icquiicmcnts in thc past, oi bccausc thcii cicatois dclibciatcly donatcd to
thc public thc iights that thcy might havc asscitcd. As an illustiation, supposc
thc lctional countiy ol Booktonia has a copyiight tcim ol zo ycais. Il a book was
wiittcn in j8o, thc copyiight piotcction loi thc book in Booktonia would havc
cndcd zo ycais latci, in zooo. Oncc thc copyiight in a woik cxpiics, thc woik is
said to lall into" thc public domain. Oncc a woik is in thc public domain, thc
icstiictions ol copyiight law no longci apply, and anyonc may copy, icusc, oi
shaic thc woik as thcy wish.
Thc public domain lunctions as a pool ol cicativc matciial liom which anyonc
may diaw. It piovidcs authois with thc iaw matciials liom which thc ncxt gcncia-
tion ol books, movics, songs, and knowlcdgc can bc built. As thc louitccnth-ccntuiy
English poct Chaucci (whosc woik is now in thc public domain) wiotc, Foi out ol
thc old lclds, as mcn say, Comcs all this ncw coin, liom ycai to ycai, And out ol
old books, in good laith, Comcs all this ncw scicncc that mcn lcain."
who makes copyrlght law!
Scvcial intcinational ticatics sct standaids that all paiticipating countiics must
lollow whcn adopting oi changing thcii copyiight laws. Howcvci, within thosc
limits, cach nation scts its own laws. Thosc laws dctciminc who can acquiic a
copyiight, what iights thc copyiight holdci cnjoys, and how long thc copyiight lasts.
As a icsult, copyiight law vaiics signilcantly liom onc countiy to anothci.
In all countiics, copyiight law is shapcd in pait by lcgislatuics, which adopt and
oltcn modily copyiight statutcs, and couits, which adjust and claiily thc piovisions
ol thc statutcs whcn applying thcm to paiticulai cascs. In so-callcd common Iaw
countiics, couits play somcwhat moic impoitant iolcs than thcy do in so-callcd
civiI Iaw countiics, but thc difcicncc is not laigc. In somc countiics, reIigious IegaI
systems also afcct copyiight iulcs. A discussion ol thc thicc main typcs ol lcgal
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systcm, as wcll as lists ol thc lcgal systcms ol difcicnt countiics, may bc lound on
Wikipcdia, 'List ol countiy lcgal systcms'.
No mattci what thc lcgal systcm, howcvci, copyiight law is constantly chanigng
to mcct ncw cicativc, tcchnological, and social challcngcs. Oltcn thosc changcs aic
diivcn by intcicst gioups that scck to bcnclt thcii mcmbcis. Thc libiaiy community
has oltcn playcd impoitant iolcs in thc shaping ol copyiight law in thc past - and
could play cvcn moic impoitant iolcs in thc lutuic.
what does copyrlght law cover!
Copyiight law gcncially covcis all oiiginal woiks ol authoiship." Such oiiginal
woiks comc in many loims. Foi cxamplc, in almost all countiics, all ol thc lol-
lowing aic piotcctcd by copyiight law:
- litciaiy woiks (books, aiticlcs, lcttcis, ctc.),
- musical woiks,
- diamatic woiks (opcias, plays),
- giaphic aits (photogiaphs, sculptuics, paintings, ctc.),
- motion pictuics and audiovisual woiks (movics, vidcos, tclcvision piogiams),
- aichitcctuial woiks,
- computci soltwaic.
In somc countiics, sound iccoidings aic also covcicd by copyiight law. In othci
countiics, sound iccoidings aic piotcctcd by a scpaiatc, iclatcd sct ol iulcs known
as ncighboiing iights." In somc countiics, govcinmcnt woiks - such as maps,
omcial icpoits, and judicial opinions - aic piotcctcd by copyiight law, in othcis,
thcy aic considcicd pait ol thc public domain.
It is impoitant to icmcmbci that copyiight ncvci applics to idcas oi lacts. It only
covcis originaI expression - in othci woids, thc distinctivc way in which idcas aic
convcycd. So, loi cxamplc, thc inloimation containcd in a scicncc tcxtbook is not
piotcctcd by copyiight law. You aic licc, altci icading a tcxtbook, to wiitc and
publish a ncw book convcying thc samc inloimation in difcicnt woids. Similaily,
you aic licc, altci icading a woik ol histoiy, to wiitc a novcl incoipoiating thc
histoiical lacts.
A lcw countiics (most notably thc Unitcd Statcs) icquiic thc oiiginal cxpicssion
to bc lxcd in a tangibIe medium, likc papci oi a digital iccoiding loimat, in oidci
to bc piotcctcd by copyiight law. In thosc countiics, impiovisational pciloimanccs
- loi cxamplc, ol jazz oi dancc - aic not piotcctcd unlcss thcii authois iccoid
thcm.
Copyiight law covcis woiks that havc not bccn publishcd oi cvcn madc public.
So, loi cxamplc, piivatc lcttcis, diaiics, and cmail mcssagcs aic all piotcctcd by
copyiight law.
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Somc countiics uscd to icquiic publishcd woiks to bc icgistcicd with a ccntial
omcc oi to caiiy a copyiight noticc with thc namc ol thc authoi and thc ycai ol
publication in oidci to bc piotcctcd by copyiight law. Such formaIities aic no
longci ncccssaiy loi a woik to bc covcicd by copyiight law. Howcvci, icgistciing
a copyiight may hclp piovc authoiship oi idcntily who must bc contactcd loi
pcimission bcloic a woik can bc icuscd. In somc countiics, icgistiation ol a woik is
ncccssaiy bcloic thc authoi is pcimittcd to suc somconc loi copyiight inliingcmcnt.
(Foicign authois, howcvci, aic cxcmptcd liom this icquiicmcnt.) In addition, somc
countiics continuc to icquiic publishcis to dcposit onc copy ol cvciy ncw woik in
a dcsignatcd omcc, such as a national libiaiy.
who gets a copyrlght!
A copyiight is oidinaiily obtaincd by thc cicatoi ol a woik. Il you wiitc a novcl,
paint a painting, oi composc a song, you will gcncially acquiic thc copyiight in
youi cication.
Thc situation is moic complicatcd il you aic an cmploycc cicating thc woik
as pait ol youi cmploymcnt. Countiics vaiy a gicat dcal in how thcy dcal with
such situations. Typically, in countiics that lollow thc common law tiadition thc
copyiight in a woik picpaicd by an cmploycc within thc scopc ol cmploymcnt
gocs to thc cmployci. By contiast, in countiics that lollow thc civil law tiadition
thc copyiight typically gocs to thc cmploycc. Howcvci, in civil law countiics,
cmploymcnt contiacts oi cvcn copyiight law oltcn givc cmploycis iights ovci thcii
cmployccs' cications similai (though not idcntical) to thc copyiights cnjoycd by
cmploycis in common law countiics. Finally, in thc Unitcd Statcs and somc othci
countiics, whcn spccilc typcs ol woiks aic cicatcd in spccilc ciicumstanccs by
indcpcndcnt contiactois, thc contiactois and thc oiganizations commissioning
thc woiks may agicc in wiiting that thc commissioning oiganizations shall bc
awaidcd thc copyiights.
what rlghts come wlth copyrlght!
Thc iights cicatcd by copyiight law lall into two catcgoiics: cconomic iights and
moial iights.
conomic rights aic intcndcd to givc authois thc oppoitunity to usc thcii woiks
to makc moncy. Thcsc aic things that typically only thc ownci ol thc copyiight
may do unlcss thc ownci giants pcimission to othcis. (Impoitant cxccptions to
thc icquiicmcnt to obtain thc copyiight holdci's pcimission, such as laii usc and
compulsoiy liccnscs, aic discusscd bclow.) Thc piimaiy cconomic iights aic:
- thc iight to icpioducc thc woik - in othci woids, to makc copics ol it,
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- thc iight to cicatc dciivativc woiks - such as tianslations, abiidgmcnts, oi
adaptations,
- thc iight to distiibutc thc woik - loi cxamplc, by sclling oi icnting copics ol it,
- thc iight to pciloim oi display thc woik publicly.
MoraI rights aic dcsigncd to piotcct authois' noncconomic intcicsts in thcii
cications. Moial iights do not cxist in all countiics. Gcncially spcaking, thcy aic
iccognizcd moic widcly and aic cnloiccd moic limly in civil law countiics than
in common law countiics. Thc piimaiy moial iights aic:
- thc iight ol intcgiity - loi cxamplc, thc iight to picvcnt thc dcstiuction oi
dclaccmcnt ol a painting oi sculptuic,
- thc iight ol attiibution - in othci woids, thc iight to bc givcn appiopiiatc cicdit
loi onc's cications, and not to bc blamcd loi things onc did not cicatc,
- thc iight ol disclosuic - thc iight to dctciminc whcn and il a woik shall bc
madc public,
- thc iight ol withdiawal - thc iight (in ccitain limitcd ciicumstanccs) to icmovc
liom public ciiculation copics ol a woik onc has comc to icgict.
Neighboring rights, somctimcs callcd iclatcd iights, aic closc cousins ol copyiight.
Thc oldcst and bcst known ncighboiing iights aic cconomic iights giantcd to
pcisons who aic not authois ol a woik but who contiibutc to its cication - such
as pciloimcis, pioduccis, and bioadcasting associations.
Somc countiics also havc piivacy and publicity iights that complcmcnt copyiight.
Foi cxamplc, somc countiics picvcnt thc public distiibution ol woiks that contain
pcisonally idcntilablc inloimation, unlcss pcimission is giantcd by that pcison.
The llmlts of copyrlght
Thc iights dcsciibcd abovc aic subjcct to impoitant limitations. Fiist, as mcntioncd
abovc, many oldci books, aiticlcs, iccoidings, and othci woiks aic pait ol thc pubIic
domain. Thcsc matciials may bc uscd by anyonc loi any puiposc. Unloitunatcly,
it is not always casy to lguic out whcn a paiticulai woik has lallcn into thc
public domain. Somctimcs a copyiight holdci will dcdicatc a woik to thc public
domain bcloic thc copyiight cxpiics, much likc a landholdci will somctimcs
donatc piopcity to a town so it may bccomc a paik. In thcsc instanccs, thc woik
bccomcs licc to usc immcdiatcly.
In addition, thc copyiight laws ol cvciy countiy includc exceptions and Iimita-
tions to copyiight. Thcsc idcntily activitics that uscis can do without lcai ol violat-
ing copyiight. Whilc thcsc cxccptions vaiy by countiy, somc common cxamplcs
includc copying loi pcisonal usc, quoting shoit passagcs ol litciaiy woiks loi
thc puiposcs ol ciiticism, photocopying loi aichival puiposcs by libiaiics, and
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convciting woiks into loimats acccssiblc by handicappcd pcisons. Othci cxccptions
aic bioadci and lcss wcll dclncd, such as thc fair use doctrine ol thc Unitcd Statcs
and thc fair deaIing doctiincs cmploycd in somc Aliican countiics.
Finally, most countiics havc compuIsory Iicensing systcms loi ccitain typcs
ol woiks. Undci a compulsoiy liccnsing systcm, copyiight holdcis aic icquiicd to
pcimit ccitain uscs ol thcii woiks so long as thc usci pays a lcc sct by a govcinmcnt
agcncy oi couits. Such icgimcs aic bccoming incicasingly common.
Copyrlght llcenses
Il nonc ol thcsc cxccptions oi limitations applics, it may still bc possiblc to makc
usc ol a copyiightcd woik. In oidci to do so, thc usci must obtain a Iicense
liom thc copyiight holdci that givcs thc usci pcimission to usc thc contcnt in
a paiticulai way. Thc copyiight holdci may dcmand a lcc loi such usc, oi may
allow thc usc loi licc. Thc liccnsc should bc spccilc and in wiiting in oidci to
avoid conlusion.
It is not always ncccssaiy to contact thc copyiight holdci diicctly to obtain a
liccnsc to usc thcii woiks. Many countiics havc coIIecting societies (also known
as collcctivc administiation oiganizations) that act as agcnts loi laigc numbcis ol
copyiight holdcis. Such oiganizations now administci liccnscs pcitaining to a widc
vaiicty ol uscs ol copyiightcd matciials. Examplcs includc bioadcasts ol musical
composition and thc usc ol vaiious modcin tcchnologics to icpioducc giaphic
woiks oi litciaiy woiks.
Anothci sct ol oiganizations assist and cncouiagc thosc copyiight holdcis who
aic willing to givc away somc ol thcii iights loi licc. Thc most lamous ol thcsc aic
Cicativc Commons and thc Ficc Soltwaic Foundation, but othcis aic cmciging.
Nadla (the llbrarlan) should help Angela (the professor) organlze the set of materlals
she has gathered by asklng a serles of questlons:
- Are any of the materlals ln the publlc domaln!
- Are any of the remalnlng materlals llcensed under a Creatlve Commons llcense or
a slmllar set of terms that allow thelr use!
- Are any of the remalnlng materlals freed for use by any of the statutory
exceptlons contalned ln thelr natlon's copyrlght statute!
- Does the llbrary already own a llcense to use the materlals ln the way Angela
proposes!
|f the materlals are ln the publlc domaln, are llcensed freely under a Creatlve
Commons llcense, are covered by a statutory exemptlon, or are lncluded ln exlstlng
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llcenses, they may be used. |f not, Angela wlll need to obtaln permlsslon from the
copyrlght holder or a collectlve rlghts organlzatlon.
A compichcnsivc discussion ol thc aspccts ol copyiight law that afcct libiaiians - in
paiticulai, libiaiians in dcvcloping countiics - may bc lound in thc EIFL Handbook on
Cop,riqnt and Re|ated Issues jor Iibraries.
This diicctoiy contains somc hclplul inloimation on howlong thc tcimol copyiight lasts
indifcicnt countiics aioundthc woild. It alsohas usclul tips onwhcna woik cntcis thc public
domain. http://cn.wikipcdia.oig/wiki/Wikipcdia:Copyiight_situations_by_countiy.
Caiol C. Hcndcison, Libiaiics as Cicatuics ol Copyiight: Why Libiaiians Caic about
Intcllcctual Piopcity Law and Policy" (jj8), availablc at www.ala.oig/ala/issucsadvocacy/
copyiight/copyiightaiticlc/libiaiicscicatuics.clm. Thc loimci cxccutivc diicctoi ol thc
Washington Omcc Amciican Libiaiy Association discusscs thc iolcs playcd by libiaiians
in maintaining copyiight balancc.
A shoit dcbatc bctwccn Piolcssois William Fishci and }ustin Hughcs, oiganizcd in May
zooj by Tne Lconomist magazinc (www.cconomist.com/dcbatc/ovcivicw/), cxamincs
thc mciits and dcmciits ol thc copyiight systcm.
Thc Rcscaich Ccntci loi thc Lcgal Systcm ol Intcllcctual Piopcity (RCLIP), in coopcia-
tion with thc Ccntci loi Advanccd Study 8 Rcscaich on Intcllcctual Piopcity (CASRIP)
ol thc Univcisity ol Washington School ol Law, is building a compichcnsivc databasc ol
couit dccisions involving intcllcctual piopcity (including copyiight law) in cvciy countiy
thioughout thc woild. Thc databasc is not yct complctc but alicady constitutcs a highly
valuablc icscaich tool, paiticulaily loi Asian countiics.
A map, picpaicd by William Fishci, dcsciibing thc main lcatuics ol copyiight law in
thc Unitcd Statcs and, to a limitcd cxtcnt, othci countiics, is availablc at http://cybci.law.
haivaid.cdu/pcoplc/tlshci/IP/IPzoMaps.htm.
A Iair(,) Use Ta|e is a zoo8 shoit movic on copyiight and laii usc in thc US. Accoiding
to thc synopsis, piolcssoi Eiic Fadcn ol Buckncll Univcisity cicatcd this humoious, yct
inloimativc, icvicw ol copyiight piinciplcs dclivcicd thiough thc woids ol thc vciy lolks
wc can thank loi ncaily cndlcss copyiight tcims."
Thc documcntaiics Stea| Tnis Ii|m Pait I (zoo6) and Stea| Tnis Ii|m Pait II (zoo;),
pioduccd by Thc Lcaguc ol Noblc Pccis, ofci cntcitaining and highly ciitical vicws ol thc
icccnt ticnd towaid sticngthcning thc iights ol copyiight owncis, paiticulaily with icspcct
to thc unauthoiizcd shaiing ol music and movics.
A hclplul guidc to dctcimining which woiks havc lallcn into thc public domain in
thc Unitcd Statcs has bccn piovidcd by Michacl Bicwci and thc Amciican Libiaiy Asso-
ciation Omcc loi Inloimation Tcchnology Policy, availablc at www.libiaiycopyiight.
nct/digitalslidci.
A Libiaiian's z.o Manilcsto ofcis a piovocativc conccption ol thc icsponsibilitics ol
libiaiians, paiticulaily in an cnviionmcnt chaiactciizcd by iapid tcchnological changc,
www.youtubc.com/watch?v=ZbliRs,SU.
CASS
Thc lollowing judicial opinion cxploics and applics somc ol thc piinciplcs discusscd in
this modulc: Te|eqrapn Group, Itd. v. Asndown, Pait o Casc , (Couit ol Appcal, England
8 Walcs, zoo) (thc iclationships among liccdom ol cxpicssion, thc public intcicst, and
intcllcctual piopcity iights)
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ASSl0NMN7
Answer one of the followlng questlons:
:. Lxplaln brleny what copyrlght law attempts to protect, as well as what freedoms
are reserved for or avallable to the publlc.
z. whlch (lf any) of the [ustlcatlons for copyrlght law make sense to you!
0lSCUSSl0N US7l0NlS)
Select one of the answers that your colleagues provlded to the Asslgnment
questlons and comment on lt. Lxplaln why you agree or dlsagree. Do not hesltate
to glve examples you have faced as an author, as a member of the publlc, or as a
llbrarlan.
Contributors
This modulc was cicatcd by Mclanic Dulong dc Rosnay. It was thcn cditcd by a tcam
including Scbastian Diaz, William Fishci, Uis Gassci, Adam Holland, Kimbcilcy
Isbcll, Pctci }aszi, Colin Maclay, Andicw Moshiinia, and Chiis Pctcison.
ncJJ|o .
7he internationaI
framework
Learning objective
This modulc cxplains how intcinational copyiight law woiks, how it afccts
dcvcloping countiics, and how dcvcloping countiics can afcct it.
Case study
Angela ls troubled by the restrlctlons that copyrlght law places upon her ablllty to
assemble and dlstrlbute course materlals. She ls conslderlng wrltlng a short artlcle,
argulng that her natlon's copyrlght law should be reformed to glve teachers and
students more latltude. However, she has heard that lnternatlonal agreements
may restrlct the freedom that each country en[oys to dene lts own copyrlght
laws. 8efore draftlng her artlcle, she asks Nadla's help ln determlnlng whlch, lf any,
lnternatlonal agreements are appllcable ln thelr country.
Lesson
The ratlonale for the lnternatlonal system
As wc saw in Modulc , Copyiight and thc Public Domain, cach countiy in thc
woild has its own sct ol copyiight laws. Howcvci, thc cxibility that most countiics
cnjoy in adjusting and cnloicing thcii own laws is limitcd by a sct ol intcinational
ticatics.
Why do wc nccd any intcinational managcmcnt ol this lcld? Thcic aic two
tiaditional answcis to this qucstion.
Fiist, without somc intcinational standaidization, nations might cnact lcgisla-
tion that piotccts thcii own citizcns whilc lcaving loicigncis vulnciablc. Such
disciimination was common piioi to intcinational icgulation. As copyiight owncis
bccomc incicasingly intcicstcd in global piotcction loi thcii cication, mutual
iccognition on laii tcims ol iights acioss boidcis bccomcs cvci moic impoitant.
Sccond, somc copyiight holdcis bclicvc that dcvcloping nations would not adopt
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adcquatc copyiight piotcctions unlcss loiccd to do so by ticaty. Rcpicscntativcs ol
dcvcloping nations stiongly disputc this aigumcnt.
|nternatlonal lnstruments
Thc simplcst way to achicvc thcsc goals would bc a singlc ticaty signcd by all
countiics. Unloitunatcly, thc cuiicnt situation is moic complcx. Instcad ol onc
ticaty, wc now havc six majoi multilatcial agiccmcnts, cach with a difcicnt sct
ol mcmbci countiics.
Each ol thc six agiccmcnts was ncgotiatcd within - and is now administcicd
by - an intcinational oiganization. Foui ol thc six aic managcd by thc Woild
Intcllcctual Piopcity Oiganization (WIPO), onc by thc Unitcd Nations Educational,
Scicntilc and Cultuial Oiganization (UNESCO), and onc by thc Woild Tiadc
Oiganization (WTO).
Thc six agiccmcnts havc bccn cicatcd and implcmcntcd in similai, though not
idcntical, ways. Typically, thc pioccss bcgins whcn icpicscntativcs ol countiics
think that thcic should bc intcinational standaids govcining a sct ol issucs. Thcy
cntci into negotlatlons, which can last scvcial ycais. Duiing thc ncgotiations, dialt
piovisions aic picscntcd to thc dclcgations ol cach countiy, which thcn discuss
thcm and may pioposc amcndmcnts to thcii contcnt in oidci to icach a conscnsus.
This conscnsus" may iccct gcnuinc agiccmcnt among all ol thc paiticipating
countiics that thc pioposcd ticaty is dcsiiablc, oi it may icsult liom picssuic
cxcitcd by moic powcilul countiics upon lcss powcilul countiics. Oncc conscnsus
has bccn icachcd, thc countiics concludc thc ticaty by slgnlng it. Thcicaltci, thc
govcinmcnts ol thc paiticipating countiics ratlfy thc ticaty, whcicupon it enters
lnto force. Countiics that did not sign thc ticaty whcn it was initially concludcd
may join thc ticaty latci by accesslon.
In many countiics - cspccially thosc that lollow thc civil-law tiadition - ticatics
aic icgaidcd as scll-cxccuting." In othci woids, oncc thcy aic iatilcd, piivatc paitics
can icly on thcm and, il ncccssaiy, biing lawsuits against othci piivatc paitics loi
violations ol thc ticatics' piovisions. Howcvci, in othci countiics - cspccially thosc
inucnccd by thc Biitish oi Scandinavian constitutional tiaditions - ticatics lack
this scll-cxccuting authoiity. Instcad, thc national lcgislatuics must adopt statutcs
implcmcnting thcm, altci which piivatc paitics icly on thc tcims ol thc implcmcnt-
ing lcgislation, iathci than on thc tcims ol thc ticatics thcmsclvcs.
Nonc ol thc six ticatics pcitaining to copyiight law contains a compichcnsivc
sct ol iulcs oi standaids loi a copyiight systcm. Rathci, cach onc icquiics mcmbci
countiics to dcal with paiticulai issucs in paiticulai ways, but lcavcs to thc mcmbci
countiics considciablc disciction in implcmcnting its icquiicmcnts.
Sct loith bclow aic biicl dcsciiptions ol thc six majoi ticatics, with spccial
attcntion to thcii impacts on dcvcloping countiics.
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RN C0NVN7l0N
In 886 tcn Euiopcan statcs signcd thc Bcinc Convcntion loi thc Piotcction ol
Litciaiy and Aitistic Woiks (iclciicd to hcicaltci as thc Bcinc Convcntion") in
oidci to icducc conlusion about intcinational copyiight law. Sincc thcn, a total
ol 6 countiics havc joincd thc Bcinc Convcntion. Howcvci, thcic havc bccn
scvcial icvisions ol thc Bcinc Convcntion, and not all countiics havc iatilcd thc
most icccnt vcision. Any nation is pcimittcd to join. Thc map bclow shows which
countiics aic cuiicntly mcmbcis. You can chcck to scc il youi countiy is a mcmbci
ol thc Bcinc Convcntion using thc icsouiccs at thc cnd ol thc modulc.
Thc Bcinc Convcntion cstablishcd thicc lundamcntal piinciplcs. Thc list and
most lamous is thc piinciplc ol national ticatmcnt," which icquiics mcmbci
countiics to givc thc icsidcnts ol othci mcmbci countiics thc samc iights undci
thc copyiight laws that thcy givc to thcii own icsidcnts. So, loi cxamplc, a novcl
wiittcn in Bolivia by a Bolivian citizcn cnjoys thc samc piotcction in Ghana as a
novcl wiittcn in Ghana by a Ghanaian citizcn.
Thc sccond is thc piinciplc ol indcpcndcncc" ol piotcction. It piovidcs that cach
mcmbci countiy must givc loicign woiks thc samc piotcctions thcy givc domcstic
woiks, cvcn whcn thc loicign woiks would not bc shicldcd undci thc copyiight
laws ol thc countiics whcic thcy oiiginatcd. Foi cxamplc, cvcn il a novcl wiittcn
in Bolivia by a Bolivian national wcic not piotcctcd undci Bolivian law, it would
still bc piotcctcd in Ghana il it lullllcd thc icquiicmcnts loi piotcction undci
Ghanaian law.
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Thc thiid is thc piinciplc ol automatic piotcction." This piinciplc loibids
mcmbci countiics icquiiing pcisons liom othci Bcinc Convcntion mcmbci coun-
tiics to undcigo lcgal loimalitics as a picicquisitc loi copyiight piotcction. (Thcy
may imposc such icquiicmcnts on thcii own citizcns, but usually do not.) Thc
cfcct ol this piinciplc is that thc Bolivian authoi ol a novcl docsn't havc to icgistci
oi dcclaic hci novcl in Ghana, India, Indoncsia oi any othci mcmbci statc ol thc
Bcinc Convcntion, hci novcl will bc automatically piotcctcd in all ol thcsc countiics
liom thc momcnt it is wiittcn.
In addition to thcsc basic piinciplcs, thc Bcinc Convcntion also imposcs on
mcmbci countiics a numbci ol moic spccilc icquiicmcnts. Foi instancc, thcy must
cnloicc copyiights loi a minimum pciiod ol timc. Thc minimum copyiight tcim
loi countiics that havc iatilcd thc most icccnt vcision ol thc Bcinc Convcntion is
thc lilc ol thc authoi plus ,o ycais loi all woiks cxccpt photogiaphs and cincma.
Thc Bcinc Convcntion also icquiics its mcmbcis to iccognizc and cnloicc a limitcd
subsct ol thc moial iights" discusscd in Modulc .
Thc Bcinc Convcntion scts loith a liamcwoik loi mcmbci countiics to adopt
cxccptions to thc mandatcd copyiight piotcctions. Thc so-callcd thicc-stcp tcst"
containcd in Aiticlc j(z) (discusscd in moic dctail bclow) dclncs thc liccdom ol
mcmbci countiics to cicatc cxccptions oi limitations to authois' iights to contiol
icpioductions ol thcii woiks. Othci piovisions ol thc Bcinc Convcntion givc
mcmbci countiics disciction to cicatc moic spccilc cxccptions.
Whcn thc Bcinc Convcntion was icviscd most icccntly in Paiis in j;, thc signa-
toiy countiics addcd an Appcndix, which contains spccial piovisions conccining
dcvcloping countiics. In paiticulai, dcvcloping countiics may, loi ccitain woiks
and undci ccitain conditions, dcpait liom thc minimum standaids ol piotcction
with icgaid to thc iight ol tianslation and thc iight ol icpioduction ol copyiightcd
woiks. Moic spccilcally, thc Appcndix pcimits dcvcloping countiics to giant
non-cxclusivc and non-tianslciablc compulsoiy liccnscs to tianslatc woiks loi thc
puiposc ol tcaching, scholaiship, oi icscaich, and to icpioducc woiks loi usc in
conncction with systcmatic instiuctional activitics.
Whilc thc Bcinc Convcntion outlincs bioad standaids loi copyiight piotcction,
it mandatcs lcw spccilc iulcs. As a icsult, thc lcgislatuic in cach mcmbci countiy
cnjoys considciablc cxibility in implcmcnting its icquiicmcnts. Foi cxamplc, in
thc Bcinc Convcntion Implcmcntation Act ol j88, thc US Congicss adoptcd a
minimalist" appioach to implcmcntation, making only thosc changcs to copyiight
law that wcic absolutcly ncccssaiy to qualily loi mcmbciship.
Thc Bcinc Convcntion docs not contain an cnloiccmcnt mcchanism. This
mcans that mcmbci statcs havc littlc powci to punish anothci statc that docs
not comply with thc Bcinc Convcntion's guidclincs. As wc will scc latci, this
situation paitially changcd loi thc mcmbcis ol thc Bcinc Convcntion that also
joincd thc WTO.
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To lcain moic about thc Convcntion you can icad its tcxt oi consult a biicl
discussion ol thc histoiy ol thc Bcinc Convcntion.
UNlVRSAL C0PYRl0H7 C0NVN7l0N
Thc UniversaI Copyright Convention (oi UCC) was dcvclopcd by UNSC0 and
adoptcd in j,z. It was cicatcd as an altcinativc to thc Bcinc Convcntion. Thc
UCC addicsscd thc dcsiic ol scvcial countiics (including thc Unitcd Statcs and
thc Sovict Union) to cnjoy somc multilatcial copyiight piotcction without joining
thc Bcinc Convcntion.
Thc UCC's piovisions aic moic cxiblc than thosc ol thc Bcinc Convcntion. This
incicascd cxibility was intcndcd to accommodatc countiics at difcicnt stagcs
ol dcvclopmcnt and countiics with difcicnt cconomic and social systcms. Likc
thc Bcinc Convcntion, thc UCC incoipoiatcs thc piinciplc ol national ticatmcnt
and piohibits any disciimination against loicign authois, but it contains lcwci
icquiicmcnts with which mcmbci countiics must comply.
Thc UCC has dccicascd in impoitancc as most countiics aic now paity to thc
Bcinc Convcntion oi aic mcmbcis ol thc WTO (oi both). Thc copyiight obligations
ol mcmbcis ol thc WTO aic govcincd by thc Agiccmcnt on Tiadc-Rclatcd Aspccts
ol Intcllcctual Piopcity Rights (TRIPS), discusscd bclow.
Chcck il youi countiy is a mcmbci ol thc UCC using thc icsouiccs at thc cnd ol
thc modulc. Foi moic inloimation about thc UCC you can icad its tcxt oi consult
thc Examination ol thc UCC.
R0M C0NVN7l0N l1961)
By j6, tcchnology had piogicsscd signilcantly sincc thc Bcinc Convcntion
was signcd. Somc invcntions, such as tapc iccoidcis, had madc it casici to copy
iccoidcd woiks. Thc Bcinc Convcntion only applicd to piintcd woiks and thus did
not hclp copyiight holdcis dclcnd against thc ncw tcchnologics. To addicss thc
pciccivcd nccd loi stiong lcgislativc piotcction loi iccoidcd woiks, mcmbcis ol
WIPO concludcd thc Romc Convcntion loi thc Piotcction ol Pciloimcis, Pioduccis
ol Phonogiams and Bioadcasting Oiganizations on Octobci z6, j6. It cxtcndcd
copyiight piotcction liom thc authoi ol a woik to thc cicatois and pioduccis ol
paiticulai, physical cmbodimcnts ol thc woik. Thcsc lxations" includc mcdia
such as audiocasscttcs, CDs, and DVDs.
Thc Romc Convcntion icquiics mcmbci countiics to giant piotcction to thc
woiks ol pciloimcis, pioduccis ol phonogiaphs, and bioadcasting oiganizations.
Howcvci, it also pcimits mcmbci countiics to cicatc cxccptions to that piotcction
- loi cxamplc, to pcimit unauthoiizcd uscs ol a iccoiding loi thc puiposc ol
tcaching oi scicntilc icscaich.
Eighty-cight countiics havc signcd thc Romc Convcntion. Following is a map
ol thc mcmbci statcs.
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Mcmbciship in thc Romc Convcntion is opcn only to countiics that aic alicady
paitics to thc Bcinc Convcntion oi to thc Univcisal Copyiight Convcntion. Likc
many intcinational ticatics, joining thc Romc Convcntion has an unccitain cfcct
on domcstic law. Countiics that join thc convcntion may icscivc" thcii iights with
icgaids to ccitain piovisions ol thc ticaty. In piacticc, this has cnablcd countiics
to avoid thc application ol iulcs that would icquiic impoitant changcs to thcii
national laws.
Foi moic inloimation on thc Romc Convcntion you may icad its tcxt oi icad
moic about thc Romc Convcntion piovisions.
WlP0 C0PYRl0H7 7RA7Y lWC7)
Thc way that copyiight owncis icpioducc, distiibutc, and maikct thcii woiks has
changcd in thc digital agc. Sound iccoidings, aiticlcs, photogiaphs, and books aic
commonly stoicd in clcctionic loimats, ciiculatcd via thc Intcinct, and compilcd
in databascs. Unloitunatcly, thc samc tcchnologics that cnablc moic cmcicnt
stoiagc and distiibution havc also lacilitatcd widcspicad copying ol copyiightcd
woiks. Conccincd about thc cfccts ol thcsc ncw tcchnologics, thc govcinmcnts ol
dcvclopcd countiics advocatcd loi and ultimatcly sccuicd two ticatics: thc WIPO
Copyiight Ticaty and thc WIPO Pciloimancc and Phonogiams Ticaty.
Thc WIPO Copyiight Ticaty (WCT) is a spccial agiccmcnt undci thc Bcinc
Convcntion that cntcicd into loicc on Maich 6, zooz. It is thc list intcinational
ticaty that icquiics countiics to piovidc copyiight piotcction to computci piogiams
and to databascs (compilations ol data oi othci matciial).
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Thc WCT also icquiics mcmbcis to piohibit thc ciicumvcntion ol tcchnologics
sct by iights-holdcis to picvcnt thc copying and distiibution ol thcii woiks. Thcsc
tcchnologics includc cnciyption oi iights managcmcnt inloimation" (data that
idcntily woiks oi thcii authois and that aic ncccssaiy loi thc managcmcnt ol thcii
iights).
Eighty-cight countiics aic now paitics to thc WCT. Foi moic about thc WCT
icad its tcxt oi icad thc Examination ol thc WCT.
WlP0 PRF0RMANCS AN0 PH0N00RAMS 7RA7Y lWPP7)
Thc WIPO Pciloimanccs and Phonogiams Ticaty (WPPT) was signcd by thc
mcmbci statcs ol WIPO on Dcccmbci zo, jj6. Thc WPPT cnhanccs thc intcl-
lcctual piopcity iights ol pciloimcis and ol pioduccis ol phonogiams. Phonogiams
includc vinyl iccoids, tapcs, compact discs, digital audiotapcs, MP,s, and othci
mcdia loi stoiing sound iccoidings.
Thc WPPT giants pciloimcis cconomic iights in thcii pciloimanccs that
havc bccn lxcd in phonogiams. It also giants pciloimcis moial iights ovci thcsc
pciloimanccs. By contiast, thc pioduccis ol phonogiams aic only giantcd cconomic
iights in thcm.
Eighty-six countiics aic paity to thc WPPT. Foi moic about thc WPPT icad its
tcxt oi consult thc Examination ol thc WPPT.
7H A0RMN7 0N 7RA0RLA70 ASPC7S 0F
lN7LLC7UAL PR0PR7Y Rl0H7S l7RlPS)
Thc TRIPS is an intcinational agiccmcnt administcicd by thc WTO that was
ncgotiatcd and concludcd in jj. TRIPS cstablishcs minimum standaids loi
many loims ol intcllcctual piopcity piotcction in mcmbci countiics ol thc WTO,
including copyiight.
Thc substantivc piovisions ol TRIPS do not difci diastically liom thc Bcinc
Convcntion. Thc majoi difcicncc is that TRIPS icquiics mcmbci countiics to
giant copyiight piotcction to computci piogiams and data compilations. Howcvci,
TRIPS docs not icquiic thc piotcction ol authois' moial iights, which thc Bcinc
Convcntion icquiics.
Thc most impoitant innovations ol TRIPS aic thc icmcdics it icquiics. Unlikc
thc Bcinc Convcntion, TRIPS icquiics mcmbci countiics to piovidc cfcctivc
sanctions loi violations ol copyiights. In addition, it cicatcs a disputc icsolution
mcchanism by which WTO mcmbci countiics can loicc othci mcmbcis to comply
with thcii ticaty obligations. It is somctimcs said that, unlikc thc Bcinc Convcntion,
TRIPS has tccth."
TRIPS allows loi somc cxibility in its implcmcntation. This cxibility is
intcndcd to pcimit dcvcloping nations to balancc thc incoipoiation ol thc gcncial
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piinciplcs ol TRIPS with dcvclopmcnt conccins. You can study additional inloima-
tion conccining thc cxibilitics ol TRIPS loi dcvcloping nations.
Foi moic about thc TRIPS Agiccmcnt icad thc tcxt.
7H PR0P0S0 AN7lC0UN7RFl7lN0 7RA0 A0RMN7 lAC7A)
Thc six multilatcial ticatics dcsciibcd abovc havc bccn joincd by a scvcnth. In
Octobci zoo;, thc Unitcd Statcs, thc Euiopcan Community, Switzciland, and
}apan simultancously announccd that thcy would ncgotiatc a ncw intcllcctual
piopcity cnloiccmcnt ticaty, thc Anti-Countcilciting Tiadc Agiccmcnt (ACTA).
Austialia, Canada, thc Rcpublic ol Koica, Ncw Zcaland, Mcxico, Moiocco and
Singapoic thcn joincd thc ncgotiations. In Octobci zo, cight ol thc ncgotiating
paitncis signcd thc agiccmcnt.
Among othci issucs, ACTA contains piovisions iclating to civil and ciiminal
cnloiccmcnt and boidci mcasuics.
R0l0NAL A0RMN7S
Thc multilatcial agiccmcnts wc havc just dcsciibcd contain thc piimaiy piovi-
sions that limit thc liccdom ol cach countiy in shaping its own copyiight laws.
But somc countiics also bclong to icgional oiganizations that havc thc powci to
inucncc thc copyiight laws ol thcii mcmbcis.
Thc most impoitant such icgional oiganization is thc Luropean Unlon, commonly
known as thc LU. Bcginning in jj, thc EU has adoptcd scvcial diicctivcs iclating
to copyiight law. (A diicctivc obligcs thc mcmbci countiics to biing thcii laws into
conloimity with its icquiicmcnts by a paiticulai datc, but lcavcs to cach countiy's
disciction somc cxibility in achicving that goal.) Foi cxamplc, thc Soltwaic
Diicctivc icquiicd mcmbci countiics to giant copyiight piotcction to thc authois
ol soltwaic piogiams, icgaidlcss ol how cicativc thosc piogiams aic. Thc Rcntal
Rights Diicctivc icquiicd mcmbci countiics to iccognizc a iight to authoiizc oi
piohibit thc icntal and lcnding ol oiiginals and copics ol copyiight woiks." (Thc
backgiound ol this innovation and its signilcancc loi libiaiians aic discusscd in
Modulc .) Thc Copyiight Duiation Diicctivc icquiicd mcmbci countiics to cxtcnd
copyiight piotcction to thc lilc ol thc authoi plus ;o ycais (zo ycais moic than thc
tcim icquiicd by thc Bcinc Convcntion). Thc contiovcisial Inloimation Socicty
Diicctivc (also somctimcs known as thc Copyiight Diicctivc) was adoptcd in zoo
to implcmcnt thc WCT, discusscd abovc. (Thc main piovisions ol thc Inloimation
Socicty Diicctivc will bc discusscd in subscqucnt modulcs.) And thc Rcsalc Rights
Diicctivc obligcs mcmbci countiics to giant thc cicatois ol oiiginal woiks ol ait
a iight to icmunciation whcn thosc woiks aic icsold.
Equally impoitant loi many Aliican countiics is thc icviscd Bangui Agiccmcnt
(cxccutcd in jjj, cfcctivc in zooz), which govcins thc mcmbci countiics ol
thc Afrlcan |ntellectual Property Organlzatlon (OAP|) (8enln, 8urklna Paso,
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Cameroon, Central Afrlca, Congo, Cte d'|volre, Lquatorlal Gulnea, Gabon,
Gulnea, Gulnea-8lssau, Mall, Maurltanla, Nlger, Senegal, Chad, and Togo).
Aiticlcs 8 and o ol Anncx VII ol thc Agiccmcnt sct loith an cspccially gcncious
list ol moial iights (icccting its oiigins in Ficnch copyiight law), whilc Aiticlc j
scts loith a similaily gcncious list ol cconomic iights, including thc icntal iight.
Aiticlcs thiough z thcn caivc out ol thosc iights a long list ol cxccptions and
limitations (to which wc will ictuin in Modulcs and ,).
Thc North Amerlcan Pree Trade Agreement (NAPTA), which was cntcicd into
by Canada, the Unlted States, and Mexlco in jj, limits thc disciction ol thosc
thicc countiics in dclning thcii intcllcctual-piopcity laws. Howcvci, with icspcct
to copyiight laws in paiticulai, NAFTA closcly paiallcls thc TRIPS Agiccmcnt,
discusscd abovc, and thus has iclativcly littlc indcpcndcnt signilcancc.
Othci icgional oiganizations that could inucncc thcii mcmbci countiics'
copyiight systcms - but that havc not yct, loi thc most pait, donc so - includc
The Andean Communlty (8ollvla, Colombla, Lcuador, and Peru), Mercosur
(Argentlna, 8razll, Paraguay, Uruguay, and (pcihaps soon) venezuela), and thc
Afrlcan Peglonal |ntellectual Property Organlzatlon (AP|PO) (8otswana, the
Gambla, Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawl, Mozamblque, Namlbla, Slerra Leone,
Somalla, Sudan, Swazlland, Tanzanla, Uganda, Zambla, and Zlmbabwe).
FR 7RA0 A0RMN7S
AN0 lLA7RAL lNVS7MN7 7RA7lS
Multilatcial ticatics such as TRIPS can piovidc powcilul global piotcction loi
copyiight holdcis bccausc thcy cstablish minimum standaids loi piotcction ol
copyiights that aic binding on laigc numbcis ol countiics. Howcvci, copyiight
holdcis somctimcs tiy to obtain cvcn stiongci piotcctions thiough bilatcial ticatics
bctwccn countiics oi oiganizations ol countiics. Bilatcial ticatics on copyiight
law oltcn addicss spccilc issucs bctwccn thc two paitics. Such agiccmcnts aic
commonly known as free trade agreements (FTAs) oi bilatcial invcstmcnt ticatics
(BITs).
Typically, such bilatcial agiccmcnts cithci naiiow thc cxibilitics that a dcvclop-
ing countiy would cnjoy undci TRIPS oi imposc moic stiingcnt standaids loi copy-
iight piotcction. Foi cxamplc, thc US govcinmcnt has includcd anti-ciicumvcntion
obligations in its bilatcial FTAs with }oidan, Singapoic, Chilc, Moiocco, Bahiain,
and Oman. Similaily, thc Euiopcan Union has icccntly ncgotiatcd FTAs with
dcvcloping countiics that signilcantly limit thc disciction ol thosc countiics in
adjusting thcii copyiight laws.
FTAs and BITs aic highly contiovcisial. Many scholais and icpicscntativcs ol
dcvcloping countiics icgaid thcm as abuscs ol thc powci ol dcvclopcd countiics.
Opponcnts ol pioposcd FTAs oi BITs havc somctimcs bccn ablc to picvcnt thcii
adoption oi modily thcm.
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Most ol thc majoi multilatcial, icgional, and bilatcial agiccmcnts usc a tool that
has comc to bc known as thc thicc-stcp tcst" to dclnc thc liccdom ol mcmbci
countiics to cicatc cxccptions and limitations" to copyiights. Thc thicc-stcp tcst
was list cicatcd in thc j6; icvision ol thc Bcinc Convcntion. It piovidcs:
It shall bc a mattci loi lcgislation in thc countiics ol thc Union to pcimit thc
icpioduction ol such woiks [a in ccitain spccial cascs, piovidcd that [b such
icpioduction docs not conict with a noimal cxploitation ol thc woik and [c
docs not unicasonably picjudicc thc lcgitimatc intcicsts ol thc authoi."
Most intcinational copyiight agiccmcnts sincc thcn havc incoipoiatcd vcisions
ol this tcst. Foi cxamplc, vcisions ol thc tcst may bc lound in thc TRIPS Agicc-
mcnt (Aiticlc ,), thc WCT (Aiticlc o), scvcial ol thc EU copyiight diicctivcs,
and scvcial bilatcial agiccmcnts. Indccd, thicc-stcp tcsts may now bc lound in
thc national lcgislation ol many countiics, including Fiancc, Poitugal, China,
and Austialia. Evcn whcn national lcgislation docs not cxplicitly incoipoiatc thc
tcst, judgcs somctimcs icly upon it whcn constiuing and applying thcii nation's
copyiight laws.
Thc covciagc ol thc difcicnt vcisions ol thc tcst vaiics somcwhat. Foi cxamplc,
whcicas thc Bcinc Convcntion thicc-stcp tcst only applics to cxccptions and
limitations to thc iight ol icpioduction, thc thicc-stcp tcst containcd in Aiticlc , ol
thc TRIPS Agiccmcnt applics to cxccptions and limitations to any ol thc cxclusivc
iights" associatcd with copyiight. In addition, thc languagc uscd in thc difcicnt
vcisions vaiics. Foi cxamplc, whcicas thc thiid stcp ol thc Bcinc Convcntion tcst
(quotcd abovc) icquiics that an cxccption oi limitation not unicasonably picjudicc
thc lcgitimatc intcicsts ol thc authoi," thc thiid stcp ol thc TRIPS tcst icquiics that
an cxccption oi limitation not unicasonably picjudicc thc lcgitimatc intcicsts ol
thc iight holdci" - a changc that shilts attcntion away liom thc intcicsts ol cicatois
towaid thc cconomic intcicsts ol thc companics that acquiic copyiights liom thc
oiiginal cicatois.
Givcn thc picvalcncc ol thc thicc-stcp tcst and thc long pciiod ol timc in which
it has cxistcd, you might cxpcct that thc mcaning ol thc tcst would by now bc clcai.
But this is not so. Thc vcision ol thc tcst containcd in thc Bcinc Convcntion has
ncvci bccn intcipictcd omcially. Thc vcision containcd in Aiticlc , ol thc TRIPS
Agiccmcnt has only bccn omcially intcipictcd oncc by a disputc icsolution pancl,
and how lai that intcipictation should contiol othci countiics in thc lutuic is not
clcai. Moicovci, thc couits in difcicnt Euiopcan countiics havc constiucd thc tcst
in inconsistcnt ways in lunctionally idcntical cascs.
Givcn this unccitainty, commcntatois and lobbyists disagicc shaiply about
how icstiictivc thc thicc-stcp tcst ically is. At onc cxticmc, somc claim that thc
laii usc doctiinc in thc Unitcd Statcs (which wc will discuss in Modulc ) violatcs
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thc tcst - and thus that thc Unitcd Statcs should icpcal thc laii usc doctiinc and
that dcvcloping countiics may not adopt similai doctiincs. As William Patiy has
dcmonstiatcd, this intcipictation is implausiblc - as shown most clcaily by thc
lailuic ol any ol thc countiics involvcd in thc ncgotiation ol thc TRIPS Agiccmcnt
oi thc acccssion by thc Unitcd Statcs to thc Bcinc Convcntion to objcct to thc laii
usc doctiinc in thc Unitcd Statcs.
At thc oppositc cxticmc, a gioup ol piomincnt and inucntial copyiight scholais
havc icccntly pioposcd A Balanccd Intcipictation ol thc Thicc-Stcp Tcst in
Copyiight Law." Thcy aiguc that an cxccption oi limitation that lails to satisly onc
ol thc thicc stcps should not ncccssaiily bc dccmcd to violatc thc tcst. Rathci, all
thicc componcnts ol thc tcst should bc considcicd togcthci in a compichcnsivc
ovciall asscssmcnt" that takcs into account thc thicats that cxccssivc lcvcls ol
copyiight piotcction posc to human iights and lundamcntal liccdoms," intcicsts
in compctition," and othci public intcicsts, notably in scicntilc piogicss and
cultuial, social, oi cconomic dcvclopmcnt" - in addition to thc impoitant intcicsts
ol copyiight holdcis in laii compcnsation. This pioposal has two sticngths. Fiist,
it lts wcll thc undcilying puiposc ol thc copyiight systcm as a wholc, which, as wc
havc sccn, sccks to balancc thc intcicsts ol cicatois with thc intcicsts ol socicty
at laigc in maximizing acccss to idcas and inloimation. Sccond, it dciivcs suppoit
liom thc iclcicncc in all vcisions ol thc tcst to thc lcgitimatc" intcicsts ol cithci
authois oi iight holdcis. It docs, howcvci, havc onc wcakncss: viitually all couits
and tiibunals that havc considcicd thc tcst to datc havc concludcd that all thicc
ol its stcps" must bc satislcd.
Anothci intcipictation that docs not sufci liom this wcakncss but picscivcs
thc sticngths ol thc pioposcd Balanccd Intcipictation" has bccn ofcicd icccntly
by Piolcssois Hugcnholtz and Okcdiji:
Limitations and cxccptions that () aic not ovcily bioad, (z) do not iob iight
holdcis ol a ical oi potcntial souicc ol incomc that is substantivc, and (,) do
not do dispiopoitional haim to thc iight holdcis, will pass thc tcst.
This pioposal is gioundcd in a long and dctailcd discussion ol thc cvolution ol
thc thicc-stcp tcst and dcscivcs caiclul considciation.
An impoitant gcncial lcsson may bc dciivcd liom this situation: Thc mcaning
ol copyiight laws ol all soits - including intcinational copyiight agiccmcnts
- is oltcn lcss clcai than list appcais. Many iulcs havc not yct bccn intcipictcd
authoiitativcly. This cicatcs oppoitunitics loi libiaiians oi othci icpicscntativcs
ol dcvcloping countiics to aiguc loi and act upon intcipictations that givc thcm
moic liccdom whcn shaping thcii own laws. In subscqucnt modulcs, wc will comc
acioss scvcial such oppoitunitics.
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Perspectlves for developlng countrles
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Somc obscivcis bclicvc that govcinmcnts should upgiadc and haimonizc copyiight
law globally bccausc it piomotcs thc aits and icwaids cicatois. Thcy aiguc that
gianting an cxclusivc iight in cicativc cxpicssion piovidcs a ncccssaiy inccntivc
loi copyiight holdcis to invcst in thc cication and distiibution ol cxpicssivc
woiks. This stimulatcs cultuial cxpicssion and bcnclts citizcns. Suppicssion
ol compctition liom piiatcs," thcy aiguc, is ncccssaiy to allow local cicativc
industiics to ouiish.
Howcvci, othcis aiguc that implcmcnting thc samc copyiight law in all countiics
has a dispiopoitionatc and ncgativc cfcct on dcvcloping countiics. Most dcvclopcd
nations havc powcilul and luciativc cntcitainmcnt, cducational, and icscaich
industiics that cxpoit copyiightcd woiks, and thus bcnclt liom stiong copyiight
law. Dcvcloping countiics, on thc othci hand, typically impoit copyiightcd woiks.
Thus, it is aigucd, thc icsidcnts ol dcvcloping countiics havc to pay moic ioyaltics
and lccs as a icsult ol cnhanccd copyiight piotcction. It is also aigucd that icstiic-
tivc copyiight laws picvcnt many govcinmcnts liom addicssing impoitant social
nccds - such as pioviding thcii citizcns with a good cducation - bccausc ciitical
inloimation is lockcd up by thc law.
Thc lattci sct ol aigumcnts havc piomptcd a giowing numbci ol gioups in dcvcl-
oping countiics to icsist thc imposition ol thc minimum standaids ol copyiight
piotcction sct by thc TRIPS Agiccmcnt and thc cvcn haishci dutics that aic imposcd
on dcvcloping countiics by FTAs. Thcy call loi a bcttci balancc bctwccn, on thc onc
hand, pioviding inccntivcs to cicatois and icwaiding thcii cicativc activitics and,
on thc othci hand, piomoting acccss to knowlcdgc and icscaich in oidci to spui
cconomic giowth and lostci innovation in thc dcvcloping countiics.
WlP0 0VL0PMN7 A0N0A
Thc WTO has cntcicd into an agiccmcnt with WIP0 to piovidc advicc to dcvcloping
countiics on thc implcmcntation ol TRIPS. Somc in dcvcloping countiics considci
thc advicc piovidcd by WIPO to bc too wcightcd in lavoi ol thc intcicsts ol
copyiight holdcis. In zoo, Biazil and Aigcntina submittcd to thc WIPO Gcncial
Asscmbly a pioposal loi a dcvclopmcnt agcnda." Thc pioposal callcd on WIPO
to pay gicatci attcntion to thc impact ol intcllcctual piopcity piotcction on
cconomic and social dcvclopmcnt, thc nccd to salcguaid cxibilitics dcsigncd
to piotcct thc public intcicst, and thc impoitancc ol piomoting dcvclopmcnt
oiicntcd" tcchnical coopciation and assistancc. Additional pioposals in suppoit
ol thc WIPO Dcvclopmcnt Agcnda wcic submittcd by othci mcmbci countiics
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and oiganizations, such as Chilc, thc Gioup ol Fiicnds ol Dcvclopmcnt, and thc
Aliica Gioup.
This initiativc has madc considciablc piogicss. Thc zoo WIPO Gcncial
Asscmbly agiccd to hold a sciics ol intcigovcinmcntal mcctings to cxaminc thc
pioposals loi a dcvclopmcnt agcnda. Substantivc icloim pioposals to cstablish a
dcvclopmcnt agcnda loi WIPO passcd duiing thc zoo; WIPO Gcncial Asscmbly.
Thc cuiicnt WIPO Dcvclopmcnt Agcnda contains , iccommcndations loi thc
Gcncial Asscmbly to puisuc.
Oiganizations icpicscnting libiaiians havc had a signilcant voicc in thc ncgotia-
tions ol thc WIPO Dcvclopmcnt Agcnda, and joint statcmcnts ol thc Intcinational
Fcdciation ol Libiaiy Associations (IFLA), thc Libiaiy Copyiight Alliancc (LCA),
and Elcctionic Inloimation loi Libiaiics (EIFL) havc bccn issucd.
7H PR0P0S0 ACCSS 70 KN0WL00 lA2K) 7RA7Y
Thc Aigcntina-Biazil pioposal loi a dcvclopmcnt agcnda piomptcd a dcbatc on
whcthci WIPO should woik to cnsuic cfcctivc tcchnology tianslci liom dcvclopcd
to dcvcloping countiics. Nongovcinmcntal oiganizations (NGOs), acadcmics, and
icscaichcis shaicd thc conccins cxpicsscd by dcvcloping countiics that aspccts ol
thc copyiight systcm wcic impcding innovation and cicating disadvantagcs loi
dcvcloping countiics. This icaction to WIPO's cuiicnt policics took thc loim ol
a movcmcnt calling loi cquality among citizcns liom dcvclopcd and dcvcloping
countiics as icgaids acccss to knowlcdgc, it has comc to bc known as thc acccss
to knowlcdgc" oi AzK" movcmcnt. Libiaiians' oiganizations, such as EIFL, wcic
pionccis in thc advocacy ol a iight to knowlcdgc" and havc callcd upon WIPO
to cstablish minimum cxccptions and limitations to copyiight piotcction.
Onc outgiowth ol thc movcmcnt has bccn a pioposal loi a Unitcd Nations
ticaty. Thc pioposcd ticaty intcnds to piotcct and cnhancc acccss to knowlcdgc,
and to lacilitatc thc tianslci ol tcchnology to dcvcloping countiics." It includcs a
list ol ciicumstanccs undci which copyiight holdcis may not picvcnt thc licc usc
ol thcii contcnt, including:
- Thc usc ol woiks loi puiposcs ol libiaiy oi aichival picscivation, oi to migiatc
contcnt to a ncw loimat.
- Thc cfoits ol libiaiics, aichivists, oi cducational institutions to makc copics
ol woiks that aic not cuiicntly thc subjcct ol commcicial cxploitation, loi
puiposcs ol picscivation, cducation, oi icscaich.
- Thc usc ol cxccipts, sclcctions, and quotations liom copyiightcd woiks loi
puiposcs ol cxplanation and illustiation in conncction with not-loi-piolt
tcaching and scholaiship.
- Thc usc ol copyiightcd woiks by cducational institutions as piimaiy instiuc-
tional matciials il thosc matciials aic not madc icadily availablc by copyiight
holdcis at icasonablc piiccs.
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In addition, thc pioposcd ticaty would cstablish a rst saIe doctrine loi libiaiy
usc, stating that a woik that has bccn lawlully acquiicd by a libiaiy may bc lcnt to
othcis without luithci tiansaction lccs to bc paid by thc libiaiy." Finally, thc AzK
ticaty pioposal intioduccs piovisions in suppoit ol distancc cducation, as wcll as
piovisions accommodating thc iights ol pcisons with disabilitics.
Libiaiians and libiaiy pations aicn't thc only paitics who could bcnclt liom
thc AzK ticaty. Thc pioposal includcs iulcs piotccting Intcinct scivicc piovidcis
liom copyiight liability and mitigatcs thc stiict piohibitions on ciicumvcntion
ol cnciyption containcd in scvcial intcinational copyiight ticatics. Undci thc
pioposcd ticaty, nonoiiginal and orphan works (thosc woiks loi which a copyiight
holdci cannot bc idcntilcd upon icasonablc scaich) would bc lclt in thc pubIic
domain. Thc ticaty would also guaiantcc acccss to publicly lundcd icscaich woiks,
govcinmcnt woiks, and aichivcs ol public bioadcasting. Finally, thc AzK ticaty
pioposal also includcs piovisions on patcnt piotcction, anticompctitivc piacticcs,
and tianslci ol tcchnology to dcvcloping countiics.
To advlse Angela, Nadla should revlew the llsts of the member countrles of all of the
lnternatlonal agreements dlscussed ln thls lesson to ascertaln whether thelr country
has [olned any of those agreements. She should then revlew the terms of any
appllcable agreements to determlne whether they prevent expanslon of the rlghts of
teachers and students to use copyrlghted materlals wlthout permlsslon. That lnqulry
wlll llkely requlre Nadla to conslder whlch of the varlous lnterpretatlons of the
three-step test ls most senslble and the extent to whlch that test llmlts a country's
dlscretlon ln recognlzlng exceptlons and llmltatlons for educatlonal purposes. That
analysls wlll be dlmcult and may requlre Nadla to consult wlth fellow llbrarlans.
A thoiough discussion ol intcinational copyiight law may bc lound in Paul Edwaid Gcllci,
cd., Internationa| Cop,riqnt Iawand Iractice (z volumcs, MatthcwBcndci, j88-j8), although
its covciagc ol dcvcloping and tiansitional countiics is thin. (It is also piohibitivcly cxpcn-
sivc.) Othci usclul papci ticatiscs includc Paul Goldstcin, Internationa| Cop,riqnt. Irincip|es,
Iaw, and Iractice (Oxloid Univcisity Picss, zoo) and Silkc von Lcwinski, Internationa|
Cop,riqnt Iaw and Io|ic, (Oxloid Univcisity Picss, zoo8).
An onlinc couisc on Intcinational Copyiight Law, diicctcd at libiaiians, is availablc liom
thc SLA, but it is also cxpcnsivc.
An cxccllcnt onlinc compcndium ol thc copyiight laws in ovci oo countiics has bccn
asscmblcd by UNESCO: Co||ection oj âtiona| Cop,riqnt Iaws.
As indicatcd abovc, an cspccially impoitant componcnt ol most intcinational copyiight
agiccmcnts is thc thicc-stcp tcst. Thc most compichcnsivc and acccssiblc cxamination ol
thc histoiy and mcaning ol that tcst may bc lound in P. Bcint Hugcnholtz and Ruth L.
Okcdiji, Conceivinq an Internationa| Instrument on Iimitations and Lxceptions to Cop,riqnt.
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Iina| Report, Maich 6, zoo8. Othci good analyscs ol thc thicc-stcp tcst availablc in piint but
not onlinc includc Maitin Scnltlcbcn, Cop,riqnt, Iimitations and tne Tnree-Step Test (Kluwci
Law, zoo), and }anc C. Ginsbuig, Towaid Supianational Copyiight Law? Thc WTO Pancl
Dccision and thc Thicc Stcp Tcst" loi Copyiight Excmptions," 8; Revue internationa|e du
droit dauteur ,, j (zoo).
A thoiough icvicw ol thc piincipal cxccptions and limitations to copyiights iccognizcd
by thc main multilatcial agiccmcnts - combincd with an aigumcnt loi thc claiilcation
and cxpansion ol thosc cxccptions and limitations, cmphasizing thc impoitancc ol
acccss to cicativc woiks loi dcvcloping countiics" - may bc lound in Ruth L. Okcdiji, Thc
Intcinational Copyiight Systcm: Limitations, Exccptions and Public Intcicst Considciations
loi Dcvcloping Countiics, Intcinational Ccntic loi Tiadc and Sustainablc Dcvclopmcnt and
Unitcd Nations Conlcicncc on Tiadc and Dcvclopmcnt," Issue Iaper No. , (zoo6). Includcd
in Okcdiji's cssay is an cxccllcnt discussion ol thc Bcinc Convcntion Appcndix.
Foi a WIPO study moic skcptical ol thc valuc ol thosc cxccptions and limitations, scc
WIPO Standing Committcc on Copyiight and Rclatcd Rights, WIPO Study on Limitations
and Exccptions ol Copyiight and Rclatcd Rights in thc Digital Enviionmcnt, jth Scssion,
}unc z,-z;, zoo,, WIPO Doc. SCCR/j/; (Apiil ,, zoo,).
An cxccllcnt study ol thc pioccss ol implcmcnting thc TRIPS Agiccmcnt (including a
dctailcd discussion ol thc complcx pioccsscs that lcd to thc icviscd Bangui Agiccmcnt
among thc OAPI countiics) can bc lound in Caiolyn Dccic, Tne Imp|ementation Game. Tne
TRIIS Aqreement and tne G|oba| Io|itics oj Inte||ectua| Iropert, Rejorm in Deve|opinq Countries
(Oxloid Univcisity Picss zooj). Thc Intioduction, which skctchcs thc aigumcnt ol thc book,
is availablc hcic: http://papcis.ssin.com/sol,/Papcis.clm?abstiact_id=o,zz.
Foi up-to-datc inloimation conccining thc implcmcntation ol thc EU Inloimation
Socicty Diicctivc by individual countiics, including a good bibliogiaphy ol scholaily studics
ol thc implcmcntation pioccss, scc Instituut vooi Inlomaticiccht (IVIR), Report on tne
Imp|ementation oj tne Injormation Societ, Directive (zoo8).
A0RMN7S AN0 C0NVN7l0NS
Bcinc Convcntion: signatoiics www.wipo.int/ticatics/cn/ShowRcsults.jsp?lang =cn8ticaty_
id=,, tcxt www.wipo.int/ticatics/cn/ip/bcinc/titdocs_wooo.html.
UCC: signatoiics http://poital.uncsco.oig/la/convcntion.asp?KO=,z8languagc=E8o
idci=alpha, tcxt http://poital.uncsco.oig/cn/cv.php-URL_ID=,z8URL_DO=DO_
TOPIC8URL_SECTION=zo.html.
Romc Convcntion: signatoiics www.wipo.int/ticatics/cn/ShowRcsults.jsp?lang=cn8
ticaty_id=;, tcxt www.wipo.int/ticatics/cn/ip/iomc/titdocs_wooz.html.
WCT: signatoiics www.wipo.int/ticatics/cn/ShowRcsults.jsp?lang=cn8ticaty_id=6, tcxt
www.wipo.int/ticatics/cn/ip/wct/titdocs_woo,,.html.
WPPT: signatoiics www.wipo.int/ticatics/cn/ShowRcsults.jsp?countiy_id= ALL8stait_
ycai=ANY8cnd_ycai=ANY8scaich_what=C8ticaty_id=zo, tcxt www.wipo.int/ticatics/
cn/ip/wppt/titdocs_woo,.html.
TRIPS Agiccmcnt: www.wto.oig/cnglish/tiatop_c/tiips_c/t_agmo_c.htm.
CASS
Thc lollowing judicial opinion and summaiics ol iulings issucd in WTO disputc icsolution
piocccdings cxploic and apply somc ol thc piinciplcs discusscd in this modulc:
}oincd Cascs C-jz/jz and C-,z6/jz, Ini| Co||ins v. Imtrat Hande|sqese||scnajt mbH, Iatricia
Im-und Lxport Verwa|tunqsqese||scnajt mbH and Anotner v LMI L|ectro|a GmbH (jj,)
(applicability ol thc EEC Ticaty to IP iights).
Saiah E. Hcniy, Thc Fiist Intcinational Challcngc to U.S. Copyiight Law: What Docs thc
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WTO Analysis ol ; U.S.C. j o(,) Mcan to thc Futuic ol Intcinational Haimonization
ol Copyiight Laws Undci thc TRIPS Agiccmcnt?," zo Ienn State Internationa| Iaw Review
,o (zoo). (EU vs. US).
}an Bohancs and Adiian Emch, WTO Pancl Rcpoit on China IPR: A Mixcd Rcsult," Cnina
Iaw 8 Iractice (Maich zooj), pp. j-zo (US vs. China).
ASSl0NMN7
:. whlch lnternatlonal treatles governlng copyrlght law has your country slgned,
ratled, and lmplemented!
z. |f your country ls a member of the 8erne Conventlon, may your natlonal
leglslature set the copyrlght term to elther (a) :zo years or (b) z years! why or
why not!
. |maglne that your country ls a member of the 8erne Conventlon, but not of the
wTO. Thus, your country ls not bound by TP|PS.
- May your natlonal leglslature requlre forelgn copyrlght holders to reglster thelr
works wlth your country ln order to recelve copyrlght protectlon!
- |f your leglslature dld requlre reglstratlon, could other members of the 8erne
Conventlon take actlon agalnst your country! How would your answer be
dlnerent lf your country were also a member of the wTO!
(. Suppose that the ctlonal country of Atlantls has recently slgned and ratled the
wCT. |ts natlonal leglslature wants to lmplement the treaty. Atlantls only lmports
software from other countrles and lt has never before protected them under
copyrlght law. The leglslature belleves that lt ls ln the lnterest of Atlanteans to
extend as llttle copyrlght protectlon to computer programs as posslble. what
provlslons of the wTC would allow Atlanteans to use computer programs freely!
. Do you thlnk that both developed and developlng countrles should have the
same rules for copyrlght protectlon! why or why not!
6. Pead Artlcle -: of the draft text of the AzK treaty. Comment on the lmportance of
one or two provlslons for the mlsslons you perform as a llbrarlan.
0lSCUSSl0N US7l0NS
Please read the comments on the AzK treaty proposals that your colleagues
provlded to questlon 6, above, and comment on one (or more) of them. ou may
glve more examples based on sltuatlons you have faced at work, or pro[ects you
could develop.
Contributors
This modulc was cicatcd by Pctioula Vantsiouii. It was thcn cditcd by a tcam
ncJJ|o ,
7he scope of
copyright Iaw
Learning objective
This modulc discusscs thc kinds ol cications and thc kinds ol activitics that
copyiight law docs and docs not covci.
Case study
Angcla is considciing iccoiding hci lcctuics, dcpositing thc iccoidings in thc
libiaiy, and pcihaps sclling copics ol thc iccoidings to an onlinc publishci. Duiing
somc ol hci lcctuics, Angcla plans to pciloim somc tiaditional lolk music. Shc
asks Nadia loi advicc conccining hci iights and obligations.
Lesson
what does copyrlght law protect!
7H 0FlNl7l0N 0F A Ll7RARY 0R AR7lS7lC W0RK
Copyiight law icgulatcs thc making ol copics ol litciaiy oi aitistic woiks. Aiticlc z,
Scction ol thc Bcinc Convcntion dclncs litciaiy and aitistic woiks as lollows:
Thc cxpicssion litciaiy and aitistic woiks" shall includc cvciy pioduction
in thc litciaiy, scicntilc and aitistic domain, whatcvci may bc thc modc
oi loim ol its cxpicssion, such as books, pamphlcts and othci wiitings,
lcctuics, addicsscs, scimons and othci woiks ol thc samc natuic, diamatic oi
diamatico-musical woiks, choicogiaphic woiks and cntcitainmcnts in dumb
show, musical compositions with oi without woids, cincmatogiaphic woiks
to which aic assimilatcd woiks cxpicsscd by a pioccss analogous to cincma-
togiaphy, woiks ol diawing, painting, aichitcctuic, sculptuic, cngiaving and
lithogiaphy, photogiaphic woiks to which aic assimilatcd woiks cxpicsscd by
a pioccss analogous to photogiaphy, woiks ol applicd ait, illustiations, maps,
plans, skctchcs and thicc-dimcnsional woiks iclativc to gcogiaphy, topogia-
phy, aichitcctuic oi scicncc.
To bc cntitlcd to piotcction, a woik lalling into this bioad catcgoiy must satisly
two basic icquiicmcnts: originaIity and xation.
7H C0NCP7 0F 0Rl0lNALl7Y
Ncithci thc Bcinc Convcntion noi thc TRIPS Agiccmcnt cxpicssly icquiics
oiiginality loi a woik to bc piotcctcd by copyiight. Howcvci, almost all countiics
icquiic somc lcvcl ol oiiginality loi a woik to qualily loi copyiight piotcction.
Unloitunatcly, thcic is no standaid intcinational minimum ol oiiginality. Each
countiy indcpcndcntly scts thc oiiginality standaid that a woik must mcct. In
somc countiics, such as thc Unitcd Statcs and Canada, oiiginality icquiics only
indcpcndcnt conccption" and a baic minimum" ol cicativity. In othci countiics,
such as Fiancc, Spain, and dcvcloping countiics inucnccd by thc civil law tiadition,
oiiginality is dclncd as thc impiint ol thc authoi's pcisonality" on thc woik.
In most countiics, thc woik ol authoiship nccd not bc novcl, ingcnious, oi havc
acsthctic mciit in oidci to satisly thc oiiginality icquiicmcnt. Foi cxamplc, thc US
Supicmc Couit in Ieist Iu|bications v. Rura| Te|epnone Service Co., jj U.S. ,o (jj),
dclncd oiiginality as icquiiing only that thc woik bc indcpcndcntly cicatcd by thc
authoi and that it posscss at lcast somc minimal dcgicc ol cicativity." Accoiding
to thc Couit, thc icquisitc lcvcl ol cicativity is cxticmcly low" and a woik nccd
only posscss somc cicativc spaik no mattci how ciudc, humblc oi obvious it might
bc."
FlXA7l0N
Thc Bcinc Convcntion allows mcmbci countiics to dccidc whcthci cicativc woiks
must bc lxcd" to cnjoy copyiight. Aiticlc z, Scction z ol thc Bcinc Convcntion
statcs:
It shall bc a mattci loi lcgislation in thc countiics ol thc Union to picsciibc
that woiks in gcncial oi any spccilcd catcgoiics ol woiks shall not bc pio-
tcctcd unlcss thcy havc bccn lxcd in somc matciial loim.
Many countiics do not icquiic that a woik bc pioduccd in a paiticulai loim
to obtain copyiight piotcction. Foi instancc, Spain, Fiancc, and Austialia do not
icquiic lxation loi copyiight piotcction. Thc Unitcd Statcs and Canada, on thc
othci hand, icquiic that thc woik bc lxcd in a tangiblc mcdium ol cxpicssion"
to obtain copyiight piotcction. US law icquiics that thc lxation bc stablc and
pcimancnt cnough to bc pciccivcd, icpioduccd oi communicatcd loi a pciiod ol
moic than tiansitoiy duiation." Similaily, Canadian couits considci lxation to
icquiic that thc woik bc cxpicsscd to somc cxtcnt at lcast in somc matciial loim,
capablc ol idcntilcation and having a moic oi lcss pcimancnt cnduiancc."
Thc dclnition ol lxation" in thc Unitcd Statcs cxcludcs puicly cvancsccnt
oi tiansicnt icpioductions such as thosc piojcctcd biicy on a sciccn, shown
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,6 COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
clcctionically on a tclcvision oi othci cathodc iay tubc, oi captuicd momcntaiily
in thc 'mcmoiy' ol a computci." Many couits, including thosc in thc Unitcd
Statcs, havc dccmcd computci piogiams lxcd whcn stoicd on a silicon chip. Thc
audiovisual cfccts ol computci gamcs aic commonly considcicd to bc lxcd bccausc
thcii icpctitivcncss makcs thcm sumcicntly pcimancnt and stablc."
Thc icquiicmcnt ol lxation may bccomc pioblcmatic whcn applicd to livc
pciloimanccs. Foi instancc, US law spccilcs that a woik must bc lxcd by oi
undci thc authoiity ol thc authoi." This law pioduccs somc suipiising icsults. Il
a choicogiaphci hiics somconc to vidcotapc a pciloimancc, thc choicogiaphy ol
that pciloimancc will bc piotcctcd by copyiight. But il copics ol a livc pciloimancc
aic iccoidcd and distiibutcd without thc pcimission ol thc choicogiaphci, thc
choicogiaphy would not icccivc copyiight piotcction bccausc that pciloimancc was
not lxcd undci hci authoiity. Countiics that giant copyiight loi woiks icgaidlcss
ol lxation do not havc similai pioblcms.
Thc Agiccmcnt on Tiadc-Rclatcd Aspccts ol Intcllcctual Piopcity Rights (TRIPS)
icquiics all mcmbcis ol thc Woild Tiadc Oiganization (WTO) to piotcct livc
musical pciloimanccs. This mcans that cvcn countiics with lxation icquiicmcnts
must cnact statutcs to cnsuic thc piotcction ol musical pciloimanccs without
lxation. Thc Unitcd Statcs, loi instancc, cnactcd a spccial piovision piohibiting
thc lxation oi tiansmission ol a livc musical pciloimancc without thc conscnt ol
thc pciloimcis, and piohibiting thc icpioduction ol copics oi phonoiccoids ol an
unauthoiizcd lxation ol a livc musical pciloimancc." Noticc, howcvci, that this
piovision is limitcd to musical" pciloimanccs and docs not apply to othci typcs
ol pciloimancc.
7H XCLUSl0N 0F l0AS FR0M C0PYRl0H7 PR07C7l0N
As discusscd in Modulc , copyiight law docs not piotcct idcas oi lacts. Instcad,
copyiight law only piotccts thc cxpicssion ol thosc idcas oi lacts. Thc US copyiight
statutc is a typical cxamplc. It icads:
In no casc docs copyiight piotcction loi an oiiginal woik ol authoiship cxtcnd
to any idca, pioccduic, pioccss, systcm, mcthod ol opciation, conccpt, piin-
ciplc, oi discovciy, icgaidlcss ol thc loim in which it is dcsciibcd, cxplaincd,
illustiatcd oi cmbodicd in such woik. (; U.S.C. Scction oz(b))
Thc samc piinciplc can bc lound in thc majoi copyiight ticatics. Thc Bcinc
Convcntion, loi cxamplc, statcs that piotcction shall not apply to ncws ol thc day
oi to misccllancous lacts having thc chaiactci ol mcic itcms ol picss inloimation."
Both thc TRIPS Agiccmcnt and thc WIPO Copyiight Ticaty (WCT) statc that,
whilc cxpicssions aic copyiightablc, idcas, pioccduics, mcthods ol opciation oi
mathcmatical conccpts as such" aic not.
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Excluding lacts and idcas liom piotcction hclps to piomotc thc public intcicst in
liccdom ol spccch. Extcnding copyiight piotcction to idcas oi lacts would inhibit
public dcbatc by allowing copyiight holdcis to contiol uscs ol thc conccpts oi
inloimation containcd in thcii woiks. Both political liccdom and thc piogicss ol
knowlcdgc would sufci. In addition, cxcluding lacts and thc lundamcntal building
blocks ol inloimation (such as thc ncws ol thc day") liom piotcction cnsuics that
thc basic pioccsscs ol cultuial pioduction aic not impaiicd.
On occasion an idca and its cxpicssion may bccomc indistinguishablc. Il thcic
is only onc way ol cxpicssing a paiticulai idca, thc idca and thc cxpicssion ol that
idca aic said to merge. Thc mcigci doctiinc in copyiight law was dcvclopcd to dcal
with such cascs, icmoving liom thc scopc ol copyiight piotcction thosc cxpicssions
that constitutc thc only way ol communicating an idca. What about situations in
which an idca can only bc cxpicsscd in a limitcd numbci ol ways? Thc couits in
somc countiics dcal with such situations by gianting limitcd oi thin" copyiight
piotcction to thosc cxpicssions - in othci woids, piohibiting only vcibatim oi
viitually idcntical copying.
0WNlN0 A C0PY VS. 0WNlN0 A C0PYRl0H7
Ownciship ol a physical copy ol a woik is scpaiatc liom copyiight ownciship in
thc woik. }ust bccausc you own a copy ol a book docsn't mcan you aic licc to
copy it.
Oidinaiily, whcn thc cicatoi ol a woik sclls oi tianslcis a copy ol it to anothci
pcison, shc docs not suiicndci hci copyiight unlcss shc cxpicssly agiccs to do so.
So, loi cxamplc, thc wiitci ol a lcttci oi an cmail mcssagc ictains thc copyiight in
thc lcttci cvcn altci hc has scnt it to thc iccipicnt.
Evcn though thc ownci ol a physical copy ol a copyiightcd woik may not bc
cntitlcd to copy it without pcimission, hc oi shc is usually licc to scll oi icnt it
to othci pcoplc. Thc iulc that cicatcs this piivilcgc is known as thc list salc"
doctiinc. As wc will scc, it is subjcct to ccitain cxccptions involving commcicial
icntal ol somc typcs ol matciial.
Foi thc most pait, thc lawlul ownci ol a copy ol a copyiightcd woik is also licc to
dcstioy oi mutilatc it. Howcvci, somc ticatics and national lcgal systcms iccognizc
moial iights" that sct limits on thc liccdom ol thc ownci to act in thcsc ways. Thc
Bcinc Convcntion, loi cxamplc, spccilcs that,
Indcpcndcntly ol thc authoi's cconomic iights, and cvcn altci tianslci ol thc
said iights, thc authoi shall havc thc iight to claim authoiship ol thc woik
and to objcct to any distoition, mutilation oi othci modilcation ol, oi othci
dciogatoiy action in iclation to, thc said woik, which would bc picjudicial to
his honoi oi icputation.
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Rl0H7S 0WNRSHlP RULS:
H0W 70 07RMlN 7H 0Rl0lNAL Rl0H7S H0L0R
Thc Bcinc Convcntion givcs mcmbci countiics bioad cxibility in dctcimining
who is considcicd an authoi (and thcicloic thc oiiginal copyiight holdci) ol a
litciaiy oi aitistic woik. Aiticlc ,() ol thc Convcntion piovidcs:
In oidci that thc authoi ol a litciaiy oi aitistic woik piotcctcd by this Con-
vcntion shall, in thc abscncc ol piool to thc contiaiy, bc icgaidcd as such, and
conscqucntly bc cntitlcd to institutc inliingcmcnt piocccdings in thc coun-
tiics ol thc Union, it shall bc sumcicnt loi his namc to appcai on thc woik in
thc usual mannci. This paiagiaph shall bc applicablc cvcn il this namc is a
pscudonym, whcic thc pscudonym adoptcd by thc authoi lcavcs no doubt as
to his idcntity.
Thc majoiity ol civiI Iaw countiics stipulatc that only pcisons" in thc oidinaiy
scnsc can qualily as authois. Spanish copyiight law, loi cxamplc, spccilcs thc
natuial pcison who cicatcs any litciaiy, aitistic, oi scicntilc woik shall bc consid-
cicd thc authoi thcicol." Similaily, Ficnch copyiight law statcs that authoiship
shall bclong, unlcss piovcd othciwisc, to thc pcison oi pcisons undci whosc namc
thc woik has bccn discloscd." Common-law countiics, by contiast, moic oltcn
pcimit oiganizations - including coipoiations - to qualily as authois."
Thc author is oltcn dclncd as thc pcison who conccivcs ol and givcs cxpicssion
to an idca. Howcvci, in somc cascs, this dctcimination bccomcs moic complicatcd.
It may dcpcnd on who assists in thc pioduction ol thc woik oi who ovcisccs and
diiccts thc aiiangcmcnt ol thc dctails ol thc woik. In such cascs, thc dctcimination
ol authoiship will dcpcnd on thc lacts ol thc spccilc casc.
W0RKS Y MUL7lPL AU7H0RS:
RULS F0R 10lN7 AU7H0RSHlP AN0 C0LLA0RA7l0NS
}oint authoiship cxists whcn two oi moic pcisons cicatc a copyiightcd woik. Thc
copyiight law in most countiics giants cach contiibutoi an undividcd shaic ol
thc copyiight in thc woik. Thc Bcinc Convcntion iccognizcs that joint authoi-
ship cxists but docs not spccily thc icquiicmcnts loi joint authoiship, cicating a
signilcant vaiiancc among nations.
Countiics in contincntal Euiopc typically stipulatc that joint authoiship docs not
icquiic that cach authoi contiibutc thc samc amount to thc woik. Instcad, it only
icquiics that cach authoi's contiibution displays thc minimal amount ol cicativity
oi oiiginality ncccssaiy in thc juiisdiction to mciit copyiight piotcction in its
own iight. Applying this appioach, thc Dutch Supicmc Couit dccision I|uwer v.
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Iamotn, 6j R.I.D.A. zj (jj6), giantcd a stylist co-authoiship status loi cicativcly
icaiianging nccdlcwoiks loi a photogiaph.
In somc countiics, joint authoiship only aiiscs whcn cach authoi's contiibution
cannot bc scpaiatcd and commcicially cxploitcd indcpcndcntly ol thc woik as
a wholc. Foi instancc, }apancsc lcgislation dclncs joint woiks as woiks that aic
cicatcd by two oi moic pcisons in which thc contiibution ol cach pcison cannot
bc scpaiatcly cxploitcd." Il thc woiks can bc scpaiatcd - loi instancc, whcn onc
authoi contiibutcs thc music and anothci thc lyiics loi a song - cach contiibutoi
is typically givcn an indcpcndcnt copyiight in his oi hci contiibution. In othci
countiics, likc thc Unitcd Statcs, it is ncccssaiy that cach ol thc contiibutois intcnds
that thc othcis should bccomc joint authois.
In shoit, thc iulcs on this issuc vaiy substantially by countiy. In all countiics,
howcvci, it is possiblc loi two oi moic pcoplc to shaic a copyiight.
0RlVA7lV W0RKS
Dciivativc woiks consist ol adaptations oi modilcations ol pic-cxisting woiks.
Common cxamplcs includc abiidgmcnts oi motion-pictuic adaptations ol novcls.
Thc Bcinc Convcntion docs not cxplicitly iclci to dciivativc woiks. Instcad, it lists
ccitain uscs ol copyiightcd woiks loi which mcmbci countiics must piovidc copy-
iight piotcction. Spccilcally, thc Bcinc Convcntion Aiticlc z, Scction , statcs:
Tianslations, adaptations, aiiangcmcnts ol music and othci altciations ol a
litciaiy oi aitistic woik shall bc piotcctcd as oiiginal woiks without picjudicc
to thc copyiight ol thc oiiginal woik.
This piovision is incoipoiatcd in thc TRIPS Agiccmcnt.
Although this standaid piotccts spccilc typcs ol dciivativc woiks, it docs not
spccily how difcicnt a dciivativc woik must bc liom thc oiiginal in oidci to mciit
copyiight piotcction. As a icsult, it is oltcn unclcai how much oiiginality is icquiicd
to obtain a ncw copyiight. Supposc, loi cxamplc, a sculptoi cicatcs a scalc modcl
ol Rodin's lamous sculptuic Tne Tninker - which, bccausc ol its agc, has lallcn into
thc public domain. How much difcicnt liom thc oiiginal sculptuic must thc scalc
modcl bc in oidci to sccuic copyiight piotcction? Couits stiugglc with this issuc
- and havc pioduccd inconsistcnt dccisions.
What il thc oiiginal woik uscd to makc thc dciivativc woik has not lallcn
into thc public domain, and thc makci ol thc dciivativc woiks lails to gct a
liccnsc liom thc holdci ol thc copyiight in thc oiiginal? In somc countiics, likc
thc Unitcd Statcs, thc unauthoiizcd dciivativc woik docs not gct any copyiight
piotcction. In othci countiics, likc thc Ncthcilands and Fiancc, thc unauthoiizcd
dciivativc woik is piotcctcd. This docs not mcan that thc cicatoi ol thc dciivativc
woik is licc to makc and scll copics ol his cication. Rathci, it mcans that othci
pcoplc (including thc ownci ol thc copyiight in thc oiiginal woik) must obtain
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thc pcimission ol thc cicatoi ol thc dciivativc woik bcloic making oi distiibuting
copics ol thc dciivativc woik.
C0LLC7lV W0RKS AN0 C0MPlLA7l0NS
Compilations aic anothci cxamplc whcic a copyiight may bc obtaincd thiough
thc usc and manipulation ol pic-cxisting woiks. Compilations aic woiks loimcd
by asscmbling, sclccting, oi icaiianging pic-cxisting woiks such that thc icsult
bccomcs an oiiginal woik by thc compilci. Collcctivc woiks icpicscnt a spccilc
typc ol compilation in which a numbci ol scpaiatc and indcpcndcnt contiibutions
aic asscmblcd into onc woik. A collcctivc woik, thcn, is a woik by two oi moic
authois that is not cohcsivc cnough to qualily as a joint woik on its own. Aiticlc
z, Scction , ol thc Bcinc Convcntion only icquiics thc piotcction ol collcctivc
woiks:
Collcctions ol litciaiy oi aitistic woiks such as cncyclopcdias and anthologics
which, by icason ol thc sclcction and aiiangcmcnt ol thcii contcnts, consti-
tutc intcllcctual cications shall bc piotcctcd as such, without picjudicc to thc
copyiight in cach ol thc woiks loiming pait ol such collcctions.
Aiticlc o, Scction z ol thc TRIPS Agiccmcnt, on thc othci hand, icquiics mcmbci
countiics ol thc WTO to cxtcnd copyiight piotcction to all compilations:
Compilations ol data oi othci matciial, whcthci in machinc icadablc oi othci
loim, which by icason ol thc sclcction oi aiiangcmcnt ol thcii contcnts con-
stitutc intcllcctual cications shall bc piotcctcd as such. Such piotcction, which
shall not cxtcnd to thc data oi matciial itscll, shall bc without picjudicc to
any copyiight subsisting in thc data oi matciial itscll.
Thc last scntcncc ol this piovision should bc cmphasizcd. Unlcss a databasc is
cicatcd in a mcmbci countiy ol thc Euiopcan Union (thc only aica that has
cicatcd a sui gcnciis systcm ol piotcctions loi databascs), othci pcoplc aic licc to
cxtiact and copy thc contcnts ol thc databasc. Thc only thing thcy may not do is
icpioducc thc oiiginal way in which thosc contcnts aic sclcctcd and aiiangcd.
MPL0YS AN0 W0RKS F0R HlR
Employccs aic oltcn hiicd to cicatc litciaiy oi aitistic woiks loi thcii cmployci.
This iclationship somctimcs conluscs thc allocation ol authoiship iights.
By dclault, civil law countiics vcst authoiship and its attcndant iights in thc
cmploycc, not thc cmployci. This appioach icquiics that cmploycis contiact with
cmployccs to obtain thc copyiights to thc cicativc woiks. Foi instancc, thc Ficnch
Intcllcctual Piopcity Codc stipulatcs that copyiight vcsts in thc woik's actual
authoi and not his cmployci. Thcic is an cxccption in thc Ficnch Codc loi somc
catcgoiics ol woik, such as soltwaic, whcic iights aic immcdiatcly assigncd to
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thc cmployci. On thc othci hand, somc civil law countiics, including Gcimany,
automatically assign copyiight liom thc cmploycc to thc cmployci.
Common-law countiics, such as thc Unitcd Statcs, Canada, and thc Unitcd
Kingdom, by dclault awaid thc copyiight loi an cmploycc's invcntion to hci
cmployci. Foi instancc, Canadian copyiight law statcs that il a woik is cicatcd
within thc scopc ol cmploymcnt, thc pcison by whom thc authoi was cmploycd
shall, in thc abscncc ol agiccmcnt to thc contiaiy, bc thc list holdci ol thc
copyiight." Undci thc Biitish Copyiight, Dcsigns and Patcnts Act ol j88, il a
copyiightcd woik is madc by an cmploycc in thc couisc ol that cmploymcnt, thc
copyiight is automatically owncd by thc cmployci as a woik loi hiic." Thc Unitcd
Statcs has a similai iulc, but also piovidcs that a woik may bccomc a woik loi
hiic" cvcn il it is cicatcd by an indcpcndcnt contiactoi (iathci than an cmploycc
acting within thc scopc ol cmploymcnt) so long as thc woik (a) lalls within a limitcd
list ol cligiblc typcs ol woiks and (b) thc paitics agicc in wiiting that it shall bc
classilcd as a woik loi hiic.
ClVlL SRVAN7S, RSARCHRS AN0 PR0FSS0RS
In somc countiics, collcgc and univcisity laculty mcmbcis havc bccn cxcmptcd
liom thc work for hire doctiinc.
In somc countiics, woiks madc in thc scopc ol thc cmploymcnt ol civil scivants
aic also cxcludcd liom thc woik loi hiic" doctiinc, bccausc thcy aic dcnicd
copyiight piotcction altogcthci. In othci countiics, this is not tiuc. Foi instancc,
copyiight law in thc Czcch Rcpublic contains a picsumption that a woik cicatcd
by a civil scivant is a woik loi hiic, and thc copyiight and authoiship iights aic
giantcd to thc cmployci.
The relatlonshlp between copyrlght lnfrlngement
and other unauthorlzed actlvltles
Copyright infringement is thc unauthoiizcd usc ol a copyiightcd woik in a mannci
that violatcs onc ol thc copyiight holdci's cxclusivc iights and docs not lall into any
ol thc cxccptions to oi limitations on thc holdci's iights. Wc will cxaminc thosc
iights and cxccptions in dctail in Modulc : Rights, Exccptions, and Limitations.
It should bc cmphasizcd that copyiight inliingcmcnt covcis only a subsct ol thc
ways in which copyiightcd woiks may bc uscd without pcimission.
Somc uscs ol copyiightcd woiks may not inliingc copyiight but may violatc othci
lcgal iulcs. Othcis may violatc nonlcgal social noims. Still othcis may bc lawlul
uscs that aic socially appiovcd. This complcx pattcin ol noims lnds cxpicssion in
a vaiicty ol tcims that aic licqucntly conluscd. Wc cxplain somc ol thcm bclow,
thcy will bc studicd luithci in Modulc ;: Enloiccmcnt.
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PIagiarism is thc usc ol somconc clsc's idcas oi woids without piopcily cicditing
thc souicc. It is cntiicly scpaiatc liom copyiight law. Plagiaiism is not a viola-
tion ol lcgal iulcs, but instcad ol social noims. Common social sanctions loi
plagiaiism aic cxpulsion oi suspcnsion liom school, dischaigc liom a job, and
social disappioval.
Customs and attitudcs pcitaining to plagiaiism vaiy somcwhat by countiy.
Foi cxamplc, icccntly a young Gciman novclist was lound to havc copicd without
pcimission oi attiibution signilcant passagcs liom othci novcls. Shc has bccn
ticatcd much moic lcnicntly than a young Amciican authoi who a lcw ycais ago
cngagcd in vciy similai bchavioi. Attitudcs towaid plagiaiism cvcn vaiy somcwhat
bctwccn acadcmic disciplincs. Foi cxamplc, thc dclnition ol plagiaiism adoptcd by
thc Amciican Histoiical Association is not cxactly thc samc as thc standaid adoptcd
by thc Modcin Languagc Association. Finally, plagiaiism by coipoiatc cxccutivcs
is oltcn ticatcd as much lcss sciious than plagiaiism by novclists, acadcmics, oi
jouinalists.
Piracy has no stiict dclnition within (oi outsidc of) copyiight law. In icccnt ycais,
thc tcim has bccomc a common way loi somc to iclci to unauthoiizcd and uncx-
cuscd icpioductions ol audio and vidco iccoidings. Howcvci, thc copyiight laws do
not thcmsclvcs iclci to piiacy." Sincc thc tcim is associatcd with thc violcncc that
accompanics thc scizuic ol ships on thc high scas, many aiguc that it is mislcading
whcn uscd in conncction with unauthoiizcd uscs ol cicativc woiks.
Counterfeiting is dclncd in vaiious ways. Most oltcn, thc tcim iclcis to thc
cication oi distiibution ol imitations ol gcnuinc woiks with thc intcnt to dcccivc
thc public about thcii authcnticity. Countcilciting in this scnsc is govcincd piimai-
ily by tiadcmaik law and thc law ol unlaii compctition, not by copyiight law.
Howcvci, thc pioposcd Anti-Countcilciting Tiadc Agiccmcnt (ACTA), cuiicntly
undci ncgotiation (as discusscd in Modulc z: Thc Intcinational Fiamcwoik), may,
whcn lnishcd, icquiic mcmbci countiics to cxpand thc covciagc ol copyiight
law in this aica.
Copyrlght duratlon
Thc Bcinc Convcntion icquiics a minimum copyiight tcim ol thc lilc ol thc
authoi plus an additional ,o ycais altci his oi hci dcath loi all woiks cxccpt
photogiaphs and cincmatic woiks. Mcmbci countiics aic licc, howcvci, to adopt
longci tcims, subjcct to onc limitation:
In any casc, thc tcim shall bc govcincd by thc lcgislation ol thc countiy
whcic piotcction is claimcd, howcvci, unlcss thc lcgislation ol that countiy
othciwisc piovidcs, thc tcim shall not cxcccd thc tcim lxcd in thc countiy ol
oiigin ol thc woik.
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Many countiics havc cxciciscd thc disciction lclt to thcm by thc Bcinc Convcn-
tion. Thc icsult is that thc duiation ol copyiight vaiics substantially by countiy,
cicating a complicatcd intcinational patchwoik ol copyiight duiation tcims dctci-
mincd by thc catcgoiy ol woik, thc natuic ol thc woik's authoiship, and thc datc
ol cication oi publication ol thc woik.
Thc Czcch Rcpublic and thc Ncthcilands, loi instancc, giant copyiight piotcc-
tion loi thc lilc ol thc authoi plus ;o ycais loi litciaiy woiks gcncially, but computc
thc copyiight's duiation liom thc dcath ol thc longcst living joint authoi (plus an
additional ;o ycais) loi jointly authoicd woiks. This constiuction is dcccptivcly
simplc, bccausc it applics only to woiks cicatcd on oi altci Apiil ;, zooo and
Dcccmbci zj, jj,, icspcctivcly. Woiks cicatcd bcloic thosc datcs aic subjcct to
difcicnt and moic complicatcd copyiight duiation tcims.
Similaily, most litciaiy and aitistic woiks aic subjcct to a minimum copyiight
duiation ol lilc ol thc authoi plus ,o ycais undci thc TRIPS Agiccmcnt. In contiast,
TRIPS only mandatcs that thc copyiight in sound iccoidings bc iccognizcd loi a
minimum ol ,o ycais altci lxaton. Thus, loi cxamplc, thc tcim ol piotcction loi
sound iccoidings in thc Unitcd Statcs is lilc ol thc authoi plus ;o ycais loi woiks
lxcd on oi altci }anuaiy , j;8. In Austialia, copyiight piotcction loi sound
iccoidings cxtcnds loi ;o ycais altci lxation, il lxation occuiicd altci zoo. In
Biazil, all sound iccoidings lxcd altci jj8 aic piotcctcd undci ncighboiing iights
loi ;o ycais bcginning in thc ycai altci thc woik is list lxcd. In China, sound
iccoidings aic piotcctcd undci ncighboiing iights loi ,o ycais bcginning at thc
cnd ol thc ycai in which thc woik is lxcd.
Foi luithci icading on thc subjcct, you may consult thc Casc ol thc Canadian
Onlinc Rcpositoiics ol Public Domain and Rcccnt Tcim Extcnsions Contiovcisics
(L|dred v. Asncrojt).
Lxtenslons of the scope of copyrlght protectlon
In icccnt ycais copyiight law has cxpandcd to cncompass moic typcs ol woik,
last loi a longci pciiod ol timc, and piovidc gicatci piotcctions loi copyiightcd
woiks. As wc saw in Modulc z: Thc Intcinational Fiamcwoik, thc Bcinc Convcn-
tion, thc TRIPS Agiccmcnt, and thc WIPO Copyiight Ticaty all sct minimum
standaids ol piotcction that countiics must mcct, and togcthci cxpand copyiight
piotcction in all countiics. Foi cxamplc, copyiight law (oi thc closcly iclatcd sct
ol ncighboiing iights) has bccn cxtcndcd to covci audio iccoidings, aichitcctuial
woiks, and computci piogiams. Thc duiation ol copyiight has cxpandcd ovci thc
ycais, liom ycais undci thc Statutc ol Annc to thc cuiicnt minimum ol lilc
ol thc authoi plus ,o ycais loi most woiks. Rcccnt ticatics havc also includcd
piovisions piohibiting thc ciicumvcntion ol mcchanisms to contiol icpioduction
oi distiibution ol copyiightcd woiks.
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Somc ol thcsc cxtcnsions aiguably stimulatc additional cicativity by inccntivizing
it. Howcvci, thc cxtcnsion ol copyiight to moic kinds ol woiks and loi a gicatci
lcngth ol timc has icsultcd in thc icduction ol thc amount ol matciial in thc public
domain. As a icsult, matciials that othciwisc could havc bccn uscd in thc cication
ol ncw aitistic oi litciaiy woiks can no longci bc uscd.
As copyiight law has cxpandcd it has also liagmcntcd. In othci woids, spccial
iulcs havc bccn dcviscd to dcal with paiticulai kinds ol woiks. Somc ol thosc
spccial iulcs aic dcsciibcd bclow.
AU0l0VlSUAL/ClNMA700RAPHlC W0RKS
Audiovisual oi cincmatogiaphic woiks aic collcctivc piojccts that oltcn involvc thc
contiibutions ol scvcial individual authois. Givcn thc laigc numbci ol pcoplc that
aic involvcd in thcii cication, ticating cach contiibutoi as a joint authoi ol thc
woik would givc iisc to piactical pioblcms. Foi instancc, cach contiibutoi would
bc licc to liccnsc usc ol thc woik to anyonc thcy chosc, potcntially icsulting in
usc ol thc woik in a mannci that othci contiibutois lound objcctionablc.
Difcicnt countiics havc tiicd to ovcicomc this pioblcm in difcicnt ways. Thc
Ficnch Intcllcctual Piopcity Codc ticats contiibutois to llms as co-authois but
includcs in thc authoi-pioducci iclationship a tianslci ol thc cxploitation iights ol
thc matciial to thc pioducci. Countiics such as thc Unitcd Kingdom and thc Unitcd
Statcs, by contiast, vcst thc authoiship and copyiight ownciship ol thcsc woiks in a
singlc pcison oi oiganization. Foi instancc, thc j88 Copyiight, Dcsigns and Patcnt
Act in thc Unitcd Kingdom typically vcsts cxploitation iights in thc pioducci. By
contiast, as was suggcstcd abovc, thc US Copyiight Act ticats thc contiibutions
to an audiovisual oi cincmatogiaphic woik as woiks loi hiic, thcicby vcsting
authoiship and copyiight ownciship in onc cntity, again typically thc pioducci. Thc
Bcinc Convcntion iccognizcs and icspccts thc difcicnccs among countiics in thc
allocation ol iights in audiovisual and cincmatogiaphic woiks. This phcnomcnon
is dcsciibcd luithci in thc Rights Ownciship and Woiks loi Hiic topic in Modulc
: Rights, Exccptions, and Limitations.
C0MPU7R PR00RAMS
Computci piogiams constitutc anothci spccial catcgoiy ol woiks. Although thc
Bcinc Convcntion docs not addicss computci piogiams, thc TRIPS Agiccmcnt
icquiics WTO mcmbci countiics to piotcct computci piogiams as litciaiy woiks.
Likc audiovisual woiks, computci piogiams aic oltcn thc pioducts ol thc cfoits
ol many individuals. Hcic too, countiics vaiy in thc way thcy handlc allocation
ol authoiship iights. Gciman copyiight law, loi cxamplc, contains a picsumption
giving cxclusivc iights in computci soltwaic to thc cmployci.
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R0A0CAS7, RC0R0lN0, lN7RPR7A7l0N
Thc Bcinc Convcntion icquiics that thc authoi ol a copyiightcd woik bc givcn
thc cxclusivc iight to authoiizc
- thc bioadcasting ol hci woik oi its communication to thc public by any mcans
ol wiiclcss difusion ol signs, sounds oi imagcs,
- luithci communication to thc public by wiic oi by icbioadcasting ol thc oiiginal
bioadcast ol thc woik whcn this communication is madc by an oiganization
othci than thc oiiginal bioadcastci,
- thc public communication by loudspcakci oi any othci analogous instiumcnt
tiansmitting, by signs, sounds oi imagcs, thc bioadcast ol thc woik.
Thc Bcinc Convcntion pcimits individual countiics to dctciminc which ol
thcsc iights may bc cxciciscd and in what ciicumstanccs. Howcvci, it icquiics
that thcy should not bc applicd in a way that would ncgativcly afcct an authoi's
moial iights.
Nadla should rst tell Angela that untll she records the lectures (or wrltes them
down) she does not have any copyrlghts ln thelr contents. As soon as she records
them, however, she owns the copyrlght ln them, even lf she has not applled
copyrlght notlces to the recordlng. Nadla should next tell Angela that the muslcal
composltlons she ls conslderlng performlng are probably sumclently old that they
are no longer covered by copyrlght. (Nadla should check her local copyrlght statute
and the dates the composltlons were rst publlshed to be sure.) However, lt ls
posslble that those composltlons are sub[ect to speclal rules governlng folklore and
tradltlonal knowledge. Nadla mlght volunteer to research thls lssue further, advlslng
Angela to walt untll she has done so before maklng the recordlngs - and certalnly
before maklng them publlcly avallable.
As to whether Angela should charge other muslc professors and students for
access to her recordlngs, Nadla suggests they postpone dlscusslng that lssue.
(Purther relevant lnformatlon ls presented ln Module 6: Creatlve Approaches and
Alternatlves).
Majoi ticatiscs that includc cxtcnsivc discussion ol thc covciagc ol copyiight law includc
îmmer on Cop,riqnt ( vols, Matthcw Bcndci), which is authoiitativc, but astionomically
cxpcnsivc, and Go|dstein on Cop,riqnt (Aspcn, ,id cdn zoo,), which is moic concisc, and
somcwhat lcss cxpcnsivc.
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A much shoitci discussion ol how thc scopc ol copyiight law has incicascd ovci timc
may bc lound in William Fishci, Gcistigcs Eigcntum - cin ausulcindci Rcchtsbcicich: Dic
Gcschichtc dcs Idccnschutzcs in dcn Vcicinigtcn Staatcn," in Liqentum im internationa|en
Verq|eicn (Vandcnhocck 8 Rupiccht, jjj), z6,-j, availablc in English as Thc Giowth ol
Intcllcctual Piopcity: A Histoiy ol thc Ownciship ol Idcas in thc Unitcd Statcs," http://cybci.
law.haivaid.cdu/pcoplc/tlshci/iphistoiy.pdl.
A moic icccnt and moic cxtcndcd discussion ol thc samc topic is }amcs Boylc, Tne Iub|ic
Domain. Lnc|osinq tne Commons oj tne Mind (Yalc Univcisity Picss, zoo8), availablc loi licc
onlinc at www.thcpublicdomain.oig/download/.
Thc bcst commcntaiy on copyiight law in gcncial and its scopc in paiticulai icmains
a book publishcd in j6; by Bcnjamin Kaplan: An Unnurried View oj Cop,riqnt (Matthcw
Bcndci, zoo,). Sadly, it is only availablc in piint.
A good discussion ol thc conccpt ol oiiginality in copyiight law, juxtaposing thc vcisions
ol thc conccpt uscd in thc US and in thc EU, can bc lound in Soltwaic Ficcdom Law
Ccntci, Oriqina|it, Requirements under U.S. and L.U. Cop,riqnt Iaw, www.soltwaicliccdom.
oig/icsouiccs/zoo;/oiiginality-icquiicmcnts.html.
A thoiough discussion ol thc gcncsis ol thc woik loi hiic" doctiinc can bc lound in
Pctci }aszi, Towaid a Thcoiy ol Copyiight: Thc Mctamoiphoscs ol 'Authoiship'," jj
Duke I.}. ,,.
CASS
Thc lollowing judicial opinions cxploic and apply somc ol thc piinciplcs discusscd in this
modulc:
Ieist Iub|ications, Inc., v. Rura| Te|epnone Service Co., jj U.S. ,o (jj) (oiiginality).
Beckinqnam v. Hodqens, High Couit ol }usticc (Civil Division), z }uly zooz (joint
authoiship).
Communit, jor Creative ôn-Vio|ence v. Reid, jo U.S. ;,o (j8j) (cmploymcnt
iclationships).
Casc C-zo/o;, Son, Music Lntertainment (German,) GmbH v. Ia|con êue Medien Vertrieb
GmbH (zoo;).
L|dred v. Asncrojt, ,,; U.S. 86 (zoo,) (duiation).
Computer Associates v. A|tai, j8z F.zd 6j, (znd Cii. jjz) (computci soltwaic).
ASSl0NMN7
:. what ls the copyrlght term ln your country! Llst some of the authors whose work
wlll fall ln the publlc domaln ln your country on 1anuary : of the comlng year.
z. How do you thlnk copyrlght law should apply to sltuatlons ln whlch many people
contrlbute small amounts to an onllne resource! Por example, suppose that
wlklpedla had not adopted a formal copyrlght pollcy. How should contrlbutlons
to lt be treated!
0lSCUSSl0N US7l0NS
Comment on the answers of your colleagues.
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Contributors
This modulc was cicatcd by Ingc Osman. It was thcn cditcd by a tcam including
Scbastian Diaz, William Fishci, Uis Gassci, Adam Holland, Kimbcilcy Isbcll, Pctci
}aszi, Colin Maclay, Andicw Moshiinia, and Chiis Pctcison.
ncJJ|o
Rights, exceptions,
and Iimitations
Learning objective
This modulc will tcach you about thc iights ol a copyiight holdci and about thc
cxccptions to and limitations on thosc iights.
Case study
Marla, Angela's aunt, ls a collector of sheet muslc. Many of the documents ln her
collectlon are handwrltten, some are unlque. She has [ust declded to donate the
entlre collectlon to the unlverslty llbrary. Angela meets wlth Nadla to dlscuss how
the llbrary mlght best make use of the collectlon. |n partlcular, Angela asks Nadla to
make dlgltal coples of all of the composltlons ln Marla's collectlon and to make those
coples avallable to the world on the llbrary's servers.
Lesson
Lconomlc rlghts
Rl0H7S RLA7lN0 70 RPR00UC7l0N AN0 0lS7RlU7l0N 0F A W0RK
Thc hcait ol copyiight law is thc iight to makc copics ol a piotcctcd woik. This
is callcd thc right of reproduction. Thc copyiight holdci has thc cxclusivc iight
to makc oi authoiizc such copics. Cicating a copy without thc authoiization ol
thc holdci inliingcs upon thc copyiight, unlcss pcimittcd by an cxccption to oi
limitation on thc icpioduction iight. As wc saw in Modulc z: Thc Intcinational
Fiamcwoik, thc iight ol icpioduction is widcly acknowlcdgcd by intcinational
agiccmcnts. As wc will soon discuss, howcvci, thosc samc agiccmcnts also
cmpowci mcmbci countiics to cicatc cxccptions and limitations to this (and
othci) iights. Thc copyiight statutcs ol viitually all countiics iccognizc thc iight
ol icpioduction.
What docs icpioduction" mcan? Most obviously, it includcs making a copy in
thc litcial scnsc - loi cxamplc, by photocopying a book oi aiticlc. It also includcs
convciting a copyiightcd woik into a ncw loimat - such as using a tapc iccoidci
to copy a vinyl album. Lcss obviously, it includcs making a ncw woik that is
substantially similai" to an cxisting woik, whilc having that cxisting woik in
mind. So, loi cxamplc, an ait studcnt who stands in liont ol a painting and paints
a laithlul icplica ol it would violatc thc oiiginal paintci's iight ol icpioduction
(unlcss thc studcnt could invokc onc ol thc cxccptions oi limitations discusscd
picviously). As onc might imaginc, thc qucstion ol how closc onc woik must
bc to anothci to bc substantially similai" is highly contiovcisial and is oltcn
litigatcd.
Closcly iclatcd to thc iight ol icpioduction is thc right of adaptation, which
piovidcs copyiight holdcis with thc iight to adapt a copyiightcd woik liom onc
loim ol cxpicssion to anothci, oi to authoiizc anothci to do so. Examplcs ol adapta-
tions includc tiansloiming a book into a movic oi a song into a musical. Thc iight
ol adaptation is also lound in viitually all copyiight systcms. Foi cxamplc, Aiticlc
z ol thc Bcinc Convcntion icquiics mcmbci countiics to giant authois thc iight
to authoiizc adaptations, aiiangcmcnts, and othci altciations ol" copyiightcd
woiks. Thc iight ol adaptation also cncompasscs thc iight to tianslatc a woik into
othci languagcs. Aiticlc 8 ol thc Bcinc Convcntion icquiics mcmbci countiics to
iccognizc this iight ol tianslation. In somc lcgal systcms, thc iight ol adaptation
is cxpicsscd as thc iight to makc dciivativc woiks," which usc thc oiiginal woik
as a staiting point but aic not diicct copics ol thc oiiginal woik.
In most countiics, thc icpioduction iight and thc adaptation iight aic closcly
aligncd. In othci woids, thc majoiity ol activitics that violatc thc adaptation iight
also violatc thc icpioduction iight. Howcvci, thcic aic cxccptions. Foi cxamplc,
cutting up a photogiaph to includc it in a collagc may violatc thc adaptation iight
(unlcss ol couisc that bchavioi is cxcuscd by onc ol thc cxccptions oi limitations).
But, bccausc that activity did not cntail making a ncw copy, it would not violatc
thc iight ol icpioduction. Howcvci, thc dcgicc ol ovcilap bctwccn thcsc two iights
vaiics somcwhat by countiy. Which ol thc two iights is implicatcd by a paiticulai
casc will somctimcs makc a difcicncc - loi cxamplc, il thc copyiight ownci has
giantcd a liccnsc loi onc ol thc iights but not thc othci.
How lai do thcsc iights icach? Rccall liom Modulc ,: Thc Scopc ol Copyiight
Law that copyiight only piotccts thc cxpicssion ol idcas, not thc idcas oi lacts
thcmsclvcs. Thus, a woik that is inspiicd by thc idcas containcd in anothci woik
but docs not usc any ol thc piotcctcd cxpicssion liom thc initial woik is ncithci a
icpioduction noi an adaptation and will not violatc thc copyiight holdci's iights.
Also, notc that Aiticlc z(,) ol thc Bcinc Convcntion piovidcs that authoiizcd adapta-
tions aic piotcctcd by thcii own, scpaiatc copyiight, in addition to thc copyiight
piotcction givcn to thc oiiginal woik.
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Finally, a copyiight holdci also has thc cxclusivc right to distribute his oi hci
woik and thc right to import copics ol thc woik subjcct to ccitain cxccptions. Thc
iight to distiibutc cncompasscs thc iight to scll oi authoiizc thc initial salc ol a
copy ol thc woik.
Rl0H7S RLA7lN0 70 C0MMUNlCA7l0N 0F A W0RK
70 7H PULlC
Anothci impoitant cconomic iight ol a copyiight holdci is thc iight to com-
municatc thc woik to thc public. In many countiics, this iight is cxpicsscd as thc
right of pubIic performance and pubIic dispIay. Thc iight ol public pciloimancc
iclatcs to showings ol plays, movics, and music. Thc iight ol public display iclatcs
to thc display ol aitwoik such as paintings and sculptuics. Aiticlc ol thc Bcinc
Convcntion icquiics mcmbci countiics to giant thc holdcis ol copyiights in
diamatic and musical woiks" thc iight to contiol public pciloimanccs ol thosc
woiks by any mcans oi pioccss" (including, loi cxamplc, a livc pciloimancc oi
playing a iccoiding ol a pciloimancc). Aiticlc also cxtcnds thc iight ol public
pciloimancc to tianslations ol a copyiightcd woik. It also icquiics that copyiight
holdcis bc givcn thc iight to authoiizc thc bioadcasting oi public communication
ol thc copyiightcd woik by wiic, loudspcakci, oi any analogous instiumcnt
tiansmitting, by signs, sounds, oi imagcs."
As thcii labcls indicatc, thc iights ol public display and public pciloimancc
only contiol activitics that aic public. Thus, pcisons who own authoiizcd copics
ol copyiightcd woiks may display oi bioadcast thc woiks in non-public scttings
without iisk ol inliingcmcnt. Foi cxamplc, a pcison who owns a copy ol a movic
may play thc movic in hci homc to a gioup ol social gucsts without inliinging thc
iight ol public pciloimancc. Similaily, a pcison who owns a painting oi sculptuic
may display thc woik in hci homc without inliinging thc iight ol public display.
Thc copyiight holdci's iight to contiol thc public pciloimancc ol hci woik
cxtcnds to many communications that might not initially sccm likc pciloimanccs."
Foi cxamplc, as indicatcd abovc, it giants a copyiight holdci thc iight to authoiizc
bioadcasts ol hci woik. This includcs tclcvision bioadcasting, cablc distiibution,
satcllitc distiibution, and ic-bioadcasts ol a woik. It can also cncompass on-dcmand
digital tiansmissions and pay-pci-vicw bioadcasts. At lcast in somc countiics, thc
iight also cxtcnds to pciloimanccs in scttings that don't sccm cspccially public"
in thc oidinaiy scnsc - loi cxamplc, in schools, nuising homcs, and piisons.
Thc WIPO Copyiight Ticaty (WCT) and WIPO Pciloimcis and Phonogiams
Ticaty (WPPT), discusscd in Modulc z, altcicd this sct ol iulcs subtly - and in
ways that havc not yct bccn lully icsolvcd. Aiticlc 8 ol thc WCT and Aiticlcs
o and z ol thc WPPT icquiic mcmbci countiics to iccognizc a iight to makc
a copyiightcd woik availablc" to thc public. Thc Unitcd Statcs has takcn thc
position that thcsc ticaty piovisions do not icquiic any changc in thc way that
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thc US has loimulatcd and cnloiccd thc iight ol public pciloimancc. Not all
countiics agicc. Thc EU, loi cxamplc, has takcn thc position that thc making
availablc" iight adds somcthing ncw. Thc piincipal ciicumstancc in which this
disagiccmcnt might makc a difcicncc is whcn somconc posts a copyiightcd
documcnt on a wcbsitc, but no onc has yct downloadcd it. Thc ticatmcnt ol such
cascs may vaiy by countiy.
Moral rlghts
Many countiics piovidc authois moraI rights in addition to economic rights.
Unlikc cconomic iights, moial iights usually cannot bc tianslciicd to othci
pcisons, although many countiics allow thcm to bc waivcd - cithci altogcthci (loi
cxamplc, in thc Unitcd Statcs) oi in conjunction with spccilc liccnscs ol cconomic
iights (loi cxamplc, in Fiancc). Thc limits on tianslcis ol moial iights iccct thc
iationalc that undcilic thcm - namcly, that thc woiks pioduccd by an authoi
aic an cxtcnsion ol his oi hci scll and bcai an impiint ol his oi hci pcisonality.
Accoidingly, moial iights piotcct ccitain copyiightcd woiks liom dcstiuction oi
mutilation, paitially to piotcct thc authoi's cxpicssion ol hci pcisonality, and
paitially to piotcct thc authoi's icputation liom haim. Moial iights aic iccognizcd
cspccially bioadly in countiics with civil law tiaditions.
Rccognition ol a limitcd subsct ol moial iights is mandatcd by Aiticlc 6bis ol thc
Bcinc Convcntion. Aiticlc 6bis icquiics that thc authoi ol a woik bc givcn at lcast
two typcs ol moial iight. Thc list is commonly know as thc right of attribution. It
cncompasscs not only thc iight ol an authoi to havc hci namc associatcd with hci
woiks, but also thc iight not to havc hci namc associatcd with woiks that aic not
hcis. Thc iight ol attiibution also givcs an authoi thc iight to publish a woik undci
a pscudonym. Thc sccond moial iight icquiicd by Aiticlc 6bis is thc authoi's iight
to objcct to thc dcstiuction oi modilcation ol hci woik in a way that would haim
hci honoi oi icputation. This is commonly known as thc right of integrity.
Although Aiticlc 6bis iccommcnds that thcsc moial iights cxtcnd altci thc
authoi's dcath, at lcast until thc cconomic iights cxpiic, it also allows mcmbci
countiics to limit moial iights to thc lilc ol thc authoi. Howcvci, thc piotcctions
ol Aiticlc 6bis aic not as stiong as thcy may sccm, bccausc it is thc only piovision
in thc Bcinc Convcntion that is not incoipoiatcd into thc TRIPS Agiccmcnt. Thus
thc tccth" piovidcd by thc WTO disputc icsolution systcm aic not availablc to
compcl mcmbci countiics to iccognizc moial iights.
In addition to thc iight ol attiibution and thc iight ol intcgiity, many countiics
also iccognizc a iight ol disclosuic and a iight ol withdiawal. Thc loimci givcs an
authoi thc cxclusivc iight to dctciminc whcn shc will iclcasc a woik to thc public.
This iight takcs picccdcncc cvcn ovci a contiactual commitmcnt by thc authoi to
tianslci thc woik to a clicnt oi pation. Thc lattci pcimits an authoi to withdiaw
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woiks liom publication oi ciiculation il shc dctcimincs that shc no longci wants
to bc icpicscntcd by oi associatcd with thosc paiticulai woiks. This iight is much
lcss powcilul in piacticc than it list appcais, both bccausc thc authoi would havc
to pay thc pcoplc liom whom thc copics aic withdiawn and bccausc thc iight ol
withdiawal is tiumpcd by thc iight ol a puichasci to kccp goods hc oi shc has
puichascd. As a icsult, it is almost ncvci invokcd.
It is impoitant to chcck youi countiy's statutoiy piovisions iclating to moial
iights. Nations vaiy considciably on thc iights thcy iccognizc, thc duiation ol
thosc iights, whcthci thcy may bc waivcd, and so loith. Foi cxamplc, in Spain scvcn
moial iights aic iccognizcd: thc iight ol disclosuic, thc iight to publish undci thc
authoi's ical namc oi a pscudonym, thc iight to bc acknowlcdgcd as thc authoi ol
thc woik, thc iight to thc intcgiity ol thc woik (which includcs thc iight to picvcnt
distoition oi modilcation ol thc woik), thc iight to modily thc woik (limitcd by
othci statutoiy piovisions), thc iight to withdiaw thc woik, and thc iight ol acccss
to a singlc oi iaic copy ol thc woik, cvcn il that copy is owncd by a thiid paity
(though thc authoi's cxcicisc ol this iight is limitcd by ccitain considciations loi
thc holdci ol thc copy).
Nelghborlng and su| enet|s rlghts
Neighboring rights (also callcd reIated rights) consist ol thc iights ol thosc who
assist thc authoi ol a copyiightcd woik, but who do not qualily loi a copyiight in
thc woik. Thcy includc thc iights ol bioadcastcis and bioadcasting oiganizations
in thcii tiansmissions ol piogiams (as opposcd to thc copyiights in thc piogiams
thcmsclvcs), thc iight ol an aitist in hci pciloimancc ol a piccc (as distinguishcd
liom thc copyiight in thc undcilying woik itsclf), and thc iight ol thc pioducci
ol a iccoid (as opposcd to thc copyiight in thc musical compositions that thc
iccoid cmbodics). It is impoitant to kccp thcsc ncighboiing iights in mind, in
addition to thc iights ol thc copyiight holdci, whcn considciing what uscs ol a
givcn woik aic pcimissiblc.
In addition to thc ncighboiing iights attachcd to pciloimanccs, somc countiics
icccntly havc iccognizcd iights in databascs, scmiconductoi chip dcsigns, boat-
hull dcsigns, and so loith. Thcsc iights aic commonly known as sui qeneris iights
- although thc distinction bctwccn ncighboiing iights and sui qeneris iights is
laigcly aibitiaiy. Ol thcsc ncw iights, thc only onc that might signilcantly afcct
thc activitics ol libiaiians is thc piotcction ol databascs. As indicatcd abovc, most
countiics usc oidinaiy copyiight law to piotcct oiiginal ways in which thc data in
a databasc is sclcctcd oi aiiangcd. But, so lai, only in thc Euiopcan Union aic thc
contents ol thc databasc piotcctcd.
Thc EU's databasc piotcction systcm is highly contiovcisial. Ciitics contcnd that
it is unncccssaiy to piovidc inccntivcs loi thc cication ol databascs, which mcicly
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impcdcs thc ow ol lactual inloimation. Howcvci, cfoits to tcst this ciiticism
cmpiiically by compaiing thc iatcs ol databasc innovation in countiics with and
without databasc piotcction iulcs havc thus lai bccn inconclusivc. Until thc disputc
is icsolvcd, databasc piotcction is unlikcly to spicad to dcvcloping countiics.
In addition to thc iights dcsciibcd abovc, in somc countiics thc holdcis ol copy-
iights in somc kinds ol woiks havc bccn givcn iights ol vaiious soits in situations
whcic thcii woiks aic tcmpoiaiily madc availablc to othci pcisons. Two quitc
difcicnt iights must bc distinguishcd. A rental rlght govcins situations in which
a copy ol a copyiightcd woik is icntcd to somconc loi commcicial advantagc. A
publlc lendlng rlght govcins situations in which a copy ol a copyiightcd woik is
piovidcd tcmpoiaiily by an institution to a pation loi licc. Thc lcnding piacticcs ol
almost all public and acadcmic libiaiics would lall undci thc sccond hcading.
Both iights aic iclativcly ncw and icmain highly contiovcisial. Thc TRIPS
Agiccmcnt (in Aiticlc ), thc WCT (in Aiticlc ;), and thc WPPT (in Aiticlcs j and
,) now all icquiic mcmbci countiics to iccognizc icntal iights - but only with
icspcct to thicc naiiow catcgoiics ol woiks: computci piogiams, movics, and
phonogiams. Nonc ol thcsc agiccmcnts - and no othci multilatcial ticaty - icquiics
mcmbci countiics to iccognizc public lcnding iights. Thus lai, only onc icgional
agiccmcnt icquiics mcmbci countiics to cstablish public lcnding iights: thc jjz
Rcntal and Lcnding Rights Diicctivc ol thc EU. Aiticlcs and z ol that diicctivc
icquiic mcmbcis to cxtcnd both icntal and lcnding iights, not just to pciloimcis,
phonogiam pioduccis, and llm pioduccis, but also to authois." Aiticlc , ol thc
diicctivc pcimits mcmbci countiics to limit thc lcnding iight, but only il authois
aic compcnsatcd, oi to cxcmpt catcgoiics ol institutions liom its covciagc, but
only il thcy do not thcicby cfcctivcly cxcmpt all institutions. Thc diicctivc piovcd
cxticmcly contiovcisial, and loimal piocccdings wcic ncccssaiy to loicc scvcial EU
mcmbcis to conloim to it.
Givcn thc highly incomplctc covciagc ol icntal and public lcnding iights in
thc supianational agiccmcnts, it is not suipiising that many countiics cuiicntly
do not iccognizc thcm. Ol paiticulai impoitancc to libiaiics, cuiicntly only zj
countiics havc cstablishcd public lcnding iights systcms. Most ol thosc countiics
aic in Euiopc. Thc Unitcd Statcs docs not havc onc, noi docs any countiy in Latin
Amciica, Aliica, oi Asia.
Libiaiians in dcvcloping countiics may soon bc callcd upon to paiticipatc in
discussions conccining whcthci thcii countiics should adopt a public lcnding iight
systcm. What position should thcy takc? Thc Intcinational Fcdciation ol Libiaiy
Associations and Institutions (IFLA) ofcis two scnsiblc iccommcndations. Fiist,
libiaiians should not acccpt any lcgislativc pioposals that would icquiic thc libiaiics
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thcmsclvcs to pay lccs to authois, pciloimcis, and pioduccis. Thc only ways that
libiaiics could makc such paymcnts would bc cithci to chaigc uscis oi to withdiaw
scaicc icsouiccs liom othci piogiams. Eithci stiatcgy would lundamcntally impaii
thc libiaiics' coic mission. In shoit, thc only acccptablc vcision ol a public lcnding
systcm would bc onc in which thc govcinmcnt, not thc libiaiics, paid thc lccs - as
occuis in most Euiopcan countiics. Sccond, thc IFLA aigucs that cvcn a systcm
in which thc govcinmcnt paid thc lccs would bc unwisc in dcvcloping countiics,
bccausc it would icducc thc moncy thc govcinmcnt could spcnd on cvcn moic
csscntial social oi cultuial lunctions - such as pioviding its citizcns with adcquatc
hcalth caic oi basic cducation. This issuc will almost ccitainly icquiic libiaiians'
closc attcntion in thc ncai lutuic.
Lxceptlons and llmltatlons
As was shown in Modulc z: Thc Intcinational Fiamcwoik, all ol thc intcinational
copyiight agiccmcnts pcimit countiics to makc ccitain cxccptions to thc iights
wc havc dcsciibcd thus lai. Evciy countiy has indccd madc such cxccptions.
Thc puiposcs ol thcsc cxccptions vaiy. Somc aic justilcd by thc nccd to icspcct
liccdom ol cxpicssion oi piivacy. Othcis aic intcndcd to picvcnt copyiight law liom
liustiating iathci than lostciing cicativity. Still othcis iccognizc thc impossibility
ol monitoiing and chaiging loi somc uscs. Thc list ol cxccptions is vciy long. In
gcncial, thc cxccptions should bc considcicd just as impoitant as thc iights thcy
qualily. Togcthci, thcy aic intcndcd to stiikc a balancc bctwccn thc intcicsts ol
authois and thc intcicsts ol uscis and thc public at laigc. Foi this icason, it is
somctimcs said that thc cxccptions cicatc usci iights."
Thc cxccptions takc onc ol two loims. Exccptions ol thc list typc idcntily
spccilc pcimissiblc activitics. An inucntial cxamplc ol this appioach is Aiticlc
, ol thc EU Copyiight Diicctivc. Scction z ol that aiticlc authoiizcs EU mcmbci
countiics to piovidc loi thc lollowing cxccptions to thc iight ol icpioduction:
(a) in icspcct ol icpioductions on papci oi any similai mcdium, cfcctcd
by thc usc ol any kind ol photogiaphic tcchniquc oi by somc othci pioccss
having similai cfccts, with thc cxccption ol shcct music, piovidcd that thc
iightholdcis icccivc laii compcnsation,
(b) in icspcct ol icpioductions on any mcdium madc by a natuial pcison loi
piivatc usc and loi cnds that aic ncithci diicctly noi indiicctly commcicial,
on condition that thc iightholdcis icccivc laii compcnsation which takcs
account ol thc application oi non-application ol tcchnological mcasuics
iclciicd to in Aiticlc 6 to thc woik oi subjcct-mattci conccincd,
(c) in icspcct ol spccilc acts ol icpioduction madc by publicly acccssiblc
libiaiics, cducational cstablishmcnts oi muscums, oi by aichivcs, which aic
not loi diicct oi indiicct cconomic oi commcicial advantagc,
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(d) in icspcct ol cphcmcial iccoidings ol woiks madc by bioadcasting
oiganisations by mcans ol thcii own lacilitics and loi thcii own bioadcasts,
thc picscivation ol thcsc iccoidings in omcial aichivcs may, on thc giounds ol
thcii cxccptional documcntaiy chaiactci, bc pcimittcd,
(c) in icspcct ol icpioductions ol bioadcasts madc by social institutions
puisuing non-commcicial puiposcs, such as hospitals oi piisons, on condition
that thc iightholdcis icccivc laii compcnsation.
Scction , thcn authoiizcs mcmbci statcs to cicatc any ol thc lollowing cxccptions
both to thc iight ol icpioduction and to thc iight to communicatc oi makc woiks
availablc to thc public:
(a) usc loi thc solc puiposc ol illustiation loi tcaching oi scicntilc icscaich,
as long as thc souicc, including thc authoi's namc, is indicatcd, unlcss this
tuins out to bc impossiblc and to thc cxtcnt justilcd by thc non-commcicial
puiposc to bc achicvcd,
(b) uscs, loi thc bcnclt ol pcoplc with a disability, which aic diicctly iclatcd
to thc disability and ol a non-commcicial natuic, to thc cxtcnt icquiicd by thc
spccilc disability,
(c) icpioduction by thc picss, communication to thc public oi making
availablc ol publishcd aiticlcs on cuiicnt cconomic, political oi icligious topics
oi ol bioadcast woiks oi othci subjcct-mattci ol thc samc chaiactci, in cascs
whcic such usc is not cxpicssly icscivcd, and as long as thc souicc, including
thc authoi's namc, is indicatcd, oi usc ol woiks oi othci subjcct-mattci in
conncction with thc icpoiting ol cuiicnt cvcnts, to thc cxtcnt justilcd by thc
inloimatoiy puiposc and as long as thc souicc, including thc authoi's namc, is
indicatcd, unlcss this tuins out to bc impossiblc,
(d) quotations loi puiposcs such as ciiticism oi icvicw, piovidcd that thcy
iclatc to a woik oi othci subjcct-mattci which has alicady bccn lawlully madc
availablc to thc public, that, unlcss this tuins out to bc impossiblc, thc souicc,
including thc authoi's namc, is indicatcd, and that thcii usc is in accoidancc
with laii piacticc, and to thc cxtcnt icquiicd by thc spccilc puiposc,
(c) usc loi thc puiposcs ol public sccuiity oi to cnsuic thc piopci pciloi-
mancc oi icpoiting ol administiativc, pailiamcntaiy oi judicial piocccdings,
(f) usc ol political spccchcs as wcll as cxtiacts ol public lcctuics oi similai
woiks oi subjcct-mattci to thc cxtcnt justilcd by thc inloimatoiy puiposc
and piovidcd that thc souicc, including thc authoi's namc, is indicatcd, cxccpt
whcic this tuins out to bc impossiblc,
(g) usc duiing icligious cclcbiations oi omcial cclcbiations oiganizcd by a
public authoiity,
(h) usc ol woiks, such as woiks ol aichitcctuic oi sculptuic, madc to bc
locatcd pcimancntly in public placcs,
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(i) incidcntal inclusion ol a woik oi othci subjcct-mattci in othci matciial,
(j) usc loi thc puiposc ol advcitising thc public cxhibition oi salc ol aitistic
woiks, to thc cxtcnt ncccssaiy to piomotc thc cvcnt, cxcluding any othci
commcicial usc,
(k) usc loi thc puiposc ol caiicatuic, paiody oi pastichc,
(l) usc in conncction with thc dcmonstiation oi icpaii ol cquipmcnt,
(m) usc ol an aitistic woik in thc loim ol a building oi a diawing oi plan ol
a building loi thc puiposcs ol icconstiucting thc building,
(n) usc by communication oi making availablc, loi thc puiposc ol icscaich
oi piivatc study, to individual mcmbcis ol thc public by dcdicatcd tciminals
on thc picmiscs ol cstablishmcnts iclciicd to in paiagiaph z(c) ol woiks and
othci subjcct-mattci not subjcct to puichasc oi liccnsing tcims which aic
containcd in thcii collcctions,
(o) usc in ccitain othci cascs ol minoi impoitancc whcic cxccptions oi
limitations alicady cxist undci national law, piovidcd that thcy only conccin
analoguc uscs and do not afcct thc licc ciiculation ol goods and sciviccs
within thc Community, without picjudicc to thc othci cxccptions and limita-
tions containcd in this Aiticlc.
Many ol thcsc cxccptions plainly bcnclt thc libiaiics (and thcii uscis) in thc EU
countiics that havc iccognizcd thcm. Espccially notcwoithy aic thc cxccptions
loi spccilc acts ol icpioduction madc by publicly acccssiblc libiaiics" so long
as thcy aic not loi cconomic oi commcicial advantagc" oi scivc uscs loi thc
bcnclt ol pcoplc with a disability."
That said, thc sct ol cxccptions containcd in Aiticlc , ol thc EU Copyiight
Diicctivc is suicly not thc only cxamplc ol thc cnumciatcd-list appioach. Thc
thicc-stcp tcst, discusscd in Modulc z, givcs individual countiics considciably moic
latitudc in sclccting cxccptions and limitations than thc EU has cxciciscd. Somc
countiics havc gonc a good dcal luithci.
Thc sccond gcncial appioach is to statc somc gcncial guidclincs loi pcimissiblc
uscs and thcn dclcgatc to thc couits icsponsibility loi applying thosc lactois to
individual cascs. Thc picmici cxamplc ol this appioach is thc laii usc doctiinc in
thc Unitcd Statcs, which is cmbodicd in scction o; ol thc US Copyiight Act:
Notwithstanding thc [statutoiy piovisions gianting copyiight holdcis cxclu-
sivc iights, thc laii usc ol a copyiightcd woik, including such usc by icpio-
duction in copics oi phonoiccoids oi by any othci mcans spccilcd by that
scction, loi puiposcs such as ciiticism, commcnt, ncws icpoiting, tcaching
(including multiplc copics loi classioom usc), scholaiship, oi icscaich, is not
an inliingcmcnt ol copyiight. In dctcimining whcthci thc usc madc ol a woik
in any paiticulai casc is a laii usc thc lactois to bc considcicd shall includc
() thc puiposc and chaiactci ol thc usc, including whcthci such usc is ol a
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commcicial natuic oi is loi nonpiolt cducational puiposcs, (z) thc natuic ol
thc copyiightcd woik, (,) thc amount and substantiality ol thc poition uscd
in iclation to thc copyiightcd woik as a wholc, and () thc cfcct ol thc usc
upon thc potcntial maikct loi oi valuc ol thc copyiightcd woik. Thc lact that
a woik is unpublishcd shall not itscll bai a lnding ol laii usc il such lnding is
madc upon considciation ol all thc abovc lactois.
Couits in thc Unitcd Statcs havc iclicd on this piovision to iccognizc cxccptions
loi a widc iangc ol activitics, including thc making ol a paiody ol a copyiightcd
woik, icpioducing a poition ol a copyiightcd woik loi thc puiposc ol scholaiship,
and using a vidcocasscttc iccoidci to iccoid a tclcvision piogiam oi movic loi
vicwing at a latci timc.
In bctwccn thcsc two gcncial appioachcs is a stiatcgy somctimcs known as laii
dcaling." A good cxamplc is thc systcm uscd in Austialia. Thc Austialian Copyiight
Act (as amcndcd in zoo6) idcntilcs somc bioad ciicumstanccs in which an unau-
thoiizcd usc ol a copyiightcd woik might bc considcicd laii: icscaich, ciiticism oi
icvicw, ncws icpoiting, lcgal advicc, and paiody oi satiic. Mcicly lalling into onc
ol thcsc boxcs docs not mcan, howcvci, that a paiticulai activity will bc dccmcd
laii. Rathci, thc couits considci individual cascs by consulting a sct ol lactois that
looscly paiallcl thc lactois uscd in thc US systcm. In gcncial, thc couits will cxcusc
conduct within thcsc boxcs il thcy dccm it appiopiiatc judgcd by thc ciitciion ol
a laii mindcd and honcst pcison." Thc Austialian appioach is gcncially thought to
bc lcss unpicdictablc - but also lcss cxiblc - than thc US appioach.
A scpaiatc and ncaily univcisal cxccption to thc iights ol a copyiight holdci
is thc rst saIe doctrine. Thc list salc doctiinc says that oncc a consumci has
lawlully puichascd a copy ol a copyiightcd woik, thc copyiight holdci no longci
has thc ability to contiol that paiticulai copy. Foi this icason, icsalc, lcnding, oi
icntal ol a lawlully puichascd copyiightcd woik is gcncially pcimissiblc. Howcvci,
countiics can imposc ccitain limitations on thcsc iights. Thcy may icstiict oi
icquiic compulsoiy liccnscs loi ccitain uscs ol copyiightcd woiks. Foi cxamplc,
as indicatcd abovc, a nation may piohibit thc icntal ol goods that aic casily and
licqucntly copicd, such as soltwaic oi phonoiccoids. Additionally, a nation may
icquiic that thc authoi ol thc woik bc paid a ccitain lcc upon icsalc ol a copy ol
a copyiightcd woik. (This so-callcd droit de suite only cxists in a lcw juiisdictions,
and cvcn thcic only applics to uniquc woiks ol lnc ait.)
Thc opciation ol thc list salc doctiinc is lcss intuitivc with digital woiks. This is
bccausc what may sccmlikc noimal usc lioma consumci's pcispcctivc may actually
involvc thc making ol additional digital copics. This in tuin could bc piohibitcd by
thc authoi's cxclusivc iight ol icpioduction. Foi cxamplc, il a consumci puichascs
a CD, shc can listcn to it on any CD playci without woiiying about inliinging thc
authoi's copyiight. Shc can also, bccausc ol thc list salc doctiinc, lcnd that CD to
a liicnd who can listcn to it on a CD playci and thcn givc it back, without woiiying
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about inliinging thc authoi's iights. Howcvci, il that samc consumci puichascs a
sound iccoiding onlinc, listcns to it, and thcn cmails a copy to a liicnd, shc will
havc violatcd thc copyiight law (cvcn il shc dclctcs hci oiiginal copy) bccausc thc
oiiginal iccoiding has bccn icpioduccd." Thcic icmains a sciious policy qucstion
as to whcthci thc list salc doctiinc should govcin such cascs, but as yct that has
not occuiicd.
Llbrary exceptlons
Last but not lcast, thc copyiight laws ol many countiics contain cxccptions oi limita-
tions dcsigncd to cnablc libiaiians to usc copyiightcd matciials in ways that advancc
thcii missions. Thcsc piovisions vaiy widcly by countiy. Foi a thoiough icvicw ol
thc libiaiy cxccptions in limitations in z8 countiics, you should consult Kcnncth
Cicws's Stud, on Cop,riqnt Iimitations and Lxceptions jor Iibraries and Arcnives.
Sct loith bclow aic dcsciiptions ol somc common situations in which libiaiians
nccd cxibility in using copyiightcd matciials, plus summaiics ol thc ways in which
many countiics dcal with thosc situations.
ALL0WlN0 LlRARY PA7R0NS 70 US 7H LlRARY'S
C0PY MACHlNS 0R 07HR C0PY UlPMN7
Pations licqucntly wish to makc copics ol cxccipts ol libiaiy-owncd matciials.
Unlcss thc book oi aiticlc thc pation is copying is in thc public domain, such
copying is icgulatcd by thc countiy's copyiight statutc. Il thc copying cxcccds thc
maximum sct by othci cxccptions and limitations, thc pation may bc commit-
ting copyiight inliingcmcnt. In somc situations, abscnt a statutoiy oi othci salc
haiboi, thc libiaiy could bc hcld sccondaiily oi indiicctly liablc loi allowing thc
inliingcmcnt to takc placc by pioviding thc cquipmcnt. (Thc conccpts ol sccondaiy
and indiicct liability will bc discusscd in moic dctail in Modulc ;.)
Foitunatcly, many countiics havc cnactcd spccilc statutoiy piovisions that
shicld libiaiians and libiaiics liom liability loi copyiight inliingcmcnt committcd
by pations who usc photocopicis oi othci cquipmcnt thc libiaiy piovidcs. To
qualily loi thc statutoiy cxcmption, libiaiics typically must post a noticc and
a disclaimci, stating that thc making ol photocopics oi othci icpioductions is
govcincd by copyiight law, and that thc pcison using thc cquipmcnt is liablc loi
any inliingcmcnt.
MAKlN0 C0PYRl0H70 MA7RlALS AVAlLAL
0N 7H LlRARY'S C0MPU7RS
Libiaiics somctimcs makc matciials availablc to thc public on computcis. Foi
cxamplc, thcy somctimcs opciatc wcbsitcs and post on thosc wcbsitcs matciials
that thc public at laigc can icach via thc Intcinct. Il thosc matciials aic subjcct
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to copyiight, and il thc libiaiy lails to obtain pcimission loi displaying thcm,
it may bc subjcct to liability. Howcvci, many countiics havc cnactcd so-callcd
salc haiboi" cxccptions to limit thc liability ol onlinc scivicc piovidcis. To thc
cxtcnt that univcisitics and libiaiics may bc considcicd such piovidcis, thcy aic
shicldcd liom liability, as long as thcy comply with thc pioccduics sct loith in
cach countiy's laws.
MAKlN0 C0PlS F0R LlRARY PA7R0NS
Libiaiy pations oltcn ask libiaiians to makc copics ol copyiightcd matciials
loi thcii pcisonal usc. Many countiics piovidc statutoiy cxccptions that pcimit
libiaiians to makc limitcd copics loi this puiposc. Somc allow such icpioductions
only loi ccitain spccilcd classcs ol woik such as pciiodicals, whilc othcis makc
no such distinctions. Fuithci, somc countiics only pcimit copying loi puiposcs
such as icscaich, whilc othcis do not havc this limitation.
By way ol cxamplc, thc Unitcd Kingdom allows libiaiians to makc copics ol
aiticlcs in pciiodicals, but limits such copying to a singlc aiticlc pci issuc, and
icquiics thc pation to piovc that thc copy is loi piivatc noncommcicial icscaich oi
study. Canada, on thc othci hand, docs not havc thc singlc-aiticlc icstiiction, but
docs limit thc icpioduction cxccption to aiticlcs publishcd in scholaily, scicntilc,
oi tcchnical jouinals. Canada also cxcludcs woiks ol lction, poctiy, and so on,
liom thc class ol woiks that may bc copicd.
MAKlN0 0l0l7AL C0PlS F0R PRSRVA7l0N AN0 RPLACMN7
Libiaiians aic pcimittcd, in ccitain ciicumstanccs, to makc copics ol libiaiy
matciials loi thcii picscivation oi icplaccmcnt. Thcsc ciicumstanccs aic typically
tightly icgulatcd by local copyiight statutcs. Many countiics pcimit copying as
long as:
- thc libiaiy owns thc oiiginal woik,
- thc woik is publicly acccssiblc,
- thc oiiginal is at iisk ol damagc oi dctciioiation, is in obsolctc loimat, oi
cannot bc vicwcd bccausc ol thc conditions in which it must bc kcpt.
Thc pcimittcd icpioduction is oltcn limitcd to a small numbci ol copics. Il an
appiopiiatc copy is commcicially availablc, thc iight to icpioducc loi picscivation
oi icplaccmcnt is typically limitcd. Fuithci, copying is oltcn limitcd to papci
icpioduction, and copics madc in digital loimat typically may not bc madc availablc
to thc public outsidc ol thc libiaiy picmiscs.
CRA7lN0 C0URS PACKS F0R S7U0N7S
Univcisity libiaiians aic somctimcs askcd to cicatc couisc packs." Couisc packs
aic typically a collcction ol cxccipts liom jouinals, aiticlcs, book chaptcis, and
so loith that a tcachci assigns loi studcnts cniollcd in a paiticulai couisc.
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6o COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS

In thc Unitcd Statcs, many univcisitics uscd to asscmblc couisc packs without
obtaining pcimission liom thc copyiight holdcis ol thc individual aiticlcs, bclicving
that such copying qualilcd loi thc laii usc" cxccption loi acadcmic puiposcs.
Howcvci, couit dccisions in thc jjos hcld that thc picpaiation and salc ol such
couisc packs by commcicial copy shops" did not constitutc laii usc. It is not ccitain
that thosc dccisions would apply to univcisitics, but thc lawycis advising most
univcisitics havc takcn a cautious appioach. At thcii uiging, most US univcisitics
havc now adoptcd systcms loi obtaining liccnscs to all matciials includcd in couisc
packs.
It is possiblc that a countiy that, unlikc thc Unitcd Statcs, iclics upon a list ol
spccilc cxccptions and limitations, iathci than a gcncial laii usc doctiinc, to sct
thc limits ol copyiight piotcction may havc a spccilc piovision that authoiizcs
thc cication ol couisc packs. Il not, libiaiians in such a countiy must obtain a
wiittcn liccnsc liom thc copyiight holdcis in oidci to cicatc couisc packs. To
icducc thc administiativc buidcn ol sccking pcimission liom many difcicnt
copyiight holdcis, libiaiians may wish to contiact with collcctivc managcmcnt
oiganizations likc thosc dcsciibcd in Modulc ,. Thcsc piivatc sciviccs cntci into
amliations with acadcmic publishcis and obtain blankct clcaiancc liccnscs loi thc
publishci's cntiic catalog, oi cntci into agiccmcnts with a collcctivc managcmcnt
oiganization icpicscnting publishcis.
A0AP7lN0 MA7RlALS F0R 7H LlN0, VlSUALLY
lMPAlR0 AN0 07HR RA0lN0 0lSAL0 PRS0NS
In most countiics, spccilc cxcmptions allow libiaiians to piovidc modilcd copics
ol woiks to scivc thc nccds ol visually impaiicd pations. A moic dctailcd discussion
ol thc copyiight cxccption loi visually impaiicd pcisons can bc lound in }udith
Sullivan's icpoit ol thc Filtccnth Scssion ol thc WIPO Standing Committcc on
Copyiight and Rclatcd Rights. This situation may changc soon il a ticaty cuiicntly
bcing considcicd by WIPO is adoptcd.
lN7RLlRARY L0ANS
Thc copyiight statutcs ol somc countiics contain cxccptions loi intci-libiaiy loans.
This cnablcs a libiaiy to makc a copy ol a woik loi thc puiposc ol lcnding it to a
pation ol anothci libiaiy. Somctimcs thc statutoiy cxccption loi intci-libiaiy loan
will icquiic thc libiaiy to pay a liccnsing lcc in oidci to makc thc icpioduction,
thc amount ol which is typically dctcimincd by thc govcinmcnt oi a collccting
socicty. In ccitain countiics, such as Austialia, Ncw Zcaland, and Singapoic, a
libiaiian must dctciminc that thc aiticlc oi woik is not commcicially availablc
bcloic thc intci-libiaiy loan cxccption can bc invokcd.
Similai to intci-libiaiy loan statutcs aic so-callcd supply" statutcs, which allow
a libiaiy to makc a copy ol a woik loi anothci libiaiy, but do not icquiic that thc
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puiposc ol thc copy bc loi thc piivatc usc ol a pation. Supply statutcs vaiy among
juiisdictions. Somc countiics (loi cxamplc, Fiji) icquiic that thc libiaiian list
attcmpt to puichasc thc woik at maikct valuc. Othcis (loi cxamplc, Antigua) allow
such copying only whcn it is not piacticablc to puichasc a copy. Still othcis (loi
cxamplc, Iicland) only allow such copying il it would not bc icasonablc to ask thc
copyiight holdci's pcimission.
In somc cascs, a countiy may not havc a spccilc statutoiy libiaiy cxccption. Yct
libiaiics may still bc cntitlcd to cngagc in many ol thc activitics dcsciibcd abovc,
il thosc countiics havc a bioadci piovision that would pcimit any citizcn, which
would includc libiaiians and libiaiy pations, to undcitakc thcsc activitics. This
is tiuc, loi cxamplc, in Iiaq and Namibia. Somc countiics limit thcii cxccptions
to a list ol dcsignatcd libiaiics, in othci countiics, thc cxccptions aic availablc to
all libiaiics that mcct ccitain icquiicmcnts, such as bcing opcn to thc public and
acting loi noncommcicial puiposcs.
Compulsory llcenses
In addition to thc cxccptions and limitations suivcycd abovc, many countiics limit
thc iights ol copyiight holdcis with so-callcd compulsoiy liccnscs." Compulsoiy
liccnscs aic oltcn sccn as compiomiscs bctwccn thc cconomic intcicsts ol copyiight
holdcis and thc public's intcicst in using copyiightcd matciial. Foi cxamplc, Aiticlc
, ol thc Bcinc Convcntion givcs countiics thc authoiity to imposc compulsoiy
liccnscs loi thc usc ol musical compositions. Examplcs ol compulsoiy liccnscs
cxisting in somc countiics includc thc iight ol public lcnding by libiaiics, and
thc iight ol piivatc copying ol audio iccoidings in cxchangc loi a tax on blank
CDs. This will bc luithci discusscd in Modulc ,: Managing Rights.
Unfortunately, unless the composltlons ln Angela's collectlon have fallen lnto the
publlc domaln, there ls no slmple answer to Angela's questlon. Nadla would be
obllged to revlew the detalls of the partlcular system of exceptlons and llmltatlons
contalned ln her country's copyrlght law to ascertaln, rst, whether she would be
permltted to make a dlgltal copy of each plece of sheet muslc and, second, whether
the llbrary would be permltted to post the dlgltal copy of lt on the llbrary's servers.
|t ls more llkely that the rst of these actlvltles would be permltted than that the
second actlvlty would be permltted, but nelther lssue could be denltlvely resolved
wlthout consultlng the country's laws.
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6. COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS

In zoo, Siva Vaidhyanathan publishcd Cop,riqnts and Cop,wronqs. Tne Rise oj Inte||ectua|
Iropert, and How It Tnreatens Creativit,. Thc thcsis ol this highly acccssiblc book is wcll
captuicd by its titlc. Foi an intcivicw with Vaidhyanathan, in which hc summaiizcs his
aigumcnt, scc 'Copyiights and Copywiongs', Sta, Iree magazinc, zo. Foi a similaily acccssiblc
study that takcs a much moic lavoiablc vicw ol thc cvolution ol thc iights and cxccptions
associatcd with copyiight, scc Paul Goldstcin, Cop,riqnts Hiqnwa,. Irom Gutenberq to tne
Ce|estia| }ukebox (Stanloid Law, zoo,) - availablc only in piint oi via audio download.
Thc most compichcnsivc cxamination ol thc piovisions ol cach countiy's copyiight
laws that piovidc cxibility to libiaiians is Kcnncth Cicws, Stud, on Cop,riqnt Iimitations
and Lxceptions jor Iibraries and Arcnives (zoo8), www.wipo.int/mcctings/cn/doc_dctails.
jsp?doc_id=ojjz.
Two hclplul WIPO studics aic WIIO Stud, on Cop,riqnt Iimitations and Lxceptions jor
tne Visua||, Impaired (zoo;), www.wipo.int/mcctings/cn/doc_dctails.jsp?doc_id=;,6j6,
and WIIO Stud, on Iimitations and Lxceptions oj Cop,riqnt and Re|ated Riqnts in tne Diqita|
Lnvironment (zoo,), www.wipo.int/mcctings/cn/doc_dctails.jsp?doc_id=68o,.
Foi a highly acccssiblc study ol latitudc that llmmakcis (paiticulaily in thc Unitcd
Statcs) cnjoy whcn quoting copyiightcd matciial, scc Pat Auldcihcidc and Pctci }aszi,
Recut, Rejrame, Rec,c|e (Ccntci loi Social Mcdia, zoo8), www.ccntciloisocialmcdia.
oig/laii-usc/iclatcd-matciials/documcnts/iccut-icliamc-iccyclc.
CASS
Thc lollowing judicial opinions cxploic and apply somc ol thc piinciplcs discusscd in
this modulc:
Iarrikin Music v. Men at Work (Austialia zoo) (iight ol icpioduction).
Casc C-,/o8, Injopaq Internationa| A/S v. Danske Daqb|ades Ioreninq (iight ol icpioduction)
Gi|nam v. R, Court oj Appea| oj Lnq|and and Wa|es (Couit ol Appcal ol England and Walcs),
zooj (iight ol icpioduction).
}.I. Row|inq v. RDR Books, ,;, F.Supp.zd ,, (zooj) (dciivativc woiks).
Casc C-,o6/o,, Sociedad Genera| de Autores , Lditores de Lspana (SGAL) v. Rajae| Hote|es SA
(mcaning ol communication to thc public).
Casc C-;j/o, Iaserdisken ApS v. Iu|turministeriet (cxhaustion).
Casc C-z,/oo, Sticntinq ter Lxp|oitatie van âburiqe Recnten (SLÂ) v. êder|andse Omroep
Sticntinq (ÔS) (icntal iights - cquitablc icmunciation).
Coui dc cassation (ic ch. civ.), z8 lviici zoo6, Studio Canal, Univcisal Pictuics vidco Fiancc
ct SEV c/ S. Pciquin ct Ulc quc Choisii (piivatc copics - tcchnological piotcctions).
Swcdcn: B ,,o-o6, ; Apiil zooj (Piiatc Bay Casc) (mcaning ol making availablc).
Buqet v. Iersiq, }udgmcnt ol May ,o, j6z, Coui d'appcl, Paiis, j6z Rccucil Dalloz [D. }ui.
,;o (dcsciibcd in Mciiyman, Thc Rcliigciatoi ol Bcinaid Bufct," z; Hastinqs I.}. oz,
(j;6)) (moial iights).
Campbe|| v. Acuq Rose Music, Inc., ,o U.S. ,6j (jj) (laii usc).
Gcimany: Bundcsvcilassungsgciicht, Uitcil vom ;. Fcbiuai jj8, - BvF /j; (iight to
shoit icpoiting).
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6, COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS

ASSl0NMN7
:. Are the restrlctlons that copyrlght law places on llbrarlans ln your country too
strlct, too loose, or the rlght balance! Use the references ln the llst of Addltlonal
Pesources (above) to locate the llst of llbrary exceptlons appllcable ln your own
country. Summarlze the prlnclpal exceptlons.
z. |maglne and descrlbe a pro[ect that you would llke to develop at your llbrary
but that would not be permltted by the copyrlght laws ln your country. Draft an
amendment to your natlonal copyrlght statute that would cover thls use.
0lSCUSSl0N US7l0NS
Comment upon some of the amendment proposals of your colleagues.
Contributors
This modulc was cicatcd by Emily Cox. It was thcn cditcd by a tcam including
Scbastian Diaz, William Fishci, Uis Gassci, Adam Holland, Kimbcilcy Isbcll, Pctci
}aszi, Colin Maclay, Andicw Moshiinia, and Chiis Pctcison.
ncJJ|o ,
Managing rights
Learning objective
This modulc dcsciibcs thc lcgal iulcs that afcct thc ability ol copyiight holdcis
to collcct icvcnuc liom uscis ol thcii woiks - and how libiaiians can cithci usc
thosc iulcs to thcii bcst advantagc oi scck to changc thcm.
Case study
Nadla prevlously helped Angela ldentlfy several ltems that Angela ls permltted to
lnclude wlthout permlsslon ln the packet of course materlals she ls preparlng for her
students. Angela now wants Nadla's help ln obtalnlng permlsslons for the remalnlng
materlals. Speclcally, she asks Nadla:
- what actlvltles may be covered by llcenses the llbrary has already obtalned from
publlshers or collectlng socletles!
- Por the actlvltles that requlre a separate llcense, what clauses should | negotlate!
- How should | handle those materlals whose authors cannot be ldentled or
located!
Lesson
|ndlvldual management
LlCNSS AN0 ASSl0NMN7S
Rcmcmbci that a copyiight givcs thc copyiight holdci scvcial cxclusivc iights with
icspcct to thc copyiightcd woik. Copyiight holdcis commonly usc Iicenses to
authoiizc othci pcoplc to cngagc in thc activitics covcicd by thosc iights. Oltcn,
though not always, thc copyiight ownci will dcmand a lcc in ictuin loi gianting
such a liccnsc. A typical liccnsc will spccily thc lollowing:
- thc authoiizcd usc (c.g. icpioduction, thc picpaiation ol dciivativc woiks, public
pciloimanccs),
- thc duiation ol thc authoiization (c.g. onc ycai),
- thc natuic ol thc authoiization (c.g. cxclusivc oi non-cxclusivc),
- thc lcc iclatcd to thc tiansaction (c.g. a at lcc oi a lcc piopoitional to thc
numbci ol copics oi ol uscs),
- thc loimat oi mcdia typc (c.g. piint only oi also digital, tcxt only oi also in
anothci mcdia, such as a iccoiding oi a llm),
- thc audicncc and location (c.g. a paiticulai countiy, thc picmiscs ol thc libiaiy,
thc classioom, a distancc lcaining couisc).
Somctimcs thc copyiight holdci and thc piospcctivc liccnscc ncgotiatc thc
liccnsc diicctly. At othci timcs, a liccnsc may bc ofcicd by thc copyiight holdci in
a standaid loim to all potcntial uscis. In such ciicumstanccs, individual uscis may
havc littlc oi no powci to ncgotiatc modilcations ol thc liccnsc tcims.
Somc liccnscs aic cxclusivc. In othci woids, thc liccnsoi agiccs not to pcimit
any othci paity to cngagc in thc activitics covcicd by thc liccnsc. Othcis aic non-
cxclusivc, mcaning that thc liccnsoi icmains licc to pcimit othci paitics to cngagc
in thc samc activitics.
An assignment occuis whcn a copyiight holdci pcimancntly tianslcis somc
oi all ol his cxclusivc iights to anothci paity. Foi cxamplc, publishing contiacts
loi books and aiticlcs histoiically havc oltcn icquiicd thc authoi to assign all
iights to thc publishci. (Moic icccntly, many authois havc icsistcd assigning thc
copyiights in thcii woiks as pait ol a publishing agiccmcnt. Thc Scholaily Publish-
ing 8 Acadcmic Rcsouiccs Coalition (SPARC) has cicatcd a modcl addcndum loi
publishing contiacts that allows authois to ictain thc copyiights to thcii woiks,
whilc liccnsing publishcis to makc spccilc uscs ol thosc woiks. Moic inloimation
about thc SPARC Authoi Addcndum can bc lound hcic.)
A lcw countiics allow thc authois ol ccitain typcs ol woiks to iccaptuic" thc
iights associatcd with a copyiight that has bccn assigncd oi liccnscd altci a sct
pciiod ol timc, subjcct to ccitain limitations. To iccaptuic thc copyiight, thc authoi
oi hci hciis must comply with loimal noticc icquiicmcnts. Foi cxamplc, US law
contains two piovisions addicssing thc iccaptuic ol copyiights (; U.S.C. scctions
zo,, ,o). Whcn and how a copyiight can bc iccaptuicd dcpcnds upon a numbci ol
lactois, including whcn thc woik was cicatcd, who signcd thc agiccmcnt liccnsing
oi assigning thc woik, whcn thc agiccmcnt was signcd, and whcthci thc woik has
bccn publishcd. Cicativc Commons has cicatcd a tool to hclp authois and thcii
hciis dctciminc whcn oi il a copyiight can bc iccaptuicd. Canada and Austialia
havc iccaptuic systcms that difci substantially in thcii dctails but cmbody thc
samc gcncial piinciplc. Bclgium and Swcdcn usc a difcicnt appioach, in thosc
countiics, ccitain kinds ol assignmcnts lapsc il thc iights that havc bccn giantcd
aic not cxciciscd.
Copyiight holdcis aic gcncially pcimittcd to dividc and liccnsc thc iights to
difcicnt uscs ol thcii woik as thcy plcasc. Howcvci, thc copyiight laws in somc
countiics limit thc liccdom ol contiacting loi copyiightcd woiks oi contain spccilc
piovisions icgulating tiansactions involving copyiightcd woiks. Foi instancc, somc
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countiics icquiic liccnscs oi assignmcnts to bc in wiiting and to dcsciibc thc tcims
ol usc spccilcally, oi clsc thc liccnsc oi assignmcnt will bc invalid.
Thc dcgicc to which thc tcims ol a liccnsc aic ncgotiablc dcpcnds on thc typc
ol woik at issuc and thc baigaining powci ol thc liccnsoi and liccnscc. Potcntial
liccnsccs can somctimcs incicasc thcii baigaining powci by acting collcctivcly. Foi
cxamplc, a consoitium such as EIFL, by pooling thc icsouiccs ol many libiaiics,
has much moic powci than its individual mcmbcis.
LlCNSS lN 7H 0l0l7AL NVlR0NMN7
Many onlinc and clcctionic icsouiccs aic now subjcct to clcctionic liccnscs. Onc
common loim ol clcctionic liccnsc is callcd a unllateral oi shrlnkwrap liccnsc
bccausc it comcs with picsciibcd tcims and is iaicly subjcct to modilcation.
Unilatcial liccnscs aic most oltcn uscd by liccnsois ol soltwaic pioducts. (Thc
tcim shiinkwiap" comcs liom thc plastic wiapping oltcn lound on soltwaic boxcs,
thc oiiginal shiinkwiap liccnscs piovidcd that icmoving thc wiapping constitutcd
acccptancc ol thc tcims ol thc liccnsc piintcd on thc box oi containcd within it.)
Thc cnloiccability ol thcsc liccnscs is discusscd in moic dctail in Modulc j.
Anothci common loim is callcd an cnd-usci liccnsc agiccmcnt (EULA) oi
browsewrap liccnsc. EULAs aic licqucntly uscd by thc liccnsois ol onlinc contcnt.
EULAs allow piospcctivc liccnsccs to icad thc tcims ol thc liccnsc on thc liccnsoi's
wcbsitc. Il thcy dccidc thcy want to usc thc liccnsoi's pioduct oi scivicc, thcy cntci
into thc liccnsc by clicking on a button stating I Agicc." Somc liccnscs do not cvcn
icquiic a click" (thc clcctionic manilcstation ol a signatuic), but instcad picsumc
that usc ol thc liccnsoi's wcbsitc is sumcicnt to dcmonstiatc a tacit acccptancc and
thus loim a liccnsc.
Shiinkwiap liccnscs and EULAs aic oltcn limitcd to thc spccilc usci ol thc
matciial and do not cxtcnd to an oiganization ol which thc usci may bc a mcmbci.
Both shiinkwiap liccnscs and EULAs contain pic-sct tcims and aic almost always
non-ncgotiablc.
Whilc many lcgal systcms havc not lully addicsscd thc cfcct ol thcsc typcs ol
liccnsc, couits in somc countiics havc iulcd that a valid conscnt, giving iisc to a
binding contiact, can bc loimcd in thcsc lashions. In most countiics, howcvci, thc
tcims ol such agiccmcnts will bc subjcct to consumci piotcction laws and othci
limitations on unconscionablc piovisions.
C0N7N7 0F A 7YPlCAL LlCNS:
7H XAMPL 0F AN 0NLlN 0A7AAS
Lct us now cxaminc thc tcims ol liccnsc moic closcly. Imaginc that you aic a
libiaiian ncgotiating thc tcims ol a liccnsc - loi cxamplc, to an onlinc databasc.
What issucs will oi should thc liccnsc addicss?
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|DLNT|P|CAT|ON OP THL PAPT|LS TO THL AGPLLMLNT
It is impoitant not only to idcntily thc paitics to an agiccmcnt, but also to
conlim that thc pcisons ncgotiating actually havc thc lcgal authoiity to makc
agiccmcnts on bchall ol thcii oiganization. Il a libiaiy is pait ol an cducational
institution oi is lundcd by thc local govcinmcnt, loi cxamplc, not cvciy libiaiian
may havc this authoiity. A liccnsoi might want piool that thc pcison claiming
to ncgotiatc on bchall ol thc liccnscc is in lact pcimittcd to bind thc liccnscc by
contiact. Thc libiaiian might want to makc suic thc samc is tiuc ol thc pcison
ncgotiating on bchall ol thc liccnsoi, and that thc liccnsoi is cntitlcd to cxcicisc
thc iights ol thc copyiight holdci. This should bc clcaily addicsscd and includcd
in thc agiccmcnt.
DLP|N|T|ON OP TLPMS THAT w|LL 8L USLD |N THL AGPLLMLNT
Bccausc libiaiics oltcn obtain liccnscs liom copyiight holdcis liom othci countiics
and liom vaiious industiics, similai tcims can havc difcicnt mcanings to thc
ncgotiating paitics. Foi cxamplc, onc impoitant tcim in liccnsing agiccmcnts is
materiaI breach. A matciial bicach is an action by onc ol thc paitics to a liccnsing
agiccmcnt that pcimits thc othci paity to tciminatc thc contiactual iclationship.
Bccausc ol thc impoitancc and ambiguity ol this tcim, thc libiaiian should spccily
in thc agiccmcnt what actions by a paity would amount to a matciial bicach.
Foi instancc, supposc thc libiaiy wcic to ncgotiatc a liccnsc to acccss matciials
liom an onlinc databasc. In this casc, it might bc a matciial bicach il thc databasc
is inacccssiblc loi long pciiods ol timc. Likcwisc, thc staf should considci what
potcntial lailuics by thc libiaiy to livc up to its cnd ol a liccnsing agiccmcnt might
lcgitimatcly bc considcicd matciial bicachcs.
SU81LCT OP AGPLLMLNT
Paitics to an agiccmcnt should bc vciy spccilc about what copyiightcd woik is
bcing liccnscd. Il it's an onlinc icscaich databasc, loi cxamplc, a liccnscc should
makc suic that thc liccnsc cntitlcs pations to vicw thc lull tcxt ol aiticlcs, iathci
than just abstiacts oi summaiics. Il thc icsouicc is somcthing that should contain
a tablc ol contcnts, indcx oi imagcs, thc liccnscc should cnsuic that thcsc aic
includcd in thc liccnsc as wcll. Il thcic aic imagcs, onc might cvcn want to
dctciminc whcthci thcy will bc vicwablc and/oi piintablc in black and whitc oi
coloi.
USL P|GHTS |N THL AGPLLMLNT
Liccnsing agiccmcnts oltcn contain clauscs that icscivc to thc liccnsoi thc cxclusivc
iight to all uscs ol copyiightcd woiks that aic not spccilcally mcntioncd in thc
agiccmcnt. A liccnscc should thcicloic think ol all possiblc uscs that it might
want to makc ol a copyiightcd woik bcloic it cngagcs in ncgotiations. Thcsc use
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rights piovisions aic thc most impoitant pait ol a liccnsing agiccmcnt bccausc
thcy contiol what thc agiccmcnt actually allows thc liccnscc to do.
Whcic an clcctionic icsouicc is conccincd, somc basic usc iights might includc:
scaiching oi biowsing thc databasc, vicwing and downloading matciial, loiwaiding
aiticlcs to othcis, piinting matciials, and including a listing ol thc woiks and
possibly thcii abstiacts in thc libiaiy's own cataloguc. A libiaiy that is amliatcd
with an cducational institution may also want to makc suic that a liccnsc allows
laculty and staf to placc matciials in clcctionic icscivcs, includc thcm in couisc
packs, and distiibutc and/oi display poitions ol thc matciials in lcctuics oi othci
spcaking cngagcmcnts.
Fuithci, whilc thc piacticc ol loaning matciials to othci libiaiics oi shaiing a
icasonablc amount ol matciials with collcagucs loi scholaily puiposcs is implicd in
somc juiisdictions by law, a liccnscc cannot noimally shaic copyiightcd matciials
loi commcicial puiposcs. Il a liccnscc wishcs to do so, it will havc to ncgotiatc loi
thc iight and includc it in thc agiccmcnt. Il modilying a woik in oidci to abidc by
local noims is ncccssaiy, a libiaiy should makc suic that thc modilcation docs not
conict with thc authoi's moial iights.
On onc lnal issuc, thc liccnscc should bc cspccially caiclul. Many liccnsc agicc-
mcnts havc thc cfcct ol displacing thc gcncial sct ol cxccptions and limitations
(discusscd at lcngth in Modulc ) pcitaining to thc woiks covcicd by thc liccnsc.
Thus, thc liccnscc should not assumc that it will continuc to cnjoy thc usc iights
cicatcd by thosc cxccptions and limitations. Il thc liccnsc wishcs to ictain thcm,
it must insist upon inclusion in thc liccnsc agiccmcnt ol a piovision picsciving
thosc iights.
OTHLP COND|T|ONS ON L|CLNSLD USLS
A liccnsoi might want to limit ccitain uscs by location oi licqucncy ol acccss.
In ictuin loi thc iight to unlimitcd piinting ol thc copyiightcd matciial, loi
cxamplc, a liccnsoi might want additional compcnsation. In this cvcnt, a liccnscc
can ncgotiatc loi thc iight to chaigc its pations lccs to iccovci copying oi piinting
costs. A libiaiy should also dctciminc who its uscis aic going to bc and whcic
thcy will bc ablc to acccss a givcn icsouicc. Foi cxamplc, it may wish its uscis
to bc ablc to acccss thc copyiightcd matciial liom any computci oi only liom
computcis locatcd in thc libiaiy. It should also dccidc whcthci acccss to thc
copyiightcd matciial oi ccitain uscs ol it will icquiic a passwoid oi will bc opcn
to any mcmbci ol thc public.
L|CLNSOP O8L|GAT|ONS
Liccnsoi obligations aic thc dutics a liccnsoi has to hci liccnscc. This clausc is
paiticulaily impoitant loi clcctionic icsouiccs.
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Foi instancc, it is icasonablc loi a subsciibci to an onlinc jouinal, databasc oi
othci icsouicc to cxpcct that thc matciial will bc acccssiblc vciy closc to z houis
a day, cvciy day. Whcic a libiaiy has a soltwaic liccnsc, it might want to ncgotiatc
loi thc iight to maintain a backup copy ol thc piogiam. In cithci casc, liccnsing
agiccmcnts loi clcctionic matciials typically includc somc obligation on thc pait ol
thc liccnsoi to piovidc thc liccnscc with tcchnical suppoit. Bccausc a liccnsoi and its
tcchnical suppoit staf might bc locatcd in anothci countiy, a liccnscc should makc
suic that tcchnical suppoit will bc availablc duiing thc libiaiy's pcak houis.
On a iclatcd notc, most onlinc icsouiccs havc pciiods ol downtimc duiing which
thc liccnsoi's tcchnical staf will updatc thc onlinc matciials. A liccnscc might want
to cnsuic that this is not noimally donc duiing thc libiaiy's pcak houis. Whcn an
onlinc scivicc oi othci clcctionic icsouicc is unavailablc loi a signilcant pciiod
ol timc, liccnsing agiccmcnts typically includc a pcnalty clausc that icquiics thc
liccnsoi to paitially iclund thc liccnscc's subsciiption lcc.
Oltcn liccnsois aic obligatcd to piovidc thc liccnscc pciiodically with an audit ol
usc." An audit ol usc is a icpoit that givcs thc liccnscc dctails about how its pations
aic using thc liccnsoi's piogiam oi databasc. Such usc audits can hclp libiaiy staf
mcmbcis in lutuic liccnsing ncgotiations, cnabling thcm to dctciminc bcttci which
lcatuics and uscs ol liccnscd matciials aic most valuablc to thc libiaiy pations.
Whcic usc audits aic pciloimcd, thc paitics might also want to includc iclunds to
thc liccnscc loi pciiods ol undciusc and additional lccs to thc liccnsoi loi pciiods
ol ovciusc. Lastly, a liccnscc should makc suic that thc liccnsc contains a warranty
and an lndemnlty clause. Thc cfcct ol thcsc clauscs is that thc liccnsoi guaiantccs
that it has thc authoiity to giant thc iights containcd in thc liccnsc and acccpts
liability loi any claims madc by pcisons oi oiganizations that latci claim to havc
inconsistcnt iights.
TLPM, TLPM|NAT|ON, AND PLNLwAL OP A L|CLNSL
Ncgotiating paitics should spccily how long thcy intcnd thc liccnsc to last. Il thc
libiaiy wishcs to havc acccss to a databasc pcipctually, loi cxamplc, it should bc
suic to inscit such a tcim in thc liccnsc agiccmcnt.
As discusscd cailici, thc paitics should also list all ol thc conditions that would
lcad to a tcimination ol thc liccnsing iclationship. This might icquiic thc paitics
to cicatc an cnd-ol-tcim agiccmcnt, which spccilcs thc pioccduics that will bc
lollowcd in thc cvcnt ol tcimination, including thc costs that may bc iccovcicd by
cithci paity. Il an agiccmcnt is tciminatcd bccausc ol thc liccnsoi's lailuic to makc
thc liccnscd matciial availablc to thc liccnscc, loi cxamplc, thc paitics will want
to cicatc a loimula to compcnsatc thc liccnscc.
Whilc most liccnsing agiccmcnts contain a piovision that piovidcs loi automatic
icncwal ol thc liccnsing iclationship, many do not guaiantcc that thc samc tcims
will bc availablc loi thc lollowing subsciiption pciiod. A liccnscc should makc
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suic that, il thc tcims ol thc picvious subsciiption pciiod aic subjcct to changc,
thc icncwal clausc includcs an obligation on thc pait ol thc liccnsoi to notily thc
liccnscc ol thcsc changcs in advancc ol thc ncw subsciiption pciiod.
Finally, it is ciucial to discuss thc libiaiy's iights il thc liccnsc is not icncwcd. Foi
cxamplc, il thc liccnsc pcitains to a collcction ol acadcmic jouinals, will thc libiaiy
continuc to havc acccss to back issucs ol thc jouinals, oi will all acccss to thosc
jouinals bc cut of? Il thc lattci - and il thc liccnsoi icluscs to budgc onthis issuc - thc
libiaiy might sciiously considci continuing to acquiic papci vcisions ol thc jouinals
instcad ol (oi, conccivably, in addition to) subsciibing to thc onlinc vcision.
PLLS
Fccs loi subsciiptions to jouinals, onlinc databascs oi othci icsouiccs aic typically
paid on an annual oi monthly basis. Whcn woiks aic bcing liccnscd to libiaiics
oi othci laigc cducational institutions, liccnsois typically takc into account thc
sizc ol thc institution, thc numbci ol uscis, and thc numbci ol pagcs that aic
downloadcd whcn dctcimining thc appiopiiatc subsciiption lcc.
Liccnsois ol onlinc jouinals and clcctionic databascs vaiy widcly in thcii cx-
ibility icgaiding lcc aiiangcmcnts. Somc liccnsois aic willing to ncgotiatc lccs,
othcis ofci vaiious packagcs, and othcis ofci only onc aiiangcmcnt. A subsciiption
lcc could includc unlimitcd usc ol thc liccnsoi's matciials, limitcd usc loi paiticulai
puiposc, a pay-pci-usc aiiangcmcnt, oi a combination ol thcsc.
Pay-pci-usc aiiangcmcnts might sct a lcc loi cach log-on acccss, cach timc a
usci scaichcs loi contcnt, oi might allow unlimitcd acccss but chaigc uscis oi
subsciibing institutions loi cach download. Univcisitics oltcn puichasc what is
callcd a slte llcense, which givcs all thc mcmbcis ol thc univcisity community
acccss to thc matciial loi a sct lcc.
Collectlve management
PURP0S AN0 FUNC7l0NS 0F C0LLC7lV
MANA0MN7 0R0ANlZA7l0NS
Thc systcm ol individual liccnscs dcsciibcd in thc picvious scction is stiaight-
loiwaid: thc copyiight holdci authoiizcs thc usc ol thc woik by a spccilc liccnscc
undci spccilcd conditions. Howcvci, bccausc copyiight liccnsing oltcn involvcs
widcly distiibutcd woiks, individual liccnsing can bccomc both vciy dimcult and
piohibitivcly cxpcnsivc. It would not bc piactical, loi cxamplc, loi thc holdci ol
thc copyiight to a populai song to attcmpt to icspond to thousands ol liccnsing
icqucsts liom iadio stations all ovci thc woild.
As a icsult, copyiight holdcis licqucntly allow coIIective management orga-
nizations (also known as collccting socictics) to giant liccnscs, monitoi uscs ol
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copyiightcd matciial, and collcct and shaic compcnsation liom liccnsccs on thcii
bchall. This allows copyiight holdcis to cxcicisc thcii iights as cmcicntly as possiblc,
as thcy can giant many moic liccnscs than thcy would bc ablc to undci a diicct
liccnsing systcm. Thcy also bcnclt liom thc baigaining powci ol an oiganization
that ncgotiatcs paymcnts on bchall ol thcm and many othci authois and can biing
inliingcmcnt suits against pcisons oi oiganizations that usc copyiightcd woiks
without pcimission.
Liccnsccs can also bcnclt liom thc usc ol collcctivc managcmcnt oiganizations
bccausc thosc oiganizations piovidc uscis with convcnicnt acccss to laigc collcc-
tions ol matciials. A iadio station wanting to bioadcast music liom aiound thc
woild on a daily basis would not bc ablc to do so il it had to scck out and acquiic
iights liom thc copyiight and ncighboiing iights holdcis ol cach song, but it can
casily cntci into liccnscs with a small numbci ol collcctivc managcmcnt oiganiza-
tions. Howcvci, liccnsccs should bcai in mind that most such oiganizations act as
agcnts loi copyiight holdcis, thcii piimaiy objcctivc is to maximizc thc copyiight
holdcis' icvcnucs. Thcy should thus not bc thought ol as ncutial aibitcis.
A copyiight holdci that uscs a collcctivc managcmcnt oiganization loi somc, but
not all, ol hci iights is cngagcd in paitial collcctivc managcmcnt. Again, a copyiight
holdci's cxclusivc iights in a woik mcans that hc oi shc alonc is ablc to dccidc
whcthci to authoiizc oi piohibit any usc covcicd by that copyiight. In piinciplc,
this givcs a copyiight holdci cxibility in dcciding, il hc chooscs to usc collcctivc
managcmcnt at all, cxactly which lunctions a collcctivc managcmcnt oiganization
will pciloim on his bchall. In piacticc, howcvci, somc collcctivc managcmcnt
oiganizations icquiic a paiticipating copyiight holdci to assign all ol his iights in
a copyiightcd woik to thc oiganization. In thcsc situations, thc authoi will not bc
ablc to liccnsc othcis to usc thc copyiightcd woik cxccpt thiough thc collcctivc
managcmcnt oiganization.
Collcctivc managcmcnt oiganizations may also piovidc social wcllaic bcnclts
to thcii mcmbcis in addition to thcii ioyalty paymcnts, such as mcdical insuiancc
and ictiicmcnt packagcs. Thcy may also usc pait ol thc ioyaltics thcy collcct to
lund diama lcstivals, music compctitions, oi thc pioduction oi cxpoit ol national
woiks.
C0MPULS0RY C0LLC7lV MANA0MN7
Compulsoiy collcctivc managcmcnt systcms cnsuic that thc bcnclts ol collcctivc
managcmcnt aic actually icalizcd. Il a collcctivc managcmcnt oiganization docs
not havc thc iights to a signilcant numbci ol woiks within its paiticulai lcld,
thcn it no longci scivcs thc socially valuablc puiposc ol bcing ablc to liccnsc a
laigc icpcitoiic in a singlc agiccmcnt.
As a icsult, somc countiics choosc to makc collcctivc managcmcnt loi ccitain
typcs ol woiks mandatoiy. This oltcn happcns whcic a usc scivcs an impoitant
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public puiposc oi whcic woiks ol that typc aic uscd piimaiily loi non-commcicial
puiposcs. In such situations, ioyaltics aic usually gathcicd cithci thiough a tax on
copying cquipmcnt oi thiough a picdctcimincd lcc to bc paid by uscis (such as com-
panics, libiaiics, oi univcisitics) to thc collccting socicty. Thosc ioyaltics aic thcn
dividcd among thc copyiight holdcis accoiding to howlicqucntly cach woik is uscd.
Collcctivc managcmcnt oiganizations - and compulsoiy collcctivc managcmcnt
oiganizations in paiticulai - aic somctimcs ciiticizcd loi thc complcxity and lack
ol tianspaicncy ol thc iulcs thcy cmploy loi collccting and distiibuting ioyaltics.
Thc aicas in which compulsoiy collcctivc managcmcnt is most common aic:
- ncighboiing iights loi public pciloimancc, bioadcasting, and cablc tiansmission
ol sound iccoidings,
- public lcnding iights,
- icpiogiaphic icpioduction iights loi litciaiy woiks.
Thc sccond and thiid ol thcsc contcxts aic cspccially impoitant loi libiaiics.
Public lcnding iights wcic discusscd at lcngth in Modulc . As was dcsciibcd thcic,
public lcnding iights aic cuiicntly iccognizcd in vciy lcw countiics outsidc Euiopc,
and thcy posc dangcis to thc ccntial mission ol libiaiics in dcvcloping countiics.
Collcctivc managcmcnt ol such iights, paiticulaily il thc liccnsc lccs aic paid by thc
govcinmcnt, icducc thosc dangcis, but it is piobably bcst il public lcnding iights
aic not cxtcndcd to dcvcloping countiics at all.
Rcpioduction iights, by contiast, aic iccognizcd in all countiics. Collcctivc
managcmcnt ol thosc iights can bc bcnclcial, cspccially loi libiaiics, which
would lnd it dimcult to ncgotiatc individual liccnscs loi all ol thc ciicumstanccs
in which thcy would likc to icpioducc matciials in thcii collcctions - and aic not
ablc to invokc onc ol thc cxccptions oi limitations discusscd in Modulc . Thc
oiganizations that lullll this lunction aic commonly callcd Rcpioduction Rights
Oiganizations (RROs). Thcii activitics aic discusscd in dctail in thc Handbook on
Cop,riqnt and Re|ated Issues jor Iibraries picpaicd by EIFL.
Somc icloimcis havc pioposcd using compulsoiy collcctivc managcmcnt to dcal
with thc distiibution ol woiks on thc Intcinct thiough pcci-to-pcci nctwoiks,
aiguing that such a systcm would bcnclt both uscis (by lcgalizing llc-shaiing
ol copyiightcd matciial - cuiicntly unlawlul in most countiics) and cicatois (by
pioviding thcm with a icliablc souicc ol icvcnuc).
An impoitant and oltcn attiactivc vaiiation on thc compulsoiy-collcctivc-
managcmcnt modcl is known as cxtcndcd collcctivc managcmcnt." A systcm ol
this soit allows an oiganization to liccnsc thc woiks ol all copyiight holdcis loi a
ccitain cicativc class oncc it icpicscnts a laigc pciccntagc ol thc mcmbcis ol that
class. This gcncially includcs loicign and non-mcmbci copyiight holdcis.
Collcctivc managcmcnt oiganizations oltcn cntci into agiccmcnts with thcii
sistci oiganizations in othci countiics in oidci to icpicscnt thcii icpcitoiics.
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Somctimcs such oiganizations aic also oiganizcd into intcinational nctwoiks.
Examplcs includc thc Intcinational Conlcdciation ol Socictics ol Authois and
Composcis (CISAC) and thc Intcinational Fcdciation ol Rcpiogiaphic Rcpioduction
Oiganisations (IFRRO). Thcsc nctwoiks typically paiticipatc activcly in ncgotiation
ol ncw copyiight lcgislation at intcinational and national lcvcls.
Technologlcal protectlon measures
In icccnt ycais, thc holdcis ol thc copyiights in woiks that aic distiibutcd in
digital loimat - such as soltwaic, digital sound iccoidings, digital vidco iccoid-
ings, and clcctionic books - havc bccomc incicasingly dissatislcd with thc iights
that copyiight law givcs thcm and havc sought to cnhancc thosc iights with
technoIogicaI protection measures, oi TPMs. A simplc loim ol TPM is a copy
contiol - a tcchnology, oltcn combining haidwaic and soltwaic, that picvcnts
thc posscssoi ol a copy ol thc woik liom icpioducing it. A moic complcx loim is
a icgion contiol - loi cxamplc, a mcchanism that icstiicts thc paits ol thc woild
in which a paiticulai DVD can bc playcd. Much moic claboiatc loims ol TPMs
havc bccn dcvclopcd icccntly.
Thc invcntion ol TPMs cnhanccd thc iights ol copyiight holdcis signilcantly.
But soon thcy lound that uscis cmploycd othci tcchnologics to ciicumvcnt thc
TPMs, icndciing thcm usclcss. To cuib such ciicumvcntions, thcy tuincd oncc
again to thc lcgal systcm. In thc jj6 WCT, thcy obtaincd an impoitant wcapon: a
icquiicmcnt that all mcmbci countiics adopt piohibitions on TPM ciicumvcntion.
Thc icquiicmcnt has sincc bccn icinloiccd by icgional agiccmcnts. Foi cxamplc,
both thc zoo EU Inloimation Socicty Diicctivc and thc icviscd Bangui Agiccmcnt
(Anncx VII, Titlc I, Pait Fivc), which govcins , liancophonc countiics in Aliica,
contain anti-ciicumvcntion icquiicmcnts.
Many countiics that aic bound by onc oi anothci ol thcsc agiccmcnts havc
now incoipoiatcd into thcii national laws piohibitions on ciicumvcntion ol TPMs.
Thc tcims ol thosc piovisions vaiy widcly - cspccially with icgaid to thc pcnaltics
thcy imposc on violatois and with icgaid to cxccptions thcy iccognizc. Cuiicntly,
z6 countiics havc piovisions spccilcally cxcmpting libiaiics liom liability il thcy
ciicumvcnt TPMs in spccilcd ciicumstanccs. In othci countiics, libiaiians aic
loiccd to icly upon moic gcncial cxcmptions.
TPMS and thc anti-ciicumvcntion iulcs that icinloicc thcm havc many disad-
vantagcs, both liom thc standpoint ol libiaiics and liom thc standpoint ol socicty
at laigc:
- Thcy picvcnt many activitics that copyiight law would pcimit. As a icsult,
thcy liustiatc thc impoitant social policics that lic bchind thc cxccptions and
limitations discusscd in Modulc .
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- Bccausc TPMs aic oltcn piopiictaiy, thcy impcdc thc intciopciability ol cicativc
woiks and consumci clcctionic pioducts obtaincd liom difcicnt souiccs.
- Whcn thc tcchnologics in which thcy aic cmbcddcd bccomc obsolctc, thcy
liustiatc uscis' ability to gain acccss to thc piotcctcd woiks.
Moic cxtcnsivc discussion ol TPMs and thc hazaids thcy posc to libiaiics may
bc lound in thc EIFL Handbook on Cop,riqnt and Re|ated Issues jor Iibraries.
Orphan works
Somctimcs a liccnscc would likc to obtain a liccnsc to a paiticulai woik but
cannot locatc thc copyiight holdci. This may occui loi vaiious icasons. Thc namc
ol thc authoi may bc missing liom thc documcnt. Thc documcnt may havc bccn
publishcd anonymously. Thc authoi may havc dicd and thc pcison who inhciitcd
his oi hci iights may bc unknown. Oi thc authoi may havc assigncd his oi hci
iights to a publishci, which latci wcnt out ol busincss without a clcai succcssoi.
In such situations, thc woik is said to bc an orphan work.
A small numbci ol countiics havc implcmcntcd systcms that makc it possiblc
to makc usc ol oiphan woiks. Foi cxamplc, in Canada thosc who wish to usc such
woiks must apply to thc Copyiight Boaid loi a liccnsc. Such applicants must list
show that a icasonablc cfoit to locatc thc copyiight holdci has bccn liuitlcss. Il
thc woik had picviously bccn publishcd, thc Copyiight Boaid will thcn giant thc
applicant a non-cxclusivc liccnsc (cfcctivc only within Canada) to usc thc woik.
Thc liccnsc is limitcd to paiticulai typcs ol uscs, and icquiics thc applicant to pay
a dcsignatcd ioyalty lcc. This ioyalty can bc claimcd by thc copyiight holdci loi up
to lvc ycais altci thc tiansaction, in thc cvcnt that shc latci comcs loith.
Thc Noidic countiics ol Dcnmaik, Finland, Iccland, Noiway, and Swcdcn havc
also cnactcd statutcs govcining thc liccnsing ol oiphan woiks. In Dcnmaik, loi
cxamplc, thc liccnsing ol oiphan woiks is aiiangcd thiough a collcctivc managc-
mcnt oiganization. Thc Danish Copyiight Act piovidcs that an individual intcicstcd
in using an oiphan woik may aiiangc to pay a iights managcmcnt oiganization
loi that usc, piovidcd that thc oiganization icpicscnts a substantial numbci" ol
Danish copyiight holdcis. Thc ioyaltics paid to thcsc oiganizations may bc claimcd
by a copyiight holdci loi up to lvc ycais, and unclaimcd ioyaltics loi oiphan woiks
aic donatcd to public woiks piogiams.
Anothci countiy that implcmcnts a liccnsing icgimc loi thc usc ol oiphan woiks
is }apan, which opciatcs a compulsoiy liccnsing systcm loi oiphan woiks codilcd
in Scction 8, Aiticlc 6; ol its copyiight laws. }apan icquiics that a piospcctivc usci
pciloim duc diligcncc" in attcmpting to locatc thc copyiight holdci but docs not
cxplain what qualilcs as duc diligcncc." Likc Canada, }apan icquiics that thc
woik has bccn picviously publishcd and allows thc govcinmcnt to giant a liccnsc
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to thc usci upon paymcnt ol a ioyalty. Royaltics aic placcd in a lund liom which
copyiight holdcis may icccivc compcnsation il thcy latci discovci and objcct to thc
usc ol thcii woiks. Notably, thc holdci may pctition thc govcinmcnt loi an incicasc
in thc ioyalty iatc within thicc months ol thc issuancc ol thc liccnsc il shc lcains
ol thc usc and bclicvcs thc initial iatc to bc unsatislactoiy.
Othci countiics do not cuiicntly havc statutoiy piovisions dcaling with oiphan
woiks but may cnact such piovisions in thc ncai lutuic. Amciican lcgislation
dcaling with oiphan woiks is cuiicntly bcing considcicd by thc US Congicss. Thc
pioposal would limit icmcdics in civil suits ovci thc usc ol copyiightcd woiks as
long as () thc usci had madc icasonablc, but unsucccsslul, cfoits to locatc and
idcntily thc holdci, and (z) thc woik was attiibutcd to thc holdci (il idcntilcd but
not locatcd). Thc pioposal has bccn ciiticizcd by many scholais and is opposcd
by icpicscntativcs ol photogiaphcis. Paitly as a icsult, it is unlikcly to bc adoptcd
soon.
In Apiil zoo8, thc Euiopcan Commission's High Lcvcl Expcit Gioup publishcd
a icpoit on Digital Picscivation, Oiphan Woiks, and Out-ol-Piint Woiks, which
iccommcndcd couiscs ol action loi mcmbci statcs ol thc Euiopcan Union to
cstablish liccnsing systcms that would dcal with thc pioblcm ol oiphan woiks. At
thc samc timc, numcious iights holdcis and icpicscntativcs ol libiaiics and aichivcs
signcd a Mcmoiandum ol Undcistanding on oiphan woiks which cxpicsscd thc
commitmcnt ol thcsc oiganizations to lacilitatc and cncouiagc thc liccnsing ol
oiphan woiks loi ccitain puiposcs. Thc Mcmoiandum ol Undcistanding and thc
Euiopcan Commission's icpoit aic not law and aic thcicloic not binding.
Libiaiians in thc majoiity ol countiics that cuiicntly lack a systcm loi managing
oiphan woiks havc a stiong intcicst in collaboiating with othci stakcholdcis to
cicatc such a systcm. This is cspccially tiuc ol libiaiians who wish to initiatc
digitization piojccts loi thc picscivation and distiibution ol oldci woiks in dctc-
iioiating, non-digital loimats. Although thc cxccptions and limitations discusscd
in Modulc may pcimit libiaiics to undcitakc such digitization piojccts puicly
loi picscivation puiposcs, thcy typically do not pcimit thc libiaiics to makc thc
digitizcd woiks availablc to thc public. Foi that, thc libiaiics usually nccd liccnscs,
which aic impossiblc to obtain loi oiphan woiks. Finding a woikablc and laii
solution is thus impciativc. Foi a discussion ol this issuc, and thc positions that
vaiious libiaiy oiganizations havc alicady takcn on it, scc thc LIII Handbook on
Cop,riqnt and Re|ated Issues jor Iibraries.
Nadla and Angela have ldentled works that Angela wlshes to use that are
copyrlghted and not ln the publlc domaln. They need to get permlsslon from the
rlghts-holders for uses that are not covered by exceptlons and llmltatlons.
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Plrst, they have to ldentlfy the copyrlght holders. Orlglnal authors may have llcensed
or transferred rlghts to a publlsher or a collectlng soclety, or the creatlon may be a
work-for-hlre. Por the reasons explored ln Module , other persons' rlghts may also
be lnvolved, such as muslc performers, or persons deplcted ln photographs (who are
protected by the rlght of publlclty agalnst certaln uses of thelr lmage), ln addltlon to
the photographer or entlty who owns the copyrlght. when the contact lnformatlon
for the copyrlght holder ls not avallable on the work, lt mlght be posslble to locate
the holder through natlonal copyrlght omces or collectlve rlghts organlzatlons.
Once they have ldentled and located the rlghts-holders, Nadla and Angela wlll
request permlsslon to use the works. whlle a rst contact by emall or phone can be
useful to explaln the use they are conslderlng, they wlll llkely be requlred to follow
up wlth a request ln wrltlng that descrlbes accurately the copyrlghted work (tltle,
author, copyrlght holder, UPL), the purpose of the use (a descrlptlon of the use ln
the course pack), and the condltlons of the permlsslon that have been dlscussed
(for a small fee, for free, etc.). |f they declde to seek a broad llcense to a database
contalnlng the works at lssue, they should carefully revlew the guldellnes for the
negotlatlon of such llcenses set forth ln thls module.
Plnally, lf they are unable to ldentlfy the owners of the copyrlghts ln some of the
materlals, they should consult thelr country's copyrlght law to ascertaln whether lt
contalns a provlslon deallng wlth "orphan works."
A biicl ovcivicwol collcctivc liccnsing systcms by WIPOcan bc lound in Co||ective Manaqe-
ment oj Cop,riqnts and Re|ated Riqnts, www.wipo.int/about-ip/cn/collcctivc_mngt.html.
A much moic in-dcpth analysis ol voluntaiy collcctivc iights oiganizations may bc
lound in Robcit Mcigcs, Contiacting Into Liability Rulcs: Intcllcctual Piopcity Rights
and Collcctivc Rights Oiganizations," 8 Ca|ij. I. Rev. zj, (jj6).
A thoiough cxamination ol collcctivc liccnsing oiganizations in Euiopc is thc KEA
study, Co||ective Manaqement oj Riqnts in Lurope. Tne Quest jor Lqcienc, (zoo6), www.
cuiopail.cuiopa.cu/mcctdocs/zoo_zooj/documcnts/dv/study-collcctivc-managcmcnt-
iights-/study-collcctivc-managcmcnt-iights-cn.pdl.
Favoiablc discussions ol compulsoiy collcctivc liccnsing, paiticulaily as a solution to thc
pioblcm ol pcci-to-pcci llcshaiing ol copyiightcd woiks, may bc lound in Ncil Nctancl,
Imposc a Noncommcicial Usc Lcvy to Allow Ficc Pcci-to-Pcci Filc Shaiing," ; Harvard
}ourna| oj Iaw 8 Tecnno|oq, (zoo,), and William Fishci, Iromises to Ieep. Tecnno|oq,, Iaw,
and tne Iuture oj Lntertainment (zoo). Much moic skcptical vicws aic cxpicsscd in Robcit
Mcigcs, Compulsoiy Liccnsing vs. thc Thicc Goldcn Oldics" Piopcity Rights, Contiacts,
and Maikcts," Cato Io|ic, Ana|,sis no. ,o8, }anuaiy ,, zoo.
A thoughtlul analysis ol thc advantagcs and disadvantagcs ol collcctivc liccnsing systcms
in }apan is Salil K. Mchia, Thc iPod Tax: Why thc Digital Copyiight Systcm ol Amciican
Law Piolcssois' Dicams Failcd in }apan," ;j U. Co|o. I. Rev. z (zoo8).
A ciucial guidc loi libiaiians sccking to navigatc thcsc watcis is Emanuclla Giavaiia,
Iicensinq Diqita| Resources. How to Avoid tne Ieqa| Iitja||s, www.ci.nct/systcm/llcs/zooz/
cblida_digital_icsouiccs_and_liccnsing_pitlalls.pdl.
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CASS
this modulc:
UK: Grisbrook v. MG^ Iimited, High Couit Chancciy Division (High Couit Chancciy
Division) (implicd liccnscs).
Casc C-6j/o,, Uradex SCRI v. Union Irojessionne||e de |a Radio and de |a Te|edistribution
(RTD) and Societe Intercommuna|e pour |a Diqusion de |a Te|evision (BRUTLIL) (collccting
socictics - ncighboiing iights).
Fiancc: Dccision ol thc Ficnch Constitutional Council no. zoo6-,o DC ol z; }uly zoo6
(digital iights managcmcnt).
Davidson v. }unq, zz F.,d 6,o (8th Cii. zoo,) (tcchnological piotcction mcasuics).
UK: Gi|nam v. R, Couit ol Appcal ol England and Walcs (Couit ol Appcal ol England and
Walcs), zooj (tcchnological piotcction mcasuics).
Casc C-z;,/o6, Iroductores de Musica de Lspana (Iromusicae) v. Te|ejnica de Lspana SAU
(obligations ol scivicc piovidcis).
ASSl0NMN7
:. Understand a llcense
Select a llcense governlng access to electronlc resources ln your llbrary or nd the
standard terms of a publlsher onllne. Pead the use rlghts descrlbed ln the llcense,
and explaln whether, to what extent, and under whlch condltlons lt covers the
followlng actlons:
- reproductlon by the patrons,
- reproductlon by the llbrarlans,
- downloadlng by the patrons,
- lnterllbrary loan of a prlnted copy,
- lnterllbrary loan of a dlgltal verslon,
- publlcatlon ln an electronlc reserve or a course pack,
- rlghts when reuslng resources: translatlon, compllatlon, lndexlng, abstract,
data-mlnlng, etc.,
- other uses that you may dene.
z. Collectlng socletles
what collectlng socletles, copyrlght clearlng houses, copyrlght omces, or other
entltles collectlvely managlng rlghts are operatlng ln your country! Por each of
them, provlde the name of the soclety, the webslte lf any, and the type of medla
or works covered. Pead the appllcable statutes or bylaws. Lxplaln what rlghts are
managed, lf members must transfer all of thelr rlghts to the organlzatlon or may
only llcense some of them, and lf lt ls a voluntary or a compulsory system.
. Orphan works
whlch of the systems currently used by a few countrles to facllltate use of orphan
works ls best! what system would be even better!
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0lSCUSSl0N US7l0NS
Comment on the answers of your colleagues to questlon :, and select the most
favorable terms and llcenses among those whlch have been analyzed.
Contributors
This modulc was cicatcd by David Scott and Emily Cox. It was thcn cditcd by a tcam
ncJJ|o 6
Creative approaches
and aIternatives
Learning objective
Tiaditional iights managcmcnt oltcn involvcs an cxclusivc assignmcnt ol all ol thc
iights associatcd with a copyiight liom thc authoi to a publishci. Thc publishci
thcn makcs copics and distiibutcs thc woik to thc public loi a lcc.
By contiast, free, Iibre and open access modcls disscminatc woiks at no cost to
thc usci. This modulc dcsciibcs thcsc altcinativc appioachcs, locusing on Cicativc
Commons liccnsing and Opcn Acccss policy loi scicntilc publications.
Case study
Angela wrltes Nadla the followlng emall: "A professor at our unlverslty ls the
author of one of the artlcles | want to lnclude ln the course pack. However, when
| contacted hlm to request hls permlsslon, he answered that he had already
transferred all hls rlghts to a publlsher and thus wasn't able to allow me to copy
hls work. How can lt be posslble that someone can't even authorlze use of hls own
work! what could be done to avold thls sltuatlon ln the future!"
How should Nadla respond!
Lesson
Physlcal and dlgltal commons
Physical objccts aic oltcn scarce and rlvalrous. This mcans that thcic aic a limitcd
numbci ol such objccts, and using onc dccicascs thc total amount that can bc
consumcd. Foi cxamplc, an applc can bc catcn by only onc pcison, and whcn it
is catcn lcwci applcs aic availablc to bc consumcd by othci pcoplc.
By contiast, thc intcllcctual pioducts govcincd by copyiight law typically aic
nonrlvalrous. A novcl, loi cxamplc, may bc icad and cnjoycd by an unlimitcd
numbci ol pcoplc.
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Digital tcchnology has shaiply icduccd thc cost ol making copics ol cmbodi-
mcnts ol intcllcctual pioducts and thus has highlightcd thc noniivalious chaiactci
ol thosc pioducts. Il thc novcl (to continuc oui cxamplc) is in an clcctionic loimat,
an unlimitcd numbci ol copics ol it can bc madc and distiibutcd vciy chcaply.
Thc widc distiibution ol intcllcctual pioducts is socially bcnclcial. Il that
widcspicad distiibution can bc accomplishcd vciy incxpcnsivcly, why docsn't thc
law pcimit it? As wc saw in Modulc , thc convcntional answci is that piohibitions
on copying aic ncccssaiy to picscivc inccntivcs loi novclists to wiitc novcls in thc
list instancc.
In a giowing numbci ol contcxts, icloimcis aic challcnging that answci. Authois
ol somc woiks - oi somc kinds ol woiks - may not nccd all ol thc iights that
copyiight law givcs thcm in oidci to icmain motivatcd to pioducc cicativc woiks.
In such scttings, copyiight law may do moic haim than good. To dcal with situa-
tions ol this soit, thc icloimcis havc dcvclopcd vaiious systcms to lacilitatc moic
widcspicad usc ol cicativc woiks than thc copyiight systcm contcmplatcs. This
modulc dcsciibcs thosc systcms.
Pree software llcenses
Most commcicial soltwaic piogiams aic distiibutcd undci icstiictivc tcims ol usc.
Moicovci, thcii souicc codc - thc codc that makcs thc piogiam iun - is closed.
As a icsult, dcvclopcis cannot study thc codc to undcistand how it woiks, to lx
bugs, oi to customizc it to thcii nccds.
A iadically difcicnt appioach to soltwaic was list dcvclopcd by Richaid Stallman
whcn hc was a icscaichci at thc Massachusctts Institutc ol Tcchnology. Stallman
bccamc angiy whcn hc could not modily thc soltwaic loi a piintci in his omcc
that was not woiking piopcily. Piovokcd by this and othci cxpciicnccs, Stallman
cicatcd thc GNU-GPL, which stands loi GNU is not Unix" Gcncial Public Liccnsc.
(Unix was thc namc ol a populai closcd" opciating systcm.) Thc GNU-GPL allows
uscis to iun, copy, distiibutc, study, changc, and impiovc thc soltwaic to which it
is applicd. Moic spccilcally, thc GNU-GPL giants uscis loui kinds ol liccdom:
- Thc liccdom to iun thc piogiam loi any puiposc (liccdom o).
- Thc liccdom to study how thc piogiam woiks and to adapt it to youi nccds
(liccdom ). Acccss to thc souicc codc is a piccondition loi this.
- Thc liccdom to icdistiibutc copics so you can hclp youi ncighboi (liccdom
z).
- Thc liccdom to impiovc thc piogiam and iclcasc youi impiovcmcnts (and
modilcd vcisions in gcncial) to thc public, so that thc wholc community
bcnclts (liccdom ,). Acccss to thc souicc codc is a piccondition loi this, and
modilcations must bc shaicd with thc samc dcgicc ol liccdom.
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In what scnsc, cxactly, is soltwaic liccnscd on thcsc tcims, licc"? Stallman
suggcstcd that analytical claiity could bc cnhanccd by difcicntiating two mcanings
ol licc" - onc that appcais in thc phiasc licc spccch", thc othci that appcais in
thc phiasc licc bcci." Othci commcntatois distinguish thcsc conccpts by using
thc Ficnch tcim llbre (mcaning liccdom) and thc Latin tcim gratls (mcaning no
cost). Rclying on this distinction, Stallman aigucd that licc soltwaic was licc" in
thc list scnsc, but not ncccssaiily in thc sccond scnsc. In othci woids, somc licc
soltwaic" is sold loi a lcc. That said, in piacticc most licc soltwaic cuiicntly is
licc in both scnscs - in othci woids, both libic and giatis.
Many inccntivcs diivc thc cication ol licc soltwaic. A dcvclopci might lnd it
cntcitaining to do so. Shc might bc diivcn by a dcsiic to contiibutc to thc public
domain. Shc might want to build hci icputation as a piogiammci. Shc might
distiibutc thc soltwaic loi licc but chaigc uscis loi hclp in customizing it to thcii
nccds. Economists continuc to discuss whcthci inccntivcs ol thcsc vaiious soits
aic sumcicnt to sustain a viablc busincss. Mcanwhilc, busincsscs iclying on this
appioach aic ouiishing.
Creatlve commons
Cicativc Commons is a non-piolt oiganization cicatcd in zoo by a gioup ol
scholais and activists. It was loundcd and lcd loi a long timc by icnowncd cybcilaw
scholai Lawicncc Lcssig.
Cicativc Commons piovidcs authois with convcnicnt ways to authoiizc spccilc
uscs ol thcii woiks, whilc ictaining contiol ovci othci uscs. In othci woids, it allows
thcm casily to cicatc thcii own liccnscs, minimizc thc oiphan woiks pioblcm, and
contiibutc to cultuic and licc cxpicssion.
7H LlCNS 0P7l0NS
Cicativc Commons ofcis a sct ol six liccnscs liom which authois and aitists
can choosc onlinc. Thc CC liccnscs aic combinations ol onc, two, oi thicc ol
thc lollowing loui clcmcnts:
. Attiibution (BY): You lct othcis usc youi woik but only il thcy givc cicdit thc
way you icqucst. Attiibution is icquiicd loi all Cicativc Commons liccnscs.
z. Non-Commcicial (NC): You lct othcis usc youi woik but loi noncommcicial
puiposcs only. This docs not mcan that woiks cannot bc uscd loi commcicial
puiposcs, but that a scpaiatc liccnsc must bc obtaincd by a usci who wishcs
to usc thc woik commcicially.
,. Non-Dciivativc (ND): You lct othcis copy, distiibutc, display, and pciloim only
vcibatim copics ol youi woik, not dciivativc woiks bascd upon it. Thc iight to
makc adaptations can bc liccnscd undci a scpaiatc agiccmcnt.
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. Shaic Alikc (SA): You allow othcis to makc dciivativcs liom youi oiiginal woik
but thcy aic pcimittcd to distiibutc dciivativc woiks only undci thc samc
tcims as thc liccnsc that govcins youi woik, oi a liccnsc that is compatiblc
with thosc tcims. SA is uscd to picvcnt pcoplc liom taking somcthing liom
thc commons and thcn locking it up by using a moic icstiictivc liccnsc.
Thc liccnsc tcims Non Dciivativc" and Shaic Alikc" aic not compatiblc and
cannot bc lound in thc samc liccnsc. This is bccausc it docsn't makc scnsc to tcll
pcoplc thcy should incoipoiatc youi woik and shaic it alikc whilc also tclling thcm
thcy may not makc dciivativc copics ol it.
All ol thc liccnscs aic non-cxclusivc. In othci woids, authois aic licc to cntci
into othci agiccmcnts with spccilc uscis. Foi cxamplc, it is possiblc loi copyiight
holdcis who havc issucd CC liccnscs to cntci into lcc-bcaiing liccnscs loi iights
to cngagc in activitics not covcicd by thc CC liccnsc in qucstion. In this way a
songwiitci might iclcasc hci music loi licc on thc Intcinct and still chaigc a
company loi using it in a commcicial.
Cicativc Commons liccnscs do not addicss an authoi's moial iights in any
countiy cxccpt Canada. Accoidingly, a woik that is govcincd by cvcn thc most
libcial Cicativc Commons liccnsc may still bc subjcct to ccitain icstiictions on
usc, in accoidancc with youi countiy's piovisions on moial iights.
Cicativc Commons, likc thc copyiight icgimc as a wholc, has no icgistiation
systcm, it mcicly piovidcs inloimation loi authois who wish to liccnsc thcii woiks
on nontiaditional tcims.
Thc Cicativc Commons wcbsitc piovidcs a simplc quiz asking cicatois what
liccdoms thcy'd likc to allow with thcii woik. It thcn givcs thc cicatoi a choicc
ol appiopiiatc liccnscs liom which to choosc. Thc quiz also allows thc authoi
to spccily which countiy's laws will govcin thc liccnsc. Cuiicntly, thc Cicativc
Commons liccnsc has bccn tianslatcd oi poitcd" to thc laws ol ,z countiics, and
many moic countiics aic cuiicntly undci dcvclopmcnt.
Oncc a cicatoi has sclcctcd a liccnsc, shc attachcs this liccnsc to copics ol hci
woik, thus alciting uscis to what thcy can and cannot do. Il thc woik is (oi is
ofcicd thiough) a wcbsitc, thc authoi can do this by adding to thc sitc a piccc ol
HTML codc that gcnciatcs a button with thc Cicativc Commons logo containing
a link to thc liccnsc at issuc.
CRA7lV C0MM0NS LlCNSS F0RMA7S
Each ol thc CC liccnscs is availablc in thicc loimats suitablc loi onlinc usc:
- A machinc-icadablc vcision, oi digital codc, which is cmbcddcd in thc Cicativc
Commons logo and inloims othci computcis ol thc liccnsc.
- Thc human icadablc codc, oi common dccd (a summaiy cxplaining thc main
iights and liccdoms, with icons coiicsponding to thc clcmcnts which havc
bccn sclcctcd), availablc liom thc link cmbcddcd in thc logo.
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- Thc lcgal codc (a liccnsc ol scvcial pagcs wiittcn in lcgal languagc, dctailing
thc clauscs, which aic icpicscntcd by thc icons), availablc liom a link at thc
cnd ol thc human icadablc codc.
Cicativc Commons liccnscs can bc uscd loi woiks madc and distiibutcd ominc
as wcll. Foi instancc, a woik cicatcd in thc physical woild might havc a physical
liccnsc attachcd that icads: This woik is liccnscd undci thc Cicativc Commons
BY-SA Liccnsc. To vicw a copy ol this liccnsc, visit thc Cicativc Commons wcbsitc."
Unloitunatcly, ominc woiks cannot bc includcd in thc Cicativc Commons scaich
cnginc that catalogs liccly availablc woiks on thc wcbsitc.
Thcic is an cxtcndcd cxplanation ol how to attach Cicativc Commons liccnscs
to woiks on thc Cicativc Commons wcbsitc.
7H SC0P 0F 7H LlCNS
A Cicativc Commons liccnsc only applics to matciial to which thc liccnsoi has
iights. It docs not apply to matciial thc liccnsoi has acquiicd liom othci souiccs
and to which hc docs not havc iights.
Supposc, loi cxamplc, that a tcachci picpaics a PowciPoint slidc picscntation,
which hc plans to usc loi classioom tcaching. Hc downloads somc photogiaphs
illustiating his aigumcnts liom thc Intcinct and inscits thcm into thc picscntation
- bclicving, plausibly, that thc usc ol thc photos loi tcaching lalls within onc ol
thc cxccptions and limitations containcd in thc copyiight law ol his countiy. Hc
attachcs a simplc Attiibution" Cicativc Commons liccnsc to cach ol his slidcs. In
othci woids, hc giants anyonc pcimission to usc thc slidcs loi any puiposc, piovidcd
that thcy givc him cicdit. Onc ol thc studcnts in thc class obtains a digital copy
ol thc slidc picscntation and cmails it to a liicnd woiking in a loi-piolt company.
Thc liicnd lnds thc slidcs hclplul and distiibutcs copics ol thcm at a commcicial
salcs mccting. Most likcly, thc liicnd will havc violatcd thc nation's copyiight law.
Why? Bccausc thc Cicativc Commons liccnsc docs not apply to thc photos, and thc
icpioduction ol thcm loi commcicial puiposcs piobably docs not lall into any ol
thc cxccptions and limitations.
This piinciplc is not widcly undcistood, and cvcn thc loimal vcision ol thc
Cicativc Commons liccnsc is not ciystal-clcai on this point. To avoid conlusion, it
is bcst loi liccnsois using Cicativc Commons liccnscs to spccily what thosc liccnscs
do and do not covci.
07HR CRA7lV C0MM0NS PR01C7S
CPLAT|vL COMMONS |NTLPNAT|ONAL
Thc Cicativc Commons Intcinational (CCi) tcam cooidinatcs thc pioccss ol
tianslating thc Cicativc Commons liccnscs into othci languagcs and adapting
thcm to othci lcgal systcms. This is a complcx and challcnging pioccss. CCi also
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piovidcs tcams to woik with local usci communitics and govcinmcnts in oidci to
incicasc undcistanding and usc ol CC liccnscs. Thc local tcams also woik closcly
with CC staf to impiovc thc liccnsc clauscs and matciial.
LDUCAT|ONAL AND SC|LNCL COMMONS
Two othci divisions ol Cicativc Commons also cngagc in spccializcd woik:
ccLcain loi opcn cducational icsouiccs and Scicncc Commons loi opcn acccss
to scicncc.
NLw CPLAT|vL COMMONS PPOTOCOLS
In addition to thc six liccnscs, Cicativc Commons has icccntly dcvclopcd two
ncw piotocols: CC+ and CCo.
CC+ (CC Plus") is not a liccnsc, but a tcchnology loi ofciing uscis iights bcyond
thc CC liccnsc giant - loi instancc, commcicial iights - oi additional waiiantics.
CCo (CC Zcio") is a univcisal waivci ol copyiight, ncighboiing and iclatcd
iights, and sui qeneris iights. CCo thus cnablcs authois to placc thcii woiks in thc
public domain. CCo is somctimcs known as thc no iights icscivcd" option. Undci
thc laws ol ccitain countiics, howcvci, it is not possiblc loi an authoi to giant a
blankct waivci ol his oi hci moial iights. Noi can an authoi waivc thc iights that
othcis may havc iclating to thc usc ol a woik (loi cxamplc, thc publicity iights that
thc subjcct ol a photogiaph may havc).
A possiblc implcmcntation modcl loi digital libiaiics would bc to pioposc a
combination ol:
- CC liccnscs loi woiks cicatcd by libiaiians: abstiacts, commcnts, photogiaphs,
maps, othci copyiightablc clcmcnts ol thc cditoiial stiuctuic,
- CC liccnscs loi woiks cicatcd by pations: commcnts, abstiacts, ciitics, blog
posts,
- CCo liccnscs loi databascs ol public domain woiks to which thc libiaiics havc
addcd potcntially copyiightablc matciial.
lMPLlCA7l0NS F0R AU7H0RS AN0 F0R USRS
Authois considciing applying Cicativc Commons liccnscs to thcii cications should
considci thc lollowing issucs:
- Thc liccnscs aic bascd on copyiight law, and aic thus applicablc only to copy-
iightablc woiks.
- In many countiics, collccting socictics icquiic thcii mcmbcis to assign all ol
thcii iights in picscnt and lutuic woiks to thc socictics. Thus, mcmbcis cannot
usc Cicativc Commons liccnscs, cvcn loi somc ol thcii woiks oi somc ol thcii
iights.
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- Many authois do not undcistand why thc two systcms aic not compatiblc,
cspccially in thc music industiy. Thcy would likc to liccnsc thcii noncommcicial
iights loi licc undci a Cicativc Commons liccnsc and assign thc managcmcnt
ol thcii commcicial iights to a collccting socicty. This modcl is possiblc loi
somc collccting socictics in somc countiics, such as thc Unitcd Statcs, thc
Ncthcilands oi Dcnmaik. But othci collccting socictics do not usc thc samc
lcgal catcgoiics as Cicativc Commons. Foi instancc, thcy may not iccognizc thc
distinction bctwccn commcicial and noncommcicial uscs. In thosc countiics,
authois aic cuiicntly loiccd to choosc onc systcm oi thc othci.
Cicativc Commons staf and intcinational amliatcs havc bccn woiking with
collccting socictics in thc hopc ol icsolving this incompatibility. Unloitunatcly,
somc collccting socictics and othci copyiight stakcholdcis aic skcptical ol Cicativc
Commons liccnscs and aic thus icluctant to movc loiwaid. Thcii ciiticisms ol thc
Cicativc Commons modcl includc:
- Thc Cicativc Commons systcm docs not piovidc cicatois a way to collcct moncy,
cicatois thus must oiganizc loi thcmsclvcs a way to chaigc loi activitics that
lall outsidc thc CC liccnsc tcims.
- Cicativc Commons docs not tiack inliingcmcnts and is not authoiizcd to
icpicscnt liccnsois in lawsuits oi hclp thcm cnloicc thc liccnscs.
- Cicativc Commons liccnscs aic non-icvocablc, and thc liccnsc giant is pcipctual.
Authois who cmploy CC liccnscs thus cannot latci changc thcii minds. Thcy
can, ol couisc, ccasc distiibuting thc woiks oi distiibutc thcm undci difcicnt
conditions, but this will not afcct thc iights associatcd with thc copics that
aic alicady in ciiculation.
- Dctcimining what docs and docs not constitutc a commcicial usc is a dimcult
qucstion, and answcis may vaiy among individuals and usci communitics.
- It is qucstionablc whcthci juiisdiction-spccilc liccnscs, which havc bccn adaptcd
to national lcgal systcms, aic ically compatiblc with cach othci. Foi instancc,
somc vcisions ol thc CC liccnscs includc moial iights oi databasc iights, othcis
do not.
The Open Access movement
Thc Opcn Acccss (OA) movcmcnt sccks to incicasc thc public availability ol woiks
ol scholaiship. It was piovokcd by a iapid iisc in thc piicc ol scicntilc jouinals,
loicing many libiaiics to canccl jouinal subsciiptions. Thc movcmcnt claims that
authois should bc ablc to acccss liccly thcii collcagucs' icscaich loi thc bcnclt
ol scicncc and thc gcncial public.
OA jouinals ofci aiticlcs to thc public onlinc loi licc. Thcy oltcn usc vciy opcn
onlinc liccnscs, such as thc Cicativc Commons Attiibution liccnsc. This stiatcgy is
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somctimcs known as Gold Opcn Acccss." Bccausc thcy loigo tiaditional souiccs ol
icvcnuc, OA jouinals must dcvisc altcinativc busincss modcls. Somc chaigc authois
loi publication ol thcii woik. Othcis icly cntiicly on thc woik ol voluntccis.
Somc jouinals aic not OA jouinals, but authoiizc thc authois ol thc aiticlcs
thcy publish to aichivc vcisions ol thcii aiticlcs in institutional icpositoiics sct
up by thcii univcisitics. This stiatcgy is somctimcs callcd Giccn Opcn Acccss."
Somc Giccn Opcn Acccss jouinals also allow authois to upload thcii woik to licc,
disciplinc-spccilc public icpositoiics, likc thc Social Scicncc Rcscaich Nctwoik.
}ouinal copyiight policics icgaiding scll-aichiving aic analyzcd by thc piojcct
Shcipa RoMEO. Moic than ,o pciccnt ol pay-jouinal policics allow thcii authois
to aichivc thcii pic-piint aiticlcs in opcn acccss icpositoiics.
Somc jouinals do not gcncially allow authois to host opcn-acccss copics ol thcii
aiticlcs on thcii own wcbsitcs. In thcsc situations, authois may loimally icqucst
that thc publishing contiact allow thcm to do so. Scvcial addcndum modcls aic
availablc. SCAE," thc Scicncc Commons Scholais' Copyiight Addcndum Enginc,
gcnciatcs onc such loim.
Funding institutions can lacilitatc oi compcl thc usc ol onc oi moic ol thcsc
stiatcgics by cncouiaging oi icquiiing giant iccipicnts to makc thc liuits ol thcii
piojccts publicly availablc. Cuiicntly, thc National Institutcs ol Hcalth in thc Unitcd
Statcs, thc Euiopcan Rcscaich Council, and thc Wcllcomc Tiust in thc Unitcd
Kingdom icquiic thcii giantccs to makc thcii woik publicly acccssiblc.
Univcisitics can also hclp. Haivaid Univcisity has lcd thc way on this issuc.
Staiting in zoo8, somc schools within Haivaid havc icquiicd laculty mcmbcis to
piovidc thc univcisity with a non-cxclusivc, iiicvocablc, woildwidc liccnsc to dis-
tiibutc thcii scholaily aiticlcs loi noncommcicial uscs. Howcvci, a laculty mcmbci
may ovciiidc this dclault iulc by obtaining a waivci loi a spccilc aiticlc.
Angela complalns to Nadla that she cannot lnclude ln her course pack the artlcle
from a colleague because he transferred hls rlghts to the publlsher. Nadla lnforms
Angela that some publlshers have very strlct pollcles, but that sometlmes publlshlng
contracts are ln fact less restrlctlve than some authors may thlnk. Together, they wlll
search for the [ournal pollcy to see whether the artlcle could be lncluded.
Together, they wlll browse Sherpa PoMLO because lt "provldes a llstlng of
publlshers' copyrlght condltlons as they relate to authors archlvlng thelr work on-
llne."
Plnally, Nadla wlll suggest to Angela that, together, they provlde the colleague
wlth lnformatlon concernlng Creatlve Commons, Open Access, and other systems
that have been developed recently that mlght enable the colleague ln the future to
ensure that access to hls scholarshlp ls more open.
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An cxtcnsivc sct ol tcaching matciials on Ficc and Opcn Souicc Soltwaic can bc lound
at http://cybci.law.haivaid.cdu/iil/Encouiaging_thc_Intcllcctual_Commons.
Othci valuablc icsouiccs on licc soltwaic includc:
}oscph Fcllci ct al., Ierspectives on Iree and Open Source Sojtware (MIT Picss, zoo;).
}osh Lcinci and }can Tiiolc, Tne Simp|e Lconomics oj Open Source (zooo), www.pcoplc.hbs.
cdu/jlcinci/simplc.pdl.
Ebcn Moglcn, Faculty Picscntation on Opcn Souicc, Scptcmbci , zoo8, http://moglcn.
law.columbia.cdu/j.
Chiistophci Kclty, Two Bits. Tne Cu|tura| Siqnicance oj Iree Sojtware (Dukc Univcisity Picss,
zoo8), http://twobits.nct/pub/Kclty-TwoBits.pdl.
Wcndy Scltzci, Opcn Souicc loi Opcn Law," PowciPoint picscntation, http://cybci.law.
haivaid.cdu/~wscltzci/opcnlaw.ppt.
Thc main wcbsitc loi Cicativc Commons is http://cicativccommons.oig.
A laigc icpositoiy ol photogiaphs availablc undci Cicativc Commons liccnscs is availablc
thiough Flicki.
A thoiough discussion, picpaicd in zoo; by Pctci Subci, ol thc vaiious dimcnsions ol thc
Opcn Acccss Movcmcnt can bc lound at thc Opcn Acccss Ovcivicw, www.cailham.
cdu/;Epctcis/los/ovcivicw.htm.
Thc most impoitant documcnt in thc OA Movcmcnt is thc Budapcst Opcn Acccss Initiativc,
www.soios.oig/opcnacccss.
A Diicctoiy ol Opcn Acccss }ouinals (DOA}) can bc lound at www.doaj.oig.
CASS
this modulc:
Curr, v. Weekend (Distiict Couit ol Amstcidam, Maich j, zoo6) (Cicativc Commons
liccnsc).
GII-Vio|ations.orq v. D-Iink (Distiict Couit ol Fiankluit zoo6).
}acobsen v. Iatzer, ,,, F.,d ,;, (CAFC zoo8) (Opcn Souicc liccnscs).
ASSl0NMN7
Choose one of the followlng:
:. Creatlve Commons currently supports the llcenslng of creatlve works ln z
countrles. |f your country ls one of these, use search englnes and other dlrectorles
to locate some documents avallable under CC llcenses that you could help
promote and redlstrlbute.
z. Determlne lf there are any OA [ournals publlshed ln your country. Make a llst
sultable for dlstrlbutlon to your patrons.
. Prepare slldes or a one-page handout that you could use to educate llbrarlans
and academlcs concernlng the Creatlve Commons system and OA optlons. Publlsh
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your document onllne wlth the Creatlve Commons llcense of your cholce and
send the llnk to the group. |f your llbrary doesn't have a webslte, you may use
SlldeShare.
(. How would you deslgn and lmplement an OA pollcy ln your country!
0lSCUSSl0N US7l0NS
Comment on strategles proposed by your colleagues ln response to questlon (.
Contributors
This modulc was cicatcd by Mclanic Dulong dc Rosnay. It was thcn cditcd by a tcam
ncJJ|o ,
nforcement
Learning objective
This modulc will piovidc a gcncial ovcivicw ol what it mcans to inliingc anothci's
copyiight and cxplain thc vaiious ways in which inliingcmcnt may occui. It
will also piovidc a dcsciiption ol somc ol thc issucs that commonly aiisc whcn
a copyiight holdci dccidcs to biing a copyiight inliingcmcnt lawsuit, and how
such cascs typically piocccd and concludc. It will icvicw somc statutoiy piovi-
sions discusscd in picvious modulcs that piovidc liability cxcmptions loi scivicc
piovidcis, including libiaiics. Finally, thc modulc will considci thc appiopiiatc
iolcs ol libiaiians with icgaid to copyiight and copyiight cnloiccmcnt.
Case study
Angela leaves Nadla an urgent phone message: "| recelved a cease and deslst letter
from a publlsher complalnlng that, by lncludlng some of hls works ln one of my
course packs, | am lnfrlnglng hls copyrlght. what should | do!"
How should Nadla respond!
Lesson
what lnfrlnges copyrlght!
AC7S 7HA7 MAY lNFRlN0 C0PYRl0H7
As wc havc sccn, thc unauthoiizcd cxcicisc ol an cxclusivc iight ol thc copyiight
holdci inliingcs copyiight unlcss thc usc is covcicd by onc ol thc cxccptions
oi limitations discusscd in Modulc . Foi cxamplc, making a copy ol a book
oi iccoid implicatcs thc cxclusivc iight ol icpioduction, and, il donc without
pcimission in a mannci not covcicd by onc ol thc cxccptions, would inliingc
thc iights-holdci's copyiight.
Inliingcmcnt may also occui whcn onc violatcs any ol thc moial iights iccog-
nizcd by thc paiticulai countiy's copyiight laws. Thcsc may includc thc iight ol
an authoi to picvcnt distoition oi mutilation ol his oi hci woik, thc iight to bc
attiibutcd as thc authoi ol a woik oi not to havc authoiship lalscly attiibutcd.
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0lRC7 AN0 lN0lRC7 lNFRlN0MN7
Copyiight law typically distinguishcs bctwccn two dillcicnt kinds ol
inliingcmcnt.
Direct infringement occuis whcn onc cxciciscs onc ol thc copyiight holdci's
cxclusivc iights without authoiization oi lcgal justilcation. As statcd in thc picvious
scction, this would includc copying a book oi iccoid without pcimission.
Howcvci, many copyiight icgimcs also iccognizc loims ol indirect or "second-
ary" infringement. Undci ccitain ciicumstanccs, onc can bc lound liablc loi thc
acts ol anothci. Foi cxamplc, in thc Unitcd Statcs onc may bc liablc loi contiibu-
toiy inliingcmcnt" il onc knows about thc inliinging activity ol anothci and docs
somcthing to inducc, causc, oi matciially contiibutc to that inliingcmcnt. Onc may
bc liablc loi vicaiious inliingcmcnt" bascd on thc actions ol anothci pcison, cvcn
without actual knowlcdgc ol thc inliingcmcnt, il onc has thc iight and ability to
contiol thc othci pcison's acts and bcnclts diicctly liom thc inliingcmcnt.
Mcicly pioviding a dcvicc capablc ol committing diicct inliingcmcnt is usually
not cnough to incui liability loi contiibutoiy oi vicaiious inliingcmcnt. Gcncially
spcaking, il thc dcvicc is capablc ol substantlal non-lnfrlnglng uses - likc a copy
machinc oi a computci - thcn thc makci ol that dcvicc will oidinaiily not bc
liablc loi thc actions ol thc dcvicc's uscis. Howcvci, undci ccitain ciicumstanccs
thc makci ol a dcvicc uscd by othcis to commit inliingcmcnt can bc liablc loi
induccmcnt" ol copyiight inliingcmcnt. In Metro-Go|dw,n-Ma,er Studios Inc.
v. Grokster, Itd., thc US Supicmc Couit hcld that thc distiibutoi ol llc-shaiing
soltwaic could bc liablc loi copyiight inliingcmcnt il thc distiibutoi intcndcd to
piomotc thc soltwaic's usc loi inliinging puiposcs and took amimativc stcps" to
achicvc that goal.
Othci countiics also imposc sccondaiy liability loi copyiight inliingcmcnt.
In addition to punishing diicct inliingcmcnt, loi cxamplc, thc Unitcd Kingdom
also imposcs liability loi pioviding a mcans ol cicating unauthoiizcd copics, oi
supplying sound iccoidings oi llms loi an inliinging pciloimancc. Similaily, undci
South Aliican law inliingcmcnt may occui whcn onc cithci cxciciscs onc ol thc
cxclusivc iights ol thc copyiight holdci without liccnsc (oi othci lcgal justilcation)
oi causcs anothci pcison to do so.
7H LlAlLl7Y 0F 0NLlN SRVlC PR0Vl0RS
Many countiics havc cnactcd salc haiboi" statutcs that piotcct onlinc scivicc
piovidcis such as scaich cngincs, intcinct scivicc piovidcis, libiaiics oi univcisitics
liom liability loi copyiight inliingcmcnt committcd by thcii uscis. In oidci to
bc cligiblc loi thcsc cxcmptions, thc scivicc piovidci must comply with ccitain
iulcs.
Somc countiics icquiic onlinc scivicc piovidcis to comply with so-callcd notice
and takedown piovisions to bc piotcctcd by a salc haiboi. Foi cxamplc, in thc
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Unitcd Statcs, il a copyiight holdci bclicvcs that a llc hostcd by a scivicc piovidci
inliingcs hci copyiight, thc copyiight holdci may submit a noticc to thc piovidci
to icqucst that thc llc bc icmovcd. Thc noticc must typically includc thc namc
ol thc complaining paity and list any inliinging matciials, including thc URL.
It must also contain a good-laith statcmcnt by thc copyiight holdci that thc
matciials inliingc on hci copyiight. It must concludc with a swoin statcmcnt ol
thc accuiacy ol thc noticc and thc noticc piovidci's authoiization to act on bchall
ol thc iights-holdci.
Upon icccipt ol a takc-down noticc, thc scivicc piovidci must quickly icmovc
thc inliinging matciial oi disablc acccss to it. It must also notily thc individual
icsponsiblc loi thc inliinging matciial ol its icmoval. It is not ncccssaiy loi thc
copyiight holdci to obtain a judicial dccision that thc matciial is, in lact, inliinging
in oidci to scnd a takc-down noticc. Thc salc haiboi piovisions allow thc individual
icsponsiblc loi thc contcnt to llc what's callcd a counter-notlce to challcngc a
takc-down noticc. Il thc postci submits a countci-noticc assciting that thc matciial
icmovcd was not inliinging, thc scivicc piovidci must notily thc copyiight holdci.
Il thc copyiight holdci docs not llc a lawsuit within two wccks, thc scivicc piovidci
must thcn icstoic acccss to thc matciial. Thc statutc cxcmpts scivicc piovidcis loi
liability loi its good-laith icmoval ol matciials puisuant to a takc-down noticc,
cvcn il thc matciial is ultimatcly dctcimincd not to bc inliinging.
Thc Euiopcan Union has cicatcd a similai, though moic opcn-cndcd, takc-down
systcm in Diicctivc zooo/,/EC (Diicctivc on Elcctionic Commcicc) (discusscd
in Modulc z). This diicctivc contains difcicnt iulcs loi difcicnt kinds ol scivicc
piovidci. Mcic conduits," oi sciviccs that only ioutc and cachc onlinc tiamc, aic
cxcmptcd liom liability cntiicly. Piovidcis that actually host data, howcvci, aic
cxcmptcd only il thcy havc no actual knowlcdgc" oi awaicncss" ol illcgal activitics,
and il thcy act quickly to icmovc oi disablc acccss to thc inliinging matciials oncc
thcy havc bccn notilcd.
Howcvci, thc qucstion ol what constitutcs actual knowlcdgc" ol hosting inliing-
ing matciials has bccn lclt laigcly unanswcicd. This cicatcs sciious pioblcms.
It is unclcai whcthci a scivicc piovidci who icccivcs a noticc liom a copyiight
holdci that it may bc hosting inliinging matciials will bc dccmcd to havc actual
knowlcdgc" ol hosting thc matciials. Likcwisc, it is unccitain what, il any, cvidcncc
such noticcs must includc, whcthci thc pcison scnding it is icquiicd to idcntily
himscll and includc a good-laith statcmcnt ol bclicl ol inliingcmcnt, and undci
what ciicumstanccs thc scivicc piovidci is obligatcd to icmovc thc contcnt in oidci
to takc advantagc ol thc salc-haiboi piovisions. Thc awaicncss" ol illcgal activitics
ciitciion is similaily vaguc, and it is lai liom clcai how iigoiously piovidcis must
scll-icgulatc and monitoi thc data thcy host oi piovidc acccss to in oidci to comc
within thc salc-haiboi piovisions.
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Thc Euiopcan Union diicctivc is bioadci than thc US appioach in that it docs not
piovidc a clcaily aiticulatcd, multi-stcp appioach loi initiating and icsponding to
takc-down noticcs. Bccausc ol this lack ol claiity, scivicc piovidcis havc inccntivcs
to icspond aggicssivcly to takc-down noticcs. Fuithci, undci thc Diicctivc, thcic
docs not appcai to bc a sct pioccduic in placc loi a usci to objcct to icmoval ol
thc matciial, noi aic piovidcis icquiicd to notily a usci whcn matciial is icmovcd
oi madc inacccssiblc.
Thc appioachcs takcn by othci countiics to thc cxcmption ol onlinc scivicc
piovidcis liom liability loi inliingcmcnt committcd by thcii uscis may difci
substantially. Austialian law, loi cxamplc, contains an cxcmption that is similai to
that codilcd in thc Unitcd Statcs. Howcvci, it docs not icquiic scivicc piovidcis to
notily thc pcison who postcd thc matciial that has bccn icmovcd. Isiacl likcwisc
has a noticc and takc-down pioccduic as pait ol its salc-haiboi statutc. Unlikc
thc Unitcd Statcs, though, it docs not icquiic thc scivicc piovidci to icmovc thc
matciial quickly upon thc icccipt ol a complaint. Instcad, it allows uscis thicc
days to icspond to thc complaint bcloic thc matciial will bc icmovcd. Somc
countiics - such as India - do not iccognizc salc-haiboi piovisions loi Intcinct
scivicc piovidcis and may hold thcm liablc loi copyiight inliingcmcnt committcd
by thcii uscis cvcn il thc piovidci has no activc oi diicct involvcmcnt in that
inliingcmcnt.
Suipiisingly cnough, thcsc iulcs may afcct somc libiaiics in dcvcloping countiics.
Thc icason is that somc libiaiics may assist in iunning oi managing thc nctwoiks
in univcisitics with which thc libiaiics aic amliatcd. In such ciicumstanccs, it is
possiblc that somc ol thc libiaiics' activitics may qualily loi piotcction undci a
salc-haiboi piovision. Il so, libiaiians should pay closc attcntion to thc dctails ol
thc noticc-and-takcdown systcms (il any) containcd in thcii countiics' copyiight
laws.
Procedures and penaltles
L0AL PR0C0URS AN0 RM0lS
A copyiight holdci may dccidc to llc a copyiight inliingcmcnt lawsuit il shc
bclicvcs that inliingcmcnt ol onc ol hci cxclusivc iights has occuiicd. Typically,
only thc holdci ol thc cxclusivc iight that was inliingcd oi a bcnclcial holdci ol
that iight may biing a copyiight inliingcmcnt claim.
Thc copyiight holdci may choosc to suc thc pcison oi pcisons who committcd
diicct inliingcmcnt, and/oi anyonc clsc who may bc lound to bc liablc undci thc
scvcial thcoiics ol sccondaiy oi indiicct inliingcmcnt dcsciibcd abovc. In many
countiics, thc copyiight holdci must biing thc claim within a ccitain pciiod ol timc
altci thc act ol copyiight inliingcmcnt occuis, oi it will bc baiicd by thc statutc ol
limitations. Thc lcngth ol thc statutc ol limitations vaiics by countiy. Foi cxamplc,
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thc statutc ol limitations loi copyiight inliingcmcnt actions is thicc ycais in thc
Unitcd Statcs and six ycais in Austialia. (; U.S.C. scction ,o;(b), Scction ,() ol
thc Austialian Copyiight Act.)
At thc outsct ol litigation, thc dclcndant - who could bc an individual usci, a
libiaiian, oi a libiaiy - should considci whcthci scttlcmcnt is a bcttci altcinativc
than piocccding towaid lull tiial. Bccausc thc lnci points ol copyiight inliingc-
mcnt litigation aic oltcn complcx, dclcnding against an allcgation ol copyiight
inliingcmcnt can bc vciy cxpcnsivc. Fuithci, bccausc somc countiics allow a
plaintif who succccds in his copyiight inliingcmcnt lawsuit to collcct damagcs as
sct by statutc, instcad ol having to piovc actual damagcs, thc lnal awaids in copy-
iight inliingcmcnt actions can bc laigc. Finally, statutcs oi couits may cvcn awaid
attoincy's lccs and othci costs to thc plaintif il hc picvails in his litigation.
In light ol thcsc considciations, thc dclcndant may dccidc that scttling with thc
plaintif is a bcttci option than lacing thc unccitainty and potcntial cxpcnsc ol
litigation. In a scttlcmcnt pioccduic, oncc thc paitics havc agiccd to a sct ol tcims
and oncc thc dclcndant has complicd with thosc tcims, thc plaintif will dismiss
his lawsuit. Thc tcims ol scttlcmcnt can vaiy signilcantly. In somc instanccs, thc
plaintif may bc contcnt with thc dclcndant simply icmoving thc matciials liom
hci wcbsitc. In othci cascs, thc plaintif may dcmand that thc dclcndant pay somc
amount ol moncy in addition to icmoving thc inliinging matciial. Ficqucntly, as
pait ol a scttlcmcnt, thc paitics will agicc to a pcimancnt injunction that piohibits
thc dclcndant liom cngaging in thc samc bchavioi in thc lutuic.
At othci timcs, howcvci, thc dclcndant may dccidc that scttlcmcnt is not appio-
piiatc, and thus will piocccd with thc litigation. In oidci to picvail in a copyiight
inliingcmcnt lawsuit, thc copyiight holdci must piovc:
- that thc woik is copyiightablc,
- that shc is thc holdci ol thc copyiight,
- that thc dclcndant uscd thc plaintif's woik,
- that unauthoiizcd cxcicisc ol onc oi moic ol thc cxclusivc iights occuiicd.
Each ol thcsc icquiicmcnts is discusscd in dcpth in cailici modulcs, wc icvicw
thcm hcic biicy.
Unauthoiizcd copying and icpioduction is thc most common loim ol copyiight
inliingcmcnt. Copying may bc dcmonstiatcd by diicct piool, but such cvidcncc
is oltcn unavailablc. Copying may also bc dcmonstiatcd indiicctly, by picscnting
cvidcncc ol a substantial similaiity bctwccn thc oiiginal woik and thc copicd woik
and by dcmonstiating that thc dclcndant had acccss to thc copyiight holdci's woik.
Acccss may bc piovcn by lacts showing spccilcally how thc dclcndant could havc
obtaincd thc copyiightcd woik. Altcinativcly, it may bc shown by thc lact that thc
copyiightcd woik was gcncially availablc and widcly distiibutcd. Thc substantial
similaiity icquiicmcnt and thc acccss icquiicmcnt aic intciconncctcd in that thc
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moic similai thc two woiks aic, thc lcss cvidcncc thc plaintif nccds to intioducc
icgaiding acccss to thc woik.
In dclcnding against a claim ol copyiight inliingcmcnt, thc dclcndant may claim
scvcial dclcnscs and cxccptions, such as laii usc, statutc ol limitations, uncopy-
iightability ol thc oiiginal woik, public domain, list-salc doctiinc, salc-haiboi
piovisions, indcpcndcnt cication, and othci statutoiy cxcmptions. Wc cxamincd
thosc Exccptions and Limitations in dctail in Modulc .
Most countiics' copyiight icgimcs piovidc a bioad iangc ol icmcdics loi copyiight
inliingcmcnt. This is icquiicd by scvcial ol thc intcinational agiccmcnts discusscd
in Modulc z. Thc copyiight holdci can typically scck tcmpoiaiy oi pcimancnt
injunctivc iclicl, actual damagcs sufcicd as thc icsult ol thc inliingcmcnt, awaid
ol tiial costs and attoincy's lccs. Finally, in cxticmcly iaic ciicumstanccs involving
blatant copyiight inliingcmcnt, thc inliinging paity may bc lound to bc ciiminally
liablc and sanctioncd with lncs oi impiisonmcnt.
It should bc cmphasizcd that succcsslul copyiight inliingcmcnt suits aic unusual.
Thc laigc majoiity ol copyiight holdcis aic contcnt with scttlcmcnts in which
dclcndants agicc to ccasc thcii bchavioi and pcihaps pay modcst damagc awaids.
Libiaiics aic cspccially unlikcly to bc taigcts ol succcsslul copyiight inliingcmcnt
suits. Thcic aic vciy lcw icpoitcd judicial opinions in any countiy in which a public
oi acadcmic libiaiy has bccn lound liablc loi violating thc copyiight laws. Thus,
it is impoitant that libiaiians bc awaic ol thc potcntial sanctions loi copyiight
inliingcmcnt, paiticulaily so that thcy can givc icliablc advicc to thcii vaiious
constitucncics. But thc libiaiics thcmsclvcs should not bc unduly woiiicd about
thc piospcct ol bcing sucd.
CR0SS0R0R lNFRlN0MN7, X7RA7RRl70RlALl7Y,
C0NFLlC7 0F LAWS, AN0 1URlS0lC7l0NAL LlMl7A7l0NS
Dcspitc attcmpts to cicatc somc uniloimity in intcinational copyiight laws,
domcstic lcgal pioccduics, buidcns ol piool, and thc availability and amount
ol damagcs vaiy considciably acioss countiics. Bccausc ol thcsc difcicnccs, thc
plaintif's choicc ol thc countiy and couit in which to biing hci suit bccomcs
impoitant. Howcvci, whcthci a paiticulai loium is availablc is likcly to bc limitcd
by thc substantivc law ol copyiight and thc doctiincs ol cxtiatciiitoiiality, choicc
ol law, and conict ol laws.
Foi instancc, a copyiight holdci cannot usually suc in onc countiy loi acts ol
copyiight inliingcmcnt that occuiicd in a difcicnt countiy. This is bccausc, with
a lcw cxccptions, thc doctiinc ol cxtiatciiitoiiality mcans that a countiy's laws
only apply within thc gcogiaphic boidcis ol that countiy. Applying this doctiinc,
couits in thc Unitcd Statcs havc almost uniloimly icjcctcd attcmpts to apply US
copyiight law to conduct outsidc ol thc Unitcd Statcs. Most othci countiics havc
takcn thc samc position.
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Thc doctiinc ol cxtiatciiitoiiality has bccn complicatcd, howcvci, by digital
tcchnologics and thc iisc ol thc Intcinct. With physical goods, it is usually casy
to idcntily whcic" an act ol copyiight inliingcmcnt occuiicd. Howcvci, inliingc-
mcnt in thc digital cnviionmcnt may involvc scvcial stcps that occui in difcicnt
countiics govcincd by difcicnt copyiight icgimcs. This muddlcs thc qucstion ol
whcic an actual inliingcmcnt took placc.
In thc Unitcd Statcs, couits conliontcd with such pioblcms havc gcncially hcld
that US laws apply only whcn thc dclcndant has cngagcd in somc concictc act on
US soil. But most countiics havc yct to bc conliontcd with cascs ol this soit. How
thc couits in thosc countiics will icspond icmains unccitain.
Il a paiticulai inliingcmcnt is allcgcd to havc occuiicd at lcast in pait in moic
than onc countiy, a couit will cngagc in a conict ol laws" analysis to dctciminc
which countiy's law will govcin thc inliingcmcnt action. Bccausc thc samc act ol
inliingcmcnt may occui in scvcial difcicnt countiics, it is possiblc that couits
in difcicnt countiics might apply difcicnt countiics' laws to thc samc action.
Somctimcs, a couit will iulc that thc applicablc law is thc law ol thc countiy in
which thc inliingcmcnt occuiicd. As such, that law will govcin all clcmcnts ol thc
action without icgaid to thc nationality ol thc authoi, thc countiy ol oiigin ol thc
copyiightcd woik, oi thc placc ol list publication ol thc copyiightcd woik. Howcvci,
this vicw has bccn ciiticizcd by somc commcntatois bccausc its application would
icsult in thc application ol difcicnt laws cvciy timc thc woik ciosscs a national
boidci.
An altcinativc appioach is to apply difcicnt laws to thc issucs ol oiiginality,
ownciship, and inliingcmcnt - thc difcicnt clcmcnts ol thc inliingcmcnt action.
Undci this vicw, a US couit would havc to apply US law to icsolvc issucs ol
oiiginality il thc woik is list publishcd in thc US. Thc law applicablc to ownciship
is likcly to bc thc law ol thc countiy that has thc most signilcant iclationship
to thc copyiightcd woik and to thc paitics involvcd. Finally, undci thc gcncial
piinciplc ol |ex |oci de|icti (thc placc ol wiong), thc law applicablc to thc actual
inliingcmcnt is likcly to bc that ol thc countiy in which thc actual inliingcmcnt
occuiicd.
Thc dominant vicw sccms to bc that couits should apply thc law ol thc placc
whcic thc inliingcmcnt actually occuiicd. This vicw is consistcnt with thc tci-
iitoiial limitations ol copyiight law, as wcll as thc gcncial conscnsus that thc
piotcctions giantcd by copyiight aic laigcly domcstic. It is also consistcnt with
Aiticlc ,(z) ol thc Bcinc Convcntion, which piovidcs that copyiight piotcction is to
bc govcincd cxclusivcly by thc laws ol thc countiy whcic piotcction is claimcd." At
thc samc timc, application ol this vicw to digital acts ol inliingcmcnt may cicatc
signilcant cnloiccmcnt dimcultics and gicatly incicasc thc complcxity ol thc casc,
as digital distiibution and icpioduction makc it casy to disscminatc copyiightcd
woiks to pcisons in difcicnt countiics with difcicnt copyiight icgimcs.
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In shoit, it is cuiicntly unccitain which laws govcin which aspccts ol copyiight
disputcs that involvc moic than onc countiy. Such disputcs aic bccoming incicas-
ingly common. Gicatci attcntion to this mattci is incvitablc. Onc hopcs that such
attcntion will lcad to gicatci claiity.
The complex responslbllltles of llbrarlans
Libiaiics aic majoi puichascis ol copyiightcd woiks and makc thcsc woiks
availablc to thc public. Although libiaiians typically scck to picvcnt copyiight
inliingcmcnt ol libiaiy matciials, thc ultimatc icsponsibility ol libiaiians is to
piovidc acccss to matciials and inloimation sciviccs, not to cnloicc copyiight
law. Scvcial libiaiy oiganizations havc attcmptcd to piovidc guidancc as to thc
appiopiiatc balancc bctwccn piotccting thc iights ol authois and sciving thc
nccds ol libiaiy pations.
Foi cxamplc, thc Amciican Libiaiy Association Codc ol Ethics notcs that iccog-
nition and icspcct loi intcllcctual piopcity iights is onc ol thc piinciplcs that should
guidc libiaiians' cthical dccision-making. Howcvci, thc Codc also cmphasizcs that
thc ALA is committcd to upholding thc piinciplcs ol intcllcctual liccdom and
icsisting cfoits to ccnsoi libiaiy icsouiccs.
Thc Unitcd Kingdom's Chaitcicd Institutc ol Libiaiy and Inloimation Piolcs-
sionals (CILIP) suppoits similai valucs in its Codc ol Piolcssional Piacticc. Its Codc
icquiics mcmbcis to dclcnd thc lcgitimatc nccds and intcicsts ol inloimation
uscis, whilc upholding thc moial and lcgal iights ol thc cicatois and distiibutois
ol intcllcctual piopcity."
Finally, thc Intcinational Fcdciation ol Libiaiy Associations and Institutions
(IFLA) has iclcascd a statcmcnt sctting loith its position on copyiight. Thc IFLA has
acknowlcdgcd that libiaiians havc a long-standing iolc in inloiming and cducating
uscis about thc impoitancc ol copyiight law and compliancc with it. Howcvci, it
also cmphasizcs that ovcipiotcction ol copyiight lcads to unicasonablc icstiictions
to acccss and knowlcdgc. It has suggcstcd that copyiight law should cstablish clcai
limitations on thc liability ol thiid paitics, such as libiaiians, in instanccs whcic
compliancc cannot piactically oi icasonably bc cnloiccd.
Nadla and Angela should rst ascertaln whether there ls any merlt to the publlsher's
complalnt. Por example, they should check to determlne whether the copyrlght
on the work has explred or whether the lncluslon of a copy of the work ln the
packet of course materlals ls protected by any of the exceptlons and llmltatlons
ln thelr natlon's copyrlght laws. |f they have any doubts on thls score, they should
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consult a lawyer. The lawyer wlll provlde them wlth advlce not [ust concernlng the
permlsslblllty of thelr behavlor, but also concernlng the sanctlons they mlght face lf
they are unable to resolve the dlspute wlth the publlsher amlcably. wlth the lawyer's
ald, they should then declde whether to remove the materlal at lssue from the
course materlals.
In Sccondaiy Liability loi Copyiight Inliingcmcnt in thc US" (zoo6), www.law.columbia.
cdu/law_school/communications/icpoits/wintcio6/lacloium, Piolcssoi }anc Ginsbuig
piovidcs a good icvicw ol thc law govcining contiibutoiy and vicaiious copyiight
inliingcmcnt.
Thc Stanjord Tecnno|oq, IawReviewcxamincs thc samc subjcct in Intcipicting Giokstci:
Limits on thc Scopc ol Sccondaiy Liability loi Copyiight Inliingcmcnt," zoo6 Stan. Tecn.
I. Rev. ,.
Anothci good ticatmcnt ol thc samc subjcct is }ay Diatlci, A Thcoiy ol Sccondaiy
Liability loi Copyiight Inliingcmcnt," Univcisity ol Akion Lcgal Studics Rcscaich Papci
No. o,-z6 (zoo,).
A shicwd, loiwaid-looking study ol sccondaiy liability doctiincs with spccilc iclcicncc
to llcshaiing is Guy Pcssach, An Intcinational-Compaiativc Pcispcctivc on Pcci-to-Pcci
Filc-Shaiing and Thiid Paity Liability in Copyiight Law: Fiaming thc Past, Picscnt, and
Ncxt Gcnciations' Qucstions," o Vanderbi|t }ourna| oj Transnationa| Iaw 8; (zoo;).
A thoughtlul statcmcnt by EIFL and IFLA conccining thc copyiight systcmand its impact
on libiaiics was madc at thc Intci-scssional Intcigovcinmcntal Mccting on a Dcvclopmcnt
Agcnda loi WIPO in Apiil zoo,, www.ia.oig/cn/publications/statcmcnt-by-ia-at-thc-
intci-scssional-intcigovcinmcntal-mccting-on-a-dcvclopmcnt-agc.
CASS
Thc lollowing judicial opinions cxploic and apply somc ol thc piinciplcs discusscd in this
modulc:
Son, Corporation oj America v. Universa| Cit, Studios, Inc., 6 U.S. ; (j8) (sccondaiy
liability).
CBS Sonqs Iimited 8 Otners v. Amstrad Consumer L|ectronics I|c and Anor., Housc ol Loids,
z May j88 (sccondaiy liability).
ASSl0NMN7
:. Does your country have a safe harbor llmltlng servlce provlders' llablllty! |f yes,
please descrlbe the mechanlsm.
z. Select one actlvlty of your llbrary, descrlbe lt and elaborate best practlces to
avold copyrlght lnfrlngement. Por example, you mlght draft a set of guldellnes
for professors who prepare course packs or a notlce to be dlsplayed next to the
prlntlng machlne or the computers avallable to patrons.
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0lSCUSSl0N US7l0NS
:. Please revlew the safe-harbor pollcles avallable ln the countrles of your
colleagues. whlch ones oner the most favorable condltlons for llbrarles and for
what reasons!
z. Please comment on a few responses of your colleagues. These should be clear
and lncluslve, but not overbroad.
Contributors
This modulc was cicatcd by Dmitiiy Tishycvich. It was thcn cditcd by a tcam
ncJJ|o 8
7raditionaI knowIedge
Learning objective
Onc ol thc most complcx icccnt cxtcnsions ol copyiight law involvcs tiaditional
knowlcdgc. This modulc list dcsciibcs thc intiicatc and iapidly changing sct ol lcgal
iulcs pcitaining to tiaditional knowlcdgc, and thcn cxploics thc lcicc continuing
dcbatc conccining thc appiopiiatc scopc ol piotcction loi this novcl topic.
Case study
Angela ls a member of an lndlgenous communlty that has a unlque tradltlon
of dance. Performances of these dances attract members of other lndlgenous
communltles and tourlsts. Angela calls Nadla when she sees elements of one of the
dances ln a recently released muslc vldeo by the Amerlcan slnger Madonna. Anglea
asks whether she has any legal recourse elther to stop the use of the dance or to
obtaln compensatlon for herself or for her communlty.
Lesson
what ls tradltlonal knowledge!
Though dimcult to dclnc, tradltlonal knowledge (TK) is gcncially undcistood to
cncompass loui typcs ol cicativc woik: verbal expresslons (stoiics, cpics, lcgcnds,
lolk talcs, poctiy, iiddlcs, ctc.), muslcal expresslons (lolk songs and instiumcntal
music), expresslons by actlon (danccs, plays, ccicmonics, iituals and othci pci-
loimanccs) and tanglble expresslons that must bc lxcd on a pcimancnt matciial
(diawings, dcsigns, paintings (including body paintings), caivings, sculptuics,
pottciy, mosaics, jcwcliy, baskct woik, tcxtilcs, caipcts, costumcs, musical instiu-
mcnts, ctc.) Moic dctailcd dclnitions can bc lound in thc WIPO and UNESCO
modcl piovisions. TK is uscd intcichangcably with thc tcim tradltlonal cultural
expresslons (TCLs), both iclci to music, ait, dcsigns, namcs, signs and symbols,
pciloimanccs, aichitcctuial loims, handicialts, and naiiativcs. TCEs aic intcgial
to thc cultuial and social idcntitics ol indigcnous and local communitics. Thcy
cmbody knowlcdgc and skills and thcy tiansmit coic valucs and bclicls.
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oo COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
WHA7 lS 7H 0A7 A0U71
Scvcial combincd loiccs havc icccntly lcd to commcicialization ol TCEs on a global
scalc without duc icspcct bcing givcn to thc cultuial oi cconomic intcicsts ol thc
communitics liom which thcy oiiginatc. Thc Intcinct piovidcs pcivasivc acccss to
TCEs. Thc dcmand ol Wcstcin consumcis loi what is somctimcs (disicspcctlully)
callcd piimitivc ait" has incicascd. Finally, touiism in dcvcloping countiics has
cxposcd moic potcntial consumcis to manilcstations ol lolkloic that can bc lound
thcic. As a icsult, indigcnous gioups aic sccking piotcction loi thcii TCEs and
thcii icsponscs havc afcctcd lcgislation at national, icgional, and intcinational
lcvcls.
WHA7 7YPS 0F 7RA0l7l0NAL KN0WL00
AR M0S7 FRUN7LY US01
Exploitation ol TK occuis in difcicnt loims. Examplcs includc thc unauthoiizcd
pioduction ol indigcnous cialt objccts in thc souvcnii maikct, thc unauthoiizcd
usc ol indigcnous imagciy on clothing, lood pioducts, oi toys, thc unauthoiizcd
usc ol indigcnous namcs oi phiascs as tiadcmaiks, thc unauthoiizcd incoipoiation
ol tiaditional dancc into commcicial pciloimanccs, and thc unauthoiizcd usc ol
tiaditional music in commcicial musical pioductions.
WHA7 KlN0 0F L0AL LlAlLl7Y 00VRNS1
What kinds ol lcgal iulcs (il any) should govcin usc ol tiaditional knowlcdgc by
pcoplc who aic not mcmbcis ol communitics liom which thc TK oiiginatcs? This
issuc is bcing addicsscd on national, icgional, and intcinational lcvcls. TK might bc
piotcctcd thiough convcntional IP law - loi cxamplc, thiough thc usc ol copyiight
law, patcnt law, gcogiaphical indicatois, oi ccitilcation tiadcmaiks. Howcvci,
many icgions and countiics havc lound it dimcult to lt TK into tiaditional IP
piotcction schcmcs. As a icsult, somc havc adoptcd sui qeneris laws that apply
spccilcally to TK. Examplcs ol thcsc difcicnt appioachcs aic discusscd bclow.
How lndlvldual natlons deal wlth
tradltlonal knowledge
C0UN7RlS WH0S 7RA0l7l0NAL lP LAWS 00
N07 C0VR 7RA0l7l0NAL KN0WL00
Scvcial nations havc copyiight laws that cxpicssly cxcludc lolkloic liom thc list
ol woiks cligiblc loi copyiight piotcction. Thcsc includc: Armenla, Azerbal[an,
8elarus, 8ulgarla, Lstonla, Greece, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon,
Llthuanla, Moldova, Pussla, Slovenla, Ukralne, Uzbeklstan, and emen. Thcsc
countiics tcnd to classily tiaditional knowlcdgc as within thc public domain"
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and thus do not icstiict usc ol oi acccss to TK. Foi instancc, Aiticlc j ol thc zooz
Copyiight Act ol 8osnla and Herzegovlna statcs that thc usc ol lolk litciatuic
and ait cications loi thc puiposc ol a litciaiy, aitistic oi scicntilc aiiangcmcnt
shall bc licc."
C0UN7RlS WH0S 7RA0l7l0NAL lP LAWS
C0VR 7RA0l7l0NAL KN0WL00
PPOTLCT|ON DLSP|TL NO LXPL|C|T PLPLPLNCL TO TCL
Thc tiaditional IP statutcs in somc nations contain no cxplicit iclcicnccs to
lolkloic, but TCEs may still bc piotcctcd in thosc nations undci copyiight law,
othci tiaditional intcllcctual piopcity doctiincs, oi thiough spccial statutcs. Foi
cxamplc, most countiics in Euiopc havc copyiight lcgislation that may bc uscd to
covci tiaditional knowlcdgc, but do not havc any piovisions cxplicitly mcntioning
TCEs. Thcsc includc: 8elglum, Cyprus, Denmark, Plnland, Prance, Germany,
|celand, |taly, Latvla, Luxembourg, Norway, Poland, Portugal, San Marlno, Spaln,
Sweden, and Swltzerland. Scvcial othci dcvclopcd countiics lack cxplicit TCE
iclcicnccs as wcll. Thcsc includc: Australla, Canada, 1apan, and thc Unlted States.
Additionally, scvcial countiics with icccntly cnactcd copyiight lcgislation havc
not cxpicssly includcd TCEs within its scopc. Includcd in this gioup aic scvcial
Asian countiics (such as |ndla, Malaysla, Phlllpplnes, and Thalland) and scvcial
Caiibbcan and South Amciican countiics (such as 8arbados, Ll Salvador, Salnt
vlncent and the Grenadlnes, Trlnldad and Tobago, and venezuela). Silcncc in
thcsc statutcs, howcvci, docs not mcan that tiaditional knowlcdgc is unpiotcctcd.
Rathci, in thcsc countiics TCEs aic piotcctcd on thc basis ol tiaditional IP,
customaiy, icgional oi intcinational laws oi thiough sui qeneris lcgislation.
In Australla, TCEs aic piotcctcd thiough tiaditional copyiight law. Foi cxamplc,
in Mi|purrurru v. Indojurn I|, Itd., Aboiiginal Austialian aitists sucd to picvcnt thc
impoitation by a Pcith-bascd company ol caipcts manulactuicd in Victnam, upon
which wcic icpioduccd thc dcsigns ol scvcial piomincnt Aboiiginal aitists without
thcii pcimission. Thc dcsigns had bccn copicd lioma poitlolio ol aitwoiks pioduccd
by thc Austialian National Gallciy. Thc lcdcial couit awaidcd thc Aboiiginal aitists
substantial damagcs loi copyiight inliingcmcnt and giantcd an injunction against
any luithci inliingcmcnt. Thc couit pointcd out that thc unauthoiizcd usc ol thc
aitwoik involvcd thc piiating ol cultuial hciitagc and that such bchavioi could
havc lai-icaching cfccts on thc Austialian cultuial cnviionmcnt. It was dccmcd
cspccially ofcnsivc that thc imagcs had bccn uscd on a mcdium (caipct) that was
dcsigncd to bc walkcd upon.
Othci nations havc bcgun using tiadcmaik law to piotcct TCEs, cvcn whcn TCEs
aic not mcntioncd in national statutcs. Foi cxamplc, in Canada, New Zealand,
and thc Unlted States, as wcll as Australla, indigcnous pcoplc havc somctimcs
iclicd (with vaiying dcgiccs ol succcss) upon tiadcmaik law oi its cquivalcnt to
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o. COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
piotcct tiibal namcs and othci dcsigns and motils against unauthoiizcd usc by
othcis. Considciablc cfoits havc also bccn madc to piotcct sacicd and cultuially
signilcant symbols as wcll as collcctivc and ccitilcation maiks undci tiaditional
tiadcmaik law. Foi instancc, Australla piovidcs loi dcsign icgistiation, which allows
loi thc icgistiation ol lcatuics ol shapc, conlguiation, pattcin, oi oinamcntation
applicablc to an aiticlc. This systcm piotccts thc visual loim loi 6 ycais, piovidcd
that it is ncw and oiiginal and is not bascd on a pic-cxisting dcsign. Still, bccausc
ol thc oiiginality icquiicmcnt, this systcm has not yct bccn cfcctivc loi piotccting
lolkloic. Moic cfcctivc is thc systcm uscd in New Zealand. Thcic, thc icccntly
adoptcd Tiadc Maiks Act ol zooz picvcnts thc icgistiation ol tiadcmaiks bascd
on Maoii tcxt oi imagciy whcic thc usc oi icgistiation ol such maiks would bc
ofcnsivc to thc Maoii. Thc Commissionci ol Tiadc Maiks has sct up a Maoii
Advisoiy Committcc to advisc on whcthci thc pioposcd icgistiation oi usc ol a
maik is likcly to bc ofcnsivc.
Although thc Unlted States has not actcd to piovidc gcncial piotcction loi
indigcnous pcoplcs' tiaditional knowlcdgc, it has somctimcs adoptcd naiiow
statutcs in icsponsc to Nativc Amciicans' attcmpts to icgain scll-govcinancc and
to contiol thc usc ol thcii tiaditional knowlcdgc by non-community mcmbcis.
Efoits ol this soit includc:
- thc Antiquitics Act ol jo6 (6 U.S.C. jj ,-,, (zooo)), giving thc picsidcnt
powci to sct asidc as national monumcnts ccitain histoiic landmaiks, stiuctuics,
and othci objccts ol histoiic intcicst,
- thc Histoiic Sitcs, Buildings and Antiquitics Act ol j,, (6 U.S.C. jj 6-6;),
cmpowciing thc National Paik Scivicc to icstoic, icconstiuct, and maintain
sitcs and objccts ol histoiic intcicst,
- thc National Histoiic Picscivation Act ol j66 (6 U.S.C. j ;o), pioviding loi
thc maintcnancc ol a National Rcgistci ol Histoiic Placcs and icquiiing thc
Sccictaiy ol thc Intciioi to cstablish a piogiam to hclp Nativc Amciican tiibcs
to picscivc thcii piopcitics, taking into account tiibal valucs,
- thc Nativc Amciican Aits and Cialts Act (z, U.S.C. j ,o, (zooo)), intcndcd to
assuic thc authcnticity ol Nativc Amciican aitilacts,
- thc Nativc Amciican Giavcs Piotcction and Rcpatiiation Act (NAGPRA")( z,
U.S.C. j ,oo()-(,) (zooo)), which piovidcd that thc ownciship oi contiol ol
Nativc Amciican cultuial itcms cxcavatcd oi discovcicd on lcdcial oi tiibal
lands icmaincd with lincal dcsccndants, Nativc Amciican tiibcs, oi Hawaiian
Oiganizations.
PPOTLCT|ON US|NG LXPL|C|T PLPLPLNCL TO TCLs
Many countiics now cxplicitly iclci to lolkloic in thcii copyiight lcgislation. Such
iclcicnccs takc vaiious loims.
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o, COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
Somc countiics havc scctions, chaptcis, oi spccial paits ol copyiight law that aic
cntiicly dcvotcd to lolkloic. Countiics within this gioup includc Algerla, 8ollvla,
8razll, 8urklna Paso, 8urundl, Chlle, Congo, Ghana, Kenya, Mongolla, Morocco,
Namlbla, Nlcaragua, Nlger, Nlgerla, Papua New Gulnea, Paraguay, Pwanda,
Seychelles, Togo, Tanzanla, Tunlsla, and Zlmbabwe.
In thc Congo, loi cxamplc, lolkloic is considcicd paity ol thc countiy's hciitagc,
and Congolcsc copyiight law piotccts lolkloic without a timc limitation. A Body
ol Authois" socicty is icsponsiblc loi collccting ioyaltics, icpicscnting authois'
intcicsts, and ovcisccing thc usc ol lolkloic. Pcimission must bc sought liom thc
socicty bcloic any public pciloimancc, icpioduction, oi adaptation ol lolkloic loi
commcicial puiposcs. This includcs thc impoit oi distiibution ol copics ol woiks
ol national lolkloic madc abioad. Public agcncics aic cxcmptcd liom thc obligation
to obtain piioi authoiization to usc lolkloic loi nonpiolt activitics, though thcy
still must notily thc socicty bcloic usc.
In Ghana, thc icccntly adoptcd Copyiight Act ol zoo, signilcantly changcd thc
way tiaditional knowlcdgc is piotcctcd. In thc Act, copyiight piotcction cxtcnds
to litciaiy woiks, aitistic woiks, musical woiks, sound iccoidings, bioadcasts, cin-
cmatogiaphic woiks, choicogiaphic woiks, dciivativc woiks, and piogiam-caiiying
bioadcast signals. To bc cligiblc loi copyiight, thc woik must bc oiiginal, in wiiting
(oi othciwisc icduccd to matciial loim), and cicatcd by a citizcn oi icsidcnt ol
Ghana. Thc woik must also havc bccn list publishcd in Ghana, oi, il list publishcd
outsidc Ghana, publishcd in Ghana within thiity days ol its oiiginal publication.
A woik cicatcd by an individual is piotcctcd loi thc lilc ol that individual plus
llty ycais, a woik cicatcd by a coipoiation is piotcctcd loi llty ycais liom thc
datc on which thc woik was list madc public. In Ghana, an authoi has cxclusivc
iights to icpioducc thc woik (with thc cxccption ol piivatc usc, quotations in othci
woiks, and usc in pcdagogy, which aic pcimittcd). It is an inliingcmcnt ol thc
copyiight to icpioducc, scll, oi cxhibit in public loi commcicial puiposcs any woik
without authoiization, oi to usc thc woik in a mannci that advciscly afccts thc
icputation ol thc authoi. Both civil and ciiminal pcnaltics may apply. Aiticlc ,j ol
thc Act cstablishcs a National Folkloic Boaid, which govcins thc administiation,
picscivation, icgistiation, and piomotion ol cxpicssions ol lolkloic. Thc Boaid
may authoiizc thc usc ol lolkloic and may dctciminc a lcc to bc paid. Thc Act
piovidcs that thc copyiights ol authois ol lolkloic vcst in thc govcinmcnt as il thc
govcinmcnt wcic thc cicatoi ol thc woiks. In Ghana (as in thc Ccntial Aliican
Rcpublic and Congo), lunds liom lccs oi othci moncy acciuing liom thc usc ol
lolkloic aic to bc uscd loi social wcllaic bcnclts.
Namlbla giants indigcnous communitics indclnitc cxclusivc iights to contiol
cxpicssions ol lolkloic and thcii adaptations, tianslations, and tiansloimations.
Thcsc cxclusivc iights includc thc iight to publicizc, makc a icpioduction, oi
distiibutc copics ol an cxpicssion ol lolkloic, communicatc an cxpicssion ol
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lolkloic to thc public by pciloimancc, bioadcasting, distiibution by cablc oi othci
mcans, includc an cxpicssion ol lolkloic in a cincmatogiaphic llm oi a tclcvision
bioadcast, causc thc lolkloic cxpicssion, oi a tclcvision piogiam oi othci piogiam
including thc cxpicssion, to bc tiansmittcd in a difusion scivicc (unlcss such
scivicc tiansmits a lawlul bioadcast, including thc cxpicssion, and is opciatcd by
thc oiiginal bioadcastci), makc adaptations, tianslations and othci tiansloimation
ol thc cxpicssion (Aiticlc 6o). Aiticlc 6, howcvci, allows a sccondaiy usci to usc
cxpicssions ol lolkloic loi pcisonal oi piivatc usc, ciiticism oi icvicw, tcaching oi
scicntilc icscaich, and incidcntal usc. Aiticlc 6 also allows thc usc ol thc oiiginal
cxpicssion il thc usc is compatiblc with laii piacticc," such as loi cicating an
illustiation oi boiiowing thc cxpicssion to cicatc an oiiginal woik.
Likcwisc, copyiight law in Nlgerla piotccts cxpicssions ol lolkloic against
icpioduction, communication to thc public by pciloimancc, bioadcasting, [oi
distiibution by cablc." In addition, it loibids adaptations, tianslations, and othci
tiansloimations ol such lolkloic whcn madc cithci loi commcicial puiposcs oi
outsidc thcii tiaditional customaiy contcxt. Thc iight to authoiizc any ol thcsc acts
lics with thc Nigciian Copyiight Council. Howcvci, Nigciian lolkloic may bc uscd
without authoiization loi piivatc, cducational, oi illustiativc puiposcs. Thc law
icquiics idcntilcation ol thc souicc ol thc lolkloic by iclcicncc to thc community
oi placc liom which thc lolkloic is dciivcd. Violations ol thc law subjcct thc usci to
liability in damagcs, injunctions, and othci icmcdics thc couit dccms appiopiiatc.
Nigciia also piotccts tiaditional knowlcdgc thiough patcnts and tiadcmaiks. To
bc patcntablc, an invcntion must bc ncw, icsult liom invcntivc activity, and bc
capablc ol industiial application. Thc patcnt iight is vcstcd in thc invcntoi, and thc
patcnt is valid loi zo ycais altci thc lling datc. Additionally, Nigciian lcgislation
piotccts icgistcicd tiadcmaiks. Rcgistiation is valid loi scvcn ycais and thcn can
bc icncwcd, icgistiation is limitcd to maiks that aic distinctivc.
In Pwanda, Aiticlc , ol thc Copyiight Law (j8,) piovidcs gcncious piotcction
to lolkloic. Includcd in its covciagc aic tiaditions and litciaiy pioductions (talcs,
lcgcnds, myths, piovcibs, accounts, and pocms), aitistic woiks (danccs and spcc-
taclcs ol any kind, musical woiks ol any kind, stylcs and woiks ol dccoiativc ait,
and aichitcctuial stylcs), icligious woiks (iitual iitcs, objccts, clothing, and placcs ol
woiship), scicntilc knowlcdgc (piacticcs and pioducts ol mcdicinc and phaimacol-
ogy, thcoictical and piactical lclds ol thc natuial scicnccs and anthiopology), and
tcchnological knowlcdgc.
Thc Copyiight Law ol Zlmbabwe piotccts pciloimcis' iights to iccoid, bioad-
cast, and distiibutc copics ol thcii pciloimanccs (Scction 68). In addition, it cxtcnds
piotcction to a woik ol lolkloic," which it dclncs as a litciaiy, musical oi aitistic
woik, whcthci oi not it is iccoidcd, ol which: (a) no pcison can claim to bc thc
authoi, and (b) thc loim oi contcnt is cmbodicd in thc tiaditions pcculiai to onc
oi moic communitics in Zimbabwc, and includcs: (i) lolk talcs, lolk poctiy, and
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tiaditional iiddlcs, (ii) lolk songs and instiumcntal lolk music, (iii) lolk danccs,
plays, and aitistic loims ol iitual, and (iv) pioductions ol lolk ait, in paiticulai
diawings, paintings, sculptuics, pottciy, woodwoik, mctalwoik, jcwclciy, baskcts,
and costumcs (Scction 8o).
Thc copyiight laws in scvcial othci countiics shicld tiaditional knowlcdgc by
including lolkloic in thc list ol litciaiy and aitistic woiks cligiblc loi icgulai copyiight
piotcction. Countiics adopting this appioach includc Angola, 8enln, Cameroon,
D[lboutl, Gabon, Gulnea, |vory Coast, Lesotho, Madagascar, Mall, Mozamblque,
Oman, Pepubllc of Central Afrlca, Senegal, Togo, Uganda, and Zalre.
Foi instancc, Cameroonlan law cxtcnds copyiight piotcction to woiks dciivcd
liom lolkloic." Uscis must scck pcimission liom thc National Copyiight Coipoia-
tion bcloic any commcicial cxploitation ol lolkloic may occui. Agcnts authoiizcd
by thc Coipoiation icgulatc thc usc ol lolkloic in Camcioon, whilc thc Coipoiation
collccts ioyaltics lxcd by agiccmcnt bctwccn thc paitics and biings inliingcmcnt
actions against unlawlul uscis ol piotcctcd woiks.
Lesotho's Copyiight Oidci ol j8j dclncs lolkloic as cultuial pioductions
with chaiactciistic clcmcnts ol thc tiaditional aitistic hciitagc dcvclopcd and
maintaincd ovci gcnciations by a community oi by individuals icccting thc
tiaditional aitistic cxpcctations ol thcii community." Woiks inspiicd by cxpicssions
ol lolkloic aic piotcctcd as oiiginal woiks (Aiticlc (c)).
In Mall all pcisons (cxccpt public cntitics) sccking to usc lolkloic loi piolt must
obtain piioi authoiization liom thc Ministci ol Aits and Cultuic, who may imposc
a lcc loi such usc. Thc law piohibits thc assignmcnt oi liccnsing ol woiks dciivcd
liom lolkloic" without thc appioval ol thc ministci. Thc law also placcs in thc
public domain and chaigcs a usci lcc loi all woiks whosc authois aic unknown,
including thc songs, lcgcnds, danccs, and othci manilcstations ol thc common
cultuial hciitagc."
Senegal includcs lolkloic in thc list ol woiks cligiblc loi copyiight piotcction.
Aiticlc ol thc Scncgalcsc Copyiight Act piovidcs spccial piotcction loi lolkloic,
and Aiticlc j statcs that any diicct oi indiicct" lxation ol such matciial loi
piolt-making puiposcs" is subjcct to piioi authoiization by thc Copyiight Omcc
ol Scncgal. All lolkloic uscs icquiic piioi authoiization liom thc Omcc, which
chaigcs uscis a lcc whosc amount dcpcnds on thc natuic ol thc usc and piioi
aiiangcmcnts. Scncgal ciiminalizcs thc impoitation ol woiks into Scncgal that
violatc its copyiight law.
Uganda's Copyiight and Ncighbouiing Rights Act, zoo6 giants copyiight piotcc-
tion to woik in thc lcld ol litciatuic, tiaditional lolkloic and knowlcdgc, scicncc
and ait" (Aiticlc ,). It giants pciloimcis - pcisons who act, sing, dclivci, dcclaim,
play in, intcipict, oi othciwisc pciloim litciaiy oi aitistic woiks oi cxpicssions ol
lolkloic - thc iight to contiol thc lxation, tiansmission and icpioduction ol thcii
pciloimanccs (Aiticlcs z and zz).
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o6 COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
A lnal gioup ol countiics piotcct TCEs by gianting iights to thc statc loi its
piotcction. Includcd in this gioup aic Lgypt, 1ordan, Malawl, Saudl Arabla, Sudan,
and Qatar.
Foi instancc, in Sudan, Aiticlc ; ol thc Copyiight Act notcs that National
lolkloic ol thc Sudancsc community is dccmcd to bc thc piopcity ol thc Statc"
and that thc Statc icpicscntcd by thc Ministiy ol Cultuic and Inloimation,
shall cndcavoi to piotcct woiks ol lolkloic by all lcgal ways and mcans, and shall
cxcicisc thc iights ol an authoi in cascs ol mutilation, tiansloimation and com-
mcicial cxploitation." Similaily, in Lgypt, Aiticlc z ol thc Law on thc Piotcction
ol Intcllcctual Piopcity Rights No. 8z (, }unc zooz) dclncs national lolkloic" as
pait ol thc public domain ol thc pcoplc." Thc Act statcs: Thc compctcnt ministiy
shall cxcicisc thc authoi's cconomic and moial iights and shall piotcct and suppoit
such lolkloic." In Saudl Arabla, Aiticlc ; ol thc Copyiight Law ol zoo, statcs that
[lolkloic shall bc thc piopcity ol thc statc, and thc Ministiy shall cxcicisc thc
copyiight pcitaining thcicto," and that [thc impoit oi distiibution ol copics ol
lolkloic woiks, copics ol thcii tianslations oi othcis which aic pioduccd outsidc
thc Kingdom without a liccnsc liom thc Ministiy shall bc piohibitcd." Likcwisc,
in Qatar Aiticlc ,z ol thc Copyiight Act ol zooz piovidcs that [national lolkloic
shall bc thc public piopcity ol thc Statc" and that thc Statc . shall piotcct national
lolkloic by all lcgal mcans, and shall act as thc authoi ol lolkloic woiks in lacing
any dcloimation, modilcation oi commcicial cxploitation." In 1ordan, Aiticlc ;(c)(,)
ol thc Copyiight Law No. zz ol jjz cxcludcs liom copyiight piotcction woiks
which icvcitcd to thc public domain. Foi thc puiposc ol this aiticlc lolkloic shall
bc considcicd in thc public domain with thc ministci cxcicising thc copyiights ol
thcsc woiks against distoition, misicpicscntation oi damagc to cultuial intcicsts"
unlcss thc collcctions ol thcsc woiks wcic distinguishcd by a pcisonal cfoit
involving innovation oi aiiangcmcnt."
COUNTP|LS w|TH 5ul ClNlkl5 TPAD|T|ONAL KNOwLLDGL LAwS
Thc countiics discusscd in thc picvious scction includc tiaditional knowlcdgc
in thcii icgulai copyiight laws, but typically ticat TK somcwhat difcicntly liom
othci typcs ol copyiightcd woiks. Thc mcmbcis ol thc lnal gioup ol countiics
go onc stcp luithci. Instcad ol classilying TK as a (spccial) typc ol copyiightcd
woik, thcsc countiics havc adoptcd so-callcd sui qeneris laws that cicatc an cntiicly
difcicnt soit ol lcgal piotcction loi TK. (As wc will scc, thc distinction bctwccn
customizcd copyiight laws and sui qeneris laws is bluiicd, but is ncvcithclcss
hclplul in difcicntiating thc typcs ol appioachcs to this issuc.)
Two caily cxamplcs ol national sui qeneris laws gicw out ol countiics' cfoits to
piotcct thc tiaditional knowlcdgc ol indigcnous gioups conccining thc mcdicinal
valuc ol plants. Lcuador's Lawon Intcllcctual Piopcity ol jj8 piotccts thc countiy's
biological and gcnctic hciitagc, and conditions thc gianting ol pioduct oi pioccss
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patcnts iclating to that hciitagc on thc acquisition ol iights liom thc iclcvant tia-
ditional owncis. Similaily, in jj;, thc Phlllpplne Congicss passcd thc Indigcnous
Pcoplcs Rights Act to iccognizc and piomotc all thc iights ol Indigcnous Cultuial
Communitics/Indigcnous Pcoplcs (ICCs/IPs)," including thcii iights to picscivc and
dcvclop thcii cultuics, tiaditions, and institutions" in cultuial piopcity. Thc Act
amims thc iight ol ICCs/IPs to thc lull ownciship and contiol ol thcii cultuial and
intcllcctual iights. Thus, acccss to biological and gcnctic icsouiccs is pcimittcd only
altci obtaining thc licc and inloimcd conscnt ol such communitics. In addition, thc
Act guaiantccs ICCs/IPs thc iight to piacticc and icvitalizc thcii cultuial tiaditions,
including to piacticc and tcach thcii spiiitual and icligious tiaditions, customs
and ccicmonics, thc iight to maintain, piotcct and havc acccss to thcii icligious
and cultuial sitcs, thc iight to thc usc and contiol ol ccicmonial objccts, and, thc
iight to thc icpatiiation ol human icmains."
Panama's Act No. zo launchcd thc sui qeneris piotcction movcmcnt spccilcally
loi TCEs in }unc, zooo. Thc Act subjccts thc iights ol usc and commcicialization
ol thc aits, cialts and othci cultuial cxpicssions bascd on thc tiadition ol thc
indigcnous community" to thc icgulation ol cach indigcnous community appiovcd
and icgistcicd in thc DIGERPI oi in thc National Copyiight Omcc ol thc Ministiy
ol Education. It dclncs indigcnous collcctivc iights" as indigcnous intcllcctual and
cultuial piopcity iights law iclating to ait, music, litciatuic . and othci subjcct
mattci and manilcstations that havc no known authoi oi ownci and no datc ol
oiigin and constitutc thc hciitagc ol an cntiic indigcnous pcoplc."
Likcwisc, Peru's zooz sui qeneris TK Law aims to piomotc icspcct loi and
piotcct
collcctivc knowlcdgc ol indigcnous pcoplcs, to piomotc thc laii and cquitablc
distiibution ol thc bcnclts dciivcd liom thc usc ol that collcctivc knowlcdgc,
to piomotc thc usc ol thc knowlcdgc loi thc bcnclt ol thc indigcnous
pcoplcs and mankind in gcncial, to cnsuic that thc usc ol thc knowlcdgc
takcs placc with thc piioi inloimcd conscnt ol thc indigcnous pcoplcs,
to piomotc thc sticngthcning and dcvclopmcnt ol thc potcntial ol thc
indigcnous pcoplcs . and to avoid situations whcic thc patcnts aic giantcd
loi invcntions madc oi dcvclopcd on thc basis ol collcctivc knowlcdgc ol thc
indigcnous pcoplcs ol Pciu without any account bcing takcn ol that knowl-
cdgc as piioi ait in thc cxamination ol thc novclty and invcntivcncss ol thc
said invcntions.
In zoo,, Guatemala dcsigncd and implcmcntcd a spccial sui qeneris sct ol intcl-
lcctual piopcity iights loi indigcnous lolkloic, backcd by both civil and ciiminal
pcnaltics. Guatcmala's Cultuial Hciitagc Piotcction Law" also cnablcs thc Attoincy
Gcncial to piotcct any icgistcicd indigcnous cultuial good (including oial and
musical tiaditions) and piovidcs pcipctual intcllcctual piopcity piotcction loi any
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o8 COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
icgistcicd itcm. Thc Guatcmalan systcm is iccipiocal, it iccognizcs thc icgistcicd
lolkloic ol any othci countiy that iccognizcs thc Guatcmalan icgistiy.
It is likcly that many othci countiics will soon adopt sui qeneris TK laws. Onc
indication ol thc ticnd in this diicction is that many national mcmbcis ol WIPO's
Intcigovcinmcntal Committcc on Intcllcctual Piopcity and Gcnctic Rcsouiccs,
Tiaditional Knowlcdgc, and Folkloic havc callcd loi thc cstablishmcnt ol sui qeneris
systcms in thcii wiittcn submissions to thc Committcc. Among such countiics aic
8razll, Colombla, Lthlopla, Lgypt, |ndonesla, |ran, Morocco, thc Pusslan Pedera-
tlon, Thalland, and venezuela.
Peglonal codes governlng tradltlonal knowledge
Anothci way in which somc countiics attcmpt to piotcct tiaditional cultuial
cxpicssions (TCEs) is by pooling thcii icsouiccs and cicating intcigovcinmcntal
oiganizations that monitoi and scck to contiol thc usc ol TCEs in loicign tci-
iitoiics. Advantagcs ol this appioach includc haimonizing local laws, ccntializing
administiation, and avoiding duplication ol costly cfoits acioss multiplc countiics.
Whilc thc objcctivcs ol icgional laws may bc sound, it is dcbatablc whcthci thc
icgional oiganizations piovidc cfcctivc loims ol cnloiccmcnt. Thc majoi cxamplcs
ol this stiatcgy aic dcsciibcd bclow.
AFRlCAN R0l0NAL lN7LLC7UAL PR0PR7Y
0R0ANlZA7l0N lARlP0)
Thc Aliican Rcgional Intcllcctual Piopcity Oiganization (ARIPO) (oiiginally namcd
thc Aliican Rcgional Industiial Piopcity Oiganization) was loimcd in j;6 and
includcs many ol thc English-spcaking Aliican countiics: 8otswana, Gambla,
Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawl, Mozamblque, Namlbla, Slerra Leone, Somalla,
Sudan, Swazlland, Tanzanla, Uganda, Zambla, and Zlmbabwe. ARIPO's ovciall
objcctivcs aic to haimonizc intcllcctual piopcity icgimcs, lostci coopciation, and
piovidc cooidinatcd administiativc tiaining acioss mcmbci statcs.
ARIPO has adoptcd two ccntial piotocols: thc Haiaic Piotocol, pcitaining to
patcnts and industiial dcsigns, and thc Banjul Piotocol, iclating to tiadcmaiks
and scivicc maiks. Suipiisingly, ncithci piotocol spccilcally mcntions piotcction
ol tiaditional knowlcdgc oi TCEs. Somc havc ciiticizcd thc piotocols as inscnsitivc
to thc nccds ol thc mcmbci statcs. Howcvci, sincc thc adoption ol thc piotocols,
ARIPO has continucd to woik with thc Woild Intcllcctual Piopcity Oiganization
(WIPO) to piotcct indigcnous knowlcdgc. Fuithcimoic, ARIPO's Administiativc
Council has initiatcd a study to asscss thc lcasibility ol dcvcloping a tiaditional
knowlcdgc databasc. In zooj, ARIPO's Administiativc Council suggcstcd thicc
piimaiy ways to implcmcnt thc Oiganization's mandatc on thc piotcction ol gcnctic
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icsouiccs, tiaditional knowlcdgc, and cxpicssions ol lolkloic: () dcvclop ARIPO's
Tiaditional Knowlcdgc Digital Libiaiy, (z) cicatc icgional liamcwoiks on acccss
and bcnclt shaiing iclatcd to biological icsouiccs, and (,) adopt thc Dialt Piotocol
and implcmcnting icgulations on thc piotcction ol tiaditional knowlcdgc and thc
cxpicssions ol lolkloic. Piogicss on onc oi moic ol thcsc paths can bc cxpcctcd in
thc ncai lutuic.
AFRlCAN lN7LLC7UAL PR0PR7Y 0R0ANlZA7l0N l0APl)
Thc Aliican Intcllcctual Piopcity Oiganization (OAPI) was cicatcd by thc
liancophonc Aliican countiics in j6z. Thc oiganization's most impoitant lcgal
instiumcnt is thc Bangui Agiccmcnt, which was signcd in j;;. Thc lollowing 6
Aliican countiics aic bound by thc Agiccmcnt: 8enln, 8urklna Paso, Cameroon,
Central Afrlcan Pepubllc, Congo, Cte d'|volre, Gulnea, Lqultorlal Gulnea, Gabon,
Gulnea-8lssau, Mall, Maurltanla, Nlger, Senegal, Chad, and Togo. Thc Bangui
Agiccmcnt was amcndcd in jjj so that its loimal namc is now thc Agiccmcnt
Rcvising thc Bangui Agiccmcnt ol z Maich j;; on thc Cication ol an Aliican
Intcllcctual Piopcity Oiganization (ol Fcbiuaiy z, jjj)." Although thc j;;
vcision ol thc Agiccmcnt is no longci cfcctivc, compaiing thc j;; and jjj
vcisions hclps to idcntily thc sticngths and wcakncsscs ol OAPI's most impoitant
agiccmcnt.
ANNLX v|| |N THL !9// 8ANGU| AGPLLMLNT
Thc most notablc difcicncc bctwccn thc j;; and thc jjj vcisions ol thc
Agiccmcnt is thc icmoval ol diicct piotcction ol lolkloic liom thc copyiight
scction. Anncx VII ol thc j;; Agiccmcnt obligcd mcmbci statcs to dcclaic usc
ol lolkloic to a national agcncy and to pay lccs loi such usc. Thc lccs collcctcd
wcic diicctcd, in pait, to cultuial and social puiposcs. This scction was ciiticizcd
loi its vagucncss bccausc most pcoplc wcic not suic how bioadly to intcipict
thc scopc ol usc ol clcmcnts boiiowcd liom lolkloic" (j;; Agiccmcnt, Anncx
VII, Chaptci , Aiticlc 8, paia. ,). Additionally, thc oldci vcision ol thc Bangui
Agiccmcnt imposcd a lnc loi any usc ol lolkloic woik oi a woik that has cntcicd
thc public domain" without piioi dcclaiation to thc appiopiiatc national agcncy
(j;; Agiccmcnt, Anncx VII, Chaptci , Aiticlc ,8, paia. z). Thc oldci systcm can
bc dcsciibcd as onc in which lolkloic automatically bclongs to thc public domain
and lolkloic uscis simply pay thc public domain loi thc usc to bc authoiizcd.
Altcinativcly, this oldci systcm can bc chaiactciizcd as onc in which lolkloic
is owncd and icgulatcd by thc statc bccausc, as dcclaicd in thc oiiginal Agicc-
mcnt, thc statc has an indclcasiblc iight with icspcct to lolkloic and lolkloic
is by its oiigin pait ol national hciitagc" (j;; Agiccmcnt, Anncx VII, Chaptci
, Aiticlc 8, paia. ). Thc tcnsion bctwccn thcsc two intcipictations ultimatcly
cicatcd conlusion icgaiding who owncd TCEs. Piotcction ol lolkloic and cultuial
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hciitagc was thcn movcd liom thc copyiight scction ol thc j;; Agiccmcnt to
thc scction discussing piovisions common to copyiight and ncighboiing iights in
thc jjj Agiccmcnt. As discusscd bclow, this ncw placcmcnt did not climinatc
conlusion and ambiguity.
Thc jjj Bangui Agiccmcnt continucs cailici attcmpts to piotcct lolkloic
and cultuial hciitagc. Undci thc ncw systcm, uscis ol lolkloic must icccivc piioi
authoiization. Thc objcctivcs ol thc systcm aic to piotcct (Chaptci z), to salcguaid
(Chaptci ,), and to piomotc (Chaptci ) cultuial hciitagc. Cultuial hciitagc" is
dclncd as a composition ol all thosc matciial oi immatciial human pioductions
that aic chaiactciistic ol a nation ovci timc and spacc. Such pioductions iclatc to
(i) lolkloic, (ii) sitcs and monumcnts, [and (iii) cnscmblcs" (Aiticlc 6;, paias -z).
Thc dclnitions ol lolkloic" (Aiticlc 68) and monumcnts" (Aiticlc ;o) aic vciy
dctailcd. Additionally, thc dclnitions ol sitcs" and cnscmblcs" can bc lound in
Aiticlcs 6j and ;, icspcctivcly.
Piohibitcd acts aic listcd in Aiticlc ;,. Thcy includc dcloimation, cxpoit, mis-
appiopiiation, and unlawlul tianslci. Aiticlc ; statcs thicc main cxccptions to
thcsc piohibitions: usc loi tcaching," usc as illustiation ol thc oiiginal woik ol
an authoi on condition that thc scopc ol such usc icmains compatiblc with honcst
piacticc," and boiiowings loi thc cication ol an oiiginal woik liom onc oi moic
authois."
A lcc paymcnt schcmc similai to thc j;; Agiccmcnt still cxists in which thc
cxploitations ol cxpicssions ol lolkloic and that ol woiks oi pioductions that
havc lallcn into thc public domain . shall bc subjcct to thc usci cntciing into an
undcitaking to pay thc national collcctivc iights administiation body a iclcvant
ioyalty" (jjj Agiccmcnt, Anncx VII, Chaptci ,, Aiticlc ,j, paia. ). Thc lccs will
bc donatcd, in pait, to wcllaic and cultuial puiposcs" (jjj Agiccmcnt, Anncx
VII, Chaptci ,, Aiticlc ,j, paia. ,).
Somc obscivcis contcnd that thc jjj Agiccmcnt complctcly icmovcd lolkloic
liom copyiight law and instcad piovidcd it with sui qeneris piotcction whcicby
lolkloic is icgulatcd and owncd by thc govcinmcnt. Howcvci, othcis scc that
lolkloic can still bc piotcctcd as a loim ol copyiight as statcd in Aiticlc , ol Anncx
VII. This ambiguity cicatcs conlusion as to who owns lolkloic undci thc tcims ol
thc Agiccmcnt. This conlusion is cvcn gicatci than in thc j;; Agiccmcnt bccausc
thcic aic no longci spccilc iclcicnccs to thc statcs having an indclcasiblc iight with
icspcct to lolkloic and cultuial hciitagc.
C0MM0N MARK7 0F 7H S0U7H lMRC0SUR)
MERCOSUR is a icgional tiadc agiccmcnt cicatcd in jj by thc Ticaty ol
Asuncion bctwccn Argentlna, 8razll, Paraguay, and Uruguay. In jj,, thc icgional
oiganization adoptcd an impoitant piotocol to piotcct indigcnous hciitagc: thc
Piotocol loi thc Haimonization ol Intcllcctual Piopcity Noims in MERCOSUR
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with icspcct to Tiadcmaiks and Indications ol Souicc oi Dcnominations ol Oiigin.
In paiticulai, Aiticlc j ol thc Piotocol icquiics Paity Statcs to iccipiocally
piotcct thcii indications ol souicc and dominations ol oiigin." Dcnomination
ol oiigin" is dclncd bioadly as thc gcogiaphical namc ol a countiy, city, icgion
oi locality within a Paity Statc's tciiitoiy, which dcsignatcs pioducts oi sciviccs
whosc qualitics oi chaiactciistics aic cxclusivcly oi csscntially causcd by thc
gcogiaphical cnviionmcnt, including natuial and human lactois." Such a bioad
dclnition ol gcogiaphic oiigin - which notably includcs human lactois" - cncom-
passcs tiaditional cultuial cxpicssions. Similaily, thc Piotocol attcmpts to piotcct
tiaditional knowlcdgc thiough its dclnition ol indications ol souicc" by basing
thc dclncd tcim on thc location that is known as a ccntci placc loi cxtiaction,
pioduction oi manulactuic ol a ccitain pioduct oi loi thc pciloimancc ol a
ccitain scivicc." In jj6, MERCOSUR amimcd thc impoitancc ol cultuial iights
by cicating thc Piotocol on thc Cultuial Intcgiation ol MERCOSUR. Although
tiaditional knowlcdgc is not spccilcally mcntioncd, this piotocol locuscs on thc
cication ol cultuial policics that display histoiical tiaditions, common valucs,
and cultuial divcisity ol mcmbci countiics.
AN0AN C0MMUNl7Y
Thc Andcan Community (oiiginally known as thc Andcan Pact) was cicatcd in
j6j with thc signing ol thc Caitagcna Agiccmcnt. Thc ovciall objcctivc ol thc
Community is to cnablc thc mcmbci countiics to woik jointly to impiovc thcii
pcoplc's standaid ol living thiough intcgiation and cconomic and social coopcia-
tion." Thc cuiicnt mcmbci statcs aic 8ollvla, Columbla, Lcuador, and Peru, Mexlco
and Panama aic obscivci countiics. In zooo, thc Community cnactcd Dccision
86, thc puiposc ol which was to impiovc intcllcctual piopcity piotcction and
piovidc moic cxpcditious and tianspaicnt pioccduics loi tiadcmaik icgistiation
and patcnt issucs." Although this Dccision locuscs on biological icsouiccs, it also
piovidcs loi piotcction ol tiaditional knowlcdgc in thc Gcncial Piovisions. Aiticlc
, statcs that mcmbci countiics must
cnsuic that thc piotcction giantcd to intcllcctual piopcity clcmcnts shall
bc accoidcd whilc salcguaiding and icspccting thcii biological and gcnctic
hciitagc, togcthci with thc tiaditional knowlcdgc ol thcii indigcnous, Aliican
Amciican, oi local communitics. As a icsult, thc gianting ol patcnts on invcn-
tions that havc bccn dcvclopcd on thc basis ol matciial obtaincd liom that
hciitagc oi that knowlcdgc shall bc suboidinatcd to thc acquisition ol that
matciial in accoidancc with intcinational, Andcan Community, and national
law. Thc Mcmbci Countiics iccognizc thc iight and thc authoiity ol indig-
cnous, Aliican Amciican, and local communitics in icspcct ol thcii collcctivc
knowlcdgc.
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PAClFlC R0l0NAL FRAMW0RK F0R 7H PR07C7l0N 0F
7RA0l7l0NAL KN0WL00 AN0 XPRSSl0N 0F CUL7UR
Thc Pacilc Rcgional Fiamcwoik loi thc Piotcction ol Tiaditional Knowlcdgc and
Expicssion ol Cultuic was cicatcd in zooz but has not yct bccn implcmcntcd. It
was dialtcd by thc Pacilc Islands Foium Sccictaiiat, whosc mcmbci countiics
aic Australla, Cook |slands, Pederated States of Mlcronesla, Pl[l, Klrlbatl, Nauru,
New Zealand, Nlue, Palau, Papua New Gulnea, Pepubllc of Marshall |slands,
Samoa, Solomon |slands, Tonga, Tuvalu, and vanuatu. Additionally, thc lollowing
countiics havc associatc mcmbciship: New Caledonla and Prench Polynesla.
Finally, Tokelau, wallls and Putuna, Tlmor-Leste, thc Commonwealth of Natlons,
thc Asla Development 8ank, and Central Paclflc Plsherles Commlsslon all havc
obscivci status.
Thc Foium has dcvclopcd a spccilc action plan that dctails ways that thc
mcmbci countiics plan to piotcct thc icgion's tiaditional knowlcdgc. In paiticulai,
thc Foium has cicatcd a sct ol Modcl Laws to piotcct tiaditional knowlcdgc and thc
cxpicssions ol cultuic. Thc laws aic notcwoithy bccausc thcy not only piotcct TK
and TCEs but also cmploy customaiy uscs as thc loundation ol thc Fiamcwoik.
Thc Fiamcwoik's gcncial appioach is to cicatc new iights in tiaditional knowl-
cdgc and cxpicssions ol cultuic, which picviously may havc bccn icgaidcd as pait
ol thc public domain. Pcoplc sccking to usc TCEs must havc piioi and inloimcd
conscnt liom thc tiaditional owncis. Thc iights thc Fiamcwoik spccilcs lall into
two catcgoiics: moial iights and tiaditional cultuial iights. It is ciucial to notc that
ncithci moial noi tiaditional cultuial iights dcpcnd on copyiight loimalitics (c.g.
icgistiation icquiicmcnts). Moial iights includc thc iight ol attiibution, thc iight
against lalsc attiibution, and thc iight ol intcgiity ol indigcnous woik. As statcd
in Clausc ;(z) ol Pait I, tiaditional cultuial iights includc thc iight to icpioducc,
publish, pciloim, makc availablc onlinc, and cicatc dciivativc woiks, among many
othcis. Thcsc aic said to bc both cxclusivc and inalicnablc.
Clausc is notcwoithy bccausc it statcs that tiaditional iights cxist in addition
to (and do not afcct) thc iights cicatcd by othci intcllcctual piopcity law icgimcs.
Clausc ;() piovidcs that thcic is no tiaditional knowlcdgc piotcction in thc lollow-
ing contcxts: lacc-to-lacc tcaching, ciiticism oi icvicw, icpoiting ncws oi cuiicnt
cvcnts, judicial piocccdings, and incidcntal usc.
Clausc ; ol Pait I ol thc Fiamcwoik makcs clcai who owns thc piotcctcd TCEs.
Tiaditional owncis aic dclncd as:
a gioup, clan, oi community ol pcoplc, oi thc individual who is iccognizcd by
a gioup, clan, oi community ol pcoplc as thc individual, in whom thc custody
oi piotcction ol thc tiaditional knowlcdgc oi cxpicssions ol cultuic aic
cntiustcd in accoidancc with customaiy law and thc piacticcs ol that gioup,
clan, oi community.
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Finally, Clausc ,; dctails thc iolc ol thc Cultuial Authoiity in piotccting TCEs.
Thosc attcmpting to scck pcimission to usc clcmcnts ol piotcctcd TCEs havc two
options: () apply diicctly to thc Cultuial Authoiity oi (z) communicatc diicctly
with thc tiaditional owncis. Onc ol thc Authoiity's many iolcs is to advisc thc
tiaditional owncis. Valid TCE uscis must piovc thcy havc icccivcd conscnt liom
thc tiaditional owncis via an authoiizcd usci agiccmcnt."
This Fiamcwoik is ambitious and may piovidc loi stiong TCE piotcction oncc
adoptcd, howcvci, its potcntial impact is unknown as thc laws havc not yct bccn
implcmcntcd.
|nternatlonal legal lnstruments
Thc lnal sct ol laws pcitaining to tiaditional knowlcdgc consist ol intcinational
agiccmcnts. Thcsc agiccmcnts havc cmcigcd liom vaiious intcinational oiganiza-
tions, including thc Unitcd Nations Education, Scicntilc and Cultuial Oiganization
(UNESCO), thc Woild Intcllcctual Piopcity Oiganization (WIPO), thc Woild
Tiadc Oiganization (WTO) and thc Intcinational Laboi Oiganization (ILO). Thc
typcs and sticngth ol thc piotcctions thcy piovidc loi TCEs vaiy iadically, no
consistcnt pattcin oi thcmc is discciniblc. Thcy aic discusscd bclow in icvcisc
chionological oidci.
UNl70 NA7l0NS 0CLARA7l0N 0N 7H Rl0H7S
0F lN0l0N0US P0PLS l2007)
Thc UN has bccn invcstigating thc piotcction ol minoiitics and indigcnous
populations sincc j6j. On }anuaiy ,o, zoo;, thc Asscmbly ol thc Union adoptcd
a dccision (Asscmbly/AU/ Dcc. (VIII)), known as thc UN Dcclaiation on thc
Rights ol Indigcnous Pcoplcs. , countiics votcd in lavoi ol thc Dcclaiation.
Australla, Canada, New Zealand and thc Unlted States votcd against it. Azerbal[an,
8angladesh, 8hutan, 8urundl, Colombla, Georgla, Kenya, Nlgerla, Pusslan Ped-
eratlon, Samoa, and Ukralne abstaincd. Thc Dcclaiation is thc most compichcnsivc
statcmcnt ol thc iights ol indigcnous pcoplcs cvci dcvclopcd, giving piomincncc
to collcctivc iights to a dcgicc unpicccdcntcd in intcinational human iights law.
Thc adoption ol this instiumcnt is thc clcaicst indication yct that thc intcinational
community is committing itscll to thc piotcction ol thc individual and collcctivc
iights ol indigcnous pcoplcs. Thc kcy piovisions lollow.
APT|CLL 8
Indigcnous pcoplcs and individuals havc thc iight not to bc subjcctcd to loiccd
assimilation oi dcstiuction ol thcii cultuic. Statcs shall piovidc cfcctivc mccha-
nisms loi picvcntion ol, and icdicss loi:
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. Any action which has thc aim oi cfcct ol dcpiiving thcm ol thcii intcgiity as
distinct pcoplcs, oi ol thcii cultuial valucs oi cthnic idcntitics,
z. Any action which has thc aim oi cfcct ol disposscssing thcm ol thcii lands,
tciiitoiics oi icsouiccs,
,. Any loim ol loiccd population tianslci which has thc aim oi cfcct ol violating
oi undcimining any ol thcii iights,
. Any loim ol loiccd assimilation oi intcgiation,
,. Any loim ol piopaganda dcsigncd to piomotc oi incitc iacial oi cthnic dis-
ciimination diicctcd against thcm.
APT|CLL !!
. Indigcnous pcoplcs havc thc iight to piactisc and icvitalizc thcii cultuial tiadi-
tions and customs. This includcs thc iight to maintain, piotcct and dcvclop thc
past, picscnt and lutuic manilcstations ol thcii cultuics, such as aichacological
and histoiical sitcs, aitclacts, dcsigns, ccicmonics, tcchnologics and visual and
pciloiming aits and litciatuic.
z. Statcs shall piovidc icdicss thiough cfcctivc mcchanisms, which may includc
icstitution, dcvclopcd in conjunction with indigcnous pcoplcs, with icspcct to
thcii cultuial, intcllcctual, icligious and spiiitual piopcity takcn without thcii
licc, piioi and inloimcd conscnt oi in violation ol thcii laws, tiaditions and
customs.
APT|CLL !2
. Indigcnous pcoplcs havc thc iight to manilcst, piactisc, dcvclop and tcach
thcii spiiitual and icligious tiaditions, customs and ccicmonics, thc iight to
maintain, piotcct, and havc acccss in piivacy to thcii icligious and cultuial
sitcs, thc iight to thc usc and contiol ol thcii ccicmonial objccts, and thc iight
to thc icpatiiation ol thcii human icmains.
z. Statcs shall scck to cnablc thc acccss and/oi icpatiiation ol ccicmonial objccts
and human icmains in thcii posscssion thiough laii, tianspaicnt and cfcctivc
mcchanisms dcvclopcd in conjunction with indigcnous pcoplcs conccincd.
APT|CLL 25
Indigcnous pcoplcs havc thc iight to maintain and sticngthcn thcii distinctivc
spiiitual iclationship with thcii tiaditionally owncd oi othciwisc occupicd and
uscd lands, tciiitoiics, watcis and coastal scas and othci icsouiccs and to uphold
thcii icsponsibilitics to lutuic gcnciations in this icgaid.
APT|CLL 2/
Statcs shall cstablish and implcmcnt, in conjunction with indigcnous pcoplcs
conccincd, a laii, indcpcndcnt, impaitial, opcn and tianspaicnt pioccss, giving
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duc iccognition to indigcnous pcoplcs' laws, tiaditions, customs and land tcnuic
systcms, to iccognizc and adjudicatc thc iights ol indigcnous pcoplcs pcitaining
to thcii lands, tciiitoiics and icsouiccs, including thosc which wcic tiaditionally
owncd oi othciwisc occupicd oi uscd. Indigcnous pcoplcs shall havc thc iight to
paiticipatc in this pioccss.
APT|CLL 28
. Indigcnous pcoplcs havc thc iight to icdicss, by mcans that can includc icstitu-
tion oi, whcn this is not possiblc, just, laii and cquitablc compcnsation, loi
thc lands, tciiitoiics and icsouiccs which thcy havc tiaditionally owncd oi
othciwisc occupicd oi uscd, and which havc bccn conlscatcd, takcn, occupicd,
uscd oi damagcd without thcii licc, piioi and inloimcd conscnt.
z. Unlcss othciwisc liccly agiccd upon by thc pcoplcs conccincd, compcnsation
shall takc thc loim ol lands, tciiitoiics and icsouiccs cqual in quality, sizc and
lcgal status oi ol monctaiy compcnsation oi othci appiopiiatc icdicss.
APT|CLL 3!
. Indigcnous pcoplcs havc thc iight to maintain, contiol, piotcct and dcvclop
thcii cultuial hciitagc, tiaditional knowlcdgc and tiaditional cultuial cxpics-
sions, as wcll as thc manilcstations ol thcii scicnccs, tcchnologics and cultuics,
including human and gcnctic icsouiccs, sccds, mcdicincs, knowlcdgc ol thc
piopcitics ol launa and oia, oial tiaditions, litciatuics, dcsigns, spoits and
tiaditional gamcs and visual and pciloiming aits. Thcy also havc thc iight to
maintain, contiol, piotcct and dcvclop thcii intcllcctual piopcity ovci such
cultuial hciitagc, tiaditional knowlcdgc, and tiaditional cultuial cxpicssions.
z. In conjunction with indigcnous pcoplcs, Statcs shall takc cfcctivc mcasuics
to iccognizc and piotcct thc cxcicisc ol thcsc iights.
APT|CLL 34
Indigcnous pcoplcs havc thc iight to piomotc, dcvclop and maintain thcii institu-
tional stiuctuics and thcii distinctivc customs, spiiituality, tiaditions, pioccduics,
piacticcs and, in thc cascs whcic thcy cxist, juiidical systcms oi customs, in
accoidancc with intcinational human iights standaids.
WlP0 0RAF7 PR0VlSl0NS 0N 7RA0l7l0NAL CUL7URAL
XPRSSl0NS/F0LKL0R AN0 7RA0l7l0NAL KN0WL00 l2006)
In jj8, thc Woild Intcllcctual Piopcity Oiganization (WIPO) cmbaikcd on a
lact-lnding mission to z8 countiics to idcntily intcllcctual piopcity-iclatcd icgula-
tions ol tiaditional knowlcdgc. Following a icvicw ol thosc matciials, thc WIPO
Intcigovcinmcntal Committcc on Intcllcctual Piopcity and Gcnctic Rcsouiccs,
Tiaditional Knowlcdgc and Folkloic (thc IGC) was loimcd in zoo. Sincc zoo, it
has bccn woiking on dialt piovisions loi thc cnhanccd piotcction ol tiaditional
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cultuial cxpicssions against misappiopiiation and misusc. Although thc piovisions
aic still in dialt loim, thcy aic mcant to scivc as points ol iclcicncc loi ongoing
policy discussions at thc national, icgional, and intcinational lcvcls.
Thc Dialt Piovisions havc thc lollowing objcctivcs: to iccognizc valuc, to piomotc
icspcct, to mcct thc actual nccds ol communitics, to picvcnt thc misappiopiiation
ol tiaditional cultuial cxpicssions/cxpicssions ol lolkloic, to cmpowci communi-
tics, to suppoit customaiy piacticcs and community coopciation, to contiibutc
to salcguaiding tiaditional cultuics, to cncouiagc community innovation and
cicativity, to piomotc intcllcctual and aitistic liccdom, icscaich and cultuial
cxchangc on cquitablc tcims, to contiibutc to cultuial divcisity, to piomotc com-
munity dcvclopmcnt and lcgitimatc tiading activitics, to piccludc unauthoiizcd IP
iights and to cnhancc ccitainty, tianspaicncy, and mutual conldcncc. Thc Gcncial
Guiding Piinciplcs and Substantivc Piinciplcs aic availablc onlinc.
C0NVN7l0N 0N 7H PR07C7l0N AN0 PR0M07l0N 0F
7H 0lVRSl7Y 0F CUL7URAL XPRSSl0NS l200S)
Thc Convcntion on thc Piotcction and Piomotion ol thc Divcisity ol Cultuial
Expicssions builds on thc cailici Univcisal Dcclaiation on Cultuial Divcisity
ol (zoo). Canada, Prance, Germany, Greece, Mexlco, Monaco, Morocco, and
Senegal and liancophonc mcmbci statcs ol UNESCO stiongly suppoitcd thc
Convcntion. Thc Unlted States opposcd it. o countiics havc acccdcd to oi
iatilcd thc Convcntion.
Thc Convcntion iccognizcs thc impoitancc ol tiaditional knowlcdgc as a souicc
ol intangiblc and matciial wcalth, and in paiticulai thc knowlcdgc systcms ol
indigcnous pcoplcs, and its positivc contiibution to sustainablc dcvclopmcnt, as wcll
as thc nccd loi its adcquatc piotcction and piomotion." It sccks to to icamim thc
sovcicign iights ol Statcs to maintain, adopt and implcmcnt policics and mcasuics
that thcy dccm appiopiiatc loi thc piotcction and piomotion ol thc divcisity ol
cultuial cxpicssions on thcii tciiitoiy" (Aiticlc (h)). Thc Convcntion also sccks to
mitigatc thc dilution ol cultuic that lollows liom thc movcmcnt ol cultuial goods
and sciviccs acioss national boidcis.
Thc Convcntion mcntions intcllcctual piopcity iights oncc, by iccognizing thc
impoitancc ol intcllcctual piopcity iights in sustaining thosc involvcd in cultuial
cicativity." Thc Convcntion is ambiguous, howcvci, on how much piotcction to
giant to TCEs. Aiticlc 6 lists thc typcs ol mcasuic mcmbci statcs may adopt to
piotcct and piomotc cultuial divcisity. Subscction z(g) allows mcasuics aimcd at
nuituiing and suppoiting aitists and othcis involvcd in thc cication ol cultuial
cxpicssions" but subscction z(c) allows loi mcasuic that piomotc thc licc cxchangc
and ciiculation ol . cultuial cxpicssions and cultuial activitics, goods and sciviccs."
Stiong suppoit loi indigcnous gioups as cicatois ol TCEs is not icquiicd by Aiticlc
;, as mcmbcis statcs nccd only cndcavoui to iccognizc thc impoitant contiibution
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ol aitists, othcis involvcd in thc cicativc pioccss, cultuial communitics, and
oiganizations that suppoit thcii woik, and thcii ccntial iolc in nuituiing thc
divcisity ol cultuial cxpicssions." Piolcssoi Lauicncc R. Hcllci has notcd that thc
Convcntion disicgaids thc piotcction loi TCEs that could bc dciivcd liom thc usc
ol intcllcctual piopcity law.
UNSC0 C0NVN7l0N F0R 7H SAF0UAR0lN0 0F
7H lN7AN0lL CUL7URAL HRl7A0 l2003)
In zoo, UNESCO bcgan dialting a dclnition ol intangiblc cultuial hciitagc and
loimulating piovisions loi its piotcction. In zoo,, thc icsulting Convcntion was
adoptcd and in zoo6 it cntcicd into loicc. z countiics havc iatilcd thc Convcn-
tion. Australla, Canada, New Zealand and thc Unlted States havc not iatilcd thc
Convcntion. Argentlna, Columbla, Denmark, |ndonesla, Saudl Arabla, Seychelles,
and the Syrlan Arab Pepubllc all cntcicd dcclaiations oi icscivations.
Aiticlc lists thc puiposcs ol thc Convcntion as to salcguaid thc intangiblc
cultuial hciitagc, to cnsuic icspcct loi thc intangiblc cultuial hciitagc ol thc com-
munitics, gioups and individuals conccincd, to iaisc awaicncss at thc local, national
and intcinational lcvcls ol thc impoitancc ol thc intangiblc cultuial hciitagc, and
ol cnsuiing mutual appicciation thcicol, to piovidc loi intcinational coopciation
and assistancc." Although thc Convcntion docs not diicctly discuss intcllcctual
piopcity iights, Aiticlc , notcs that nothing in thc Convcntion afccts thc iights
and obligations ol Statcs Paitics dciiving liom any intcinational instiumcnt
iclating to intcllcctual piopcity iights . to which thcy aic paitics."
APT|CLL !!
Each Statc Paity shall:
. takc thc ncccssaiy mcasuics to cnsuic thc salcguaiding ol thc intangiblc cultuial
hciitagc picscnt in its tciiitoiy,
z. among thc salcguaiding mcasuics iclciicd to in Aiticlc z, paiagiaph ,, idcntily
and dclnc thc vaiious clcmcnts ol thc intangiblc cultuial hciitagc picscnt
in its tciiitoiy, with thc paiticipation ol communitics, gioups and iclcvant
nongovcinmcntal oiganizations.
7RA0RLA70 ASPC7S 0F lN7LLC7UAL PR0PR7Y Rl0H7S l1994)
As wc saw in Modulc z, thc jj TRIPS Agiccmcnt cicatcd a sct ol minimum
intcllcctual piopcity standaids loi all mcmbcis ol thc Woild Tiadc Oiganization.
Although thc Agiccmcnt icquiics dcvcloping countiics to incicasc many loims ol
intcllcctual piopcity piotcction, it docs not mcntion lolkloic oi TCEs.
Altci thc passagc ol TRIPS, thc UN Human Rights Commission studicd its impli-
cations loi human iights. In zooo, thc Commission, iclying on that study, adoptcd
Rcsolution zooo/; on Intcllcctual Piopcity and Human Rights. Thc Rcsolution
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notcs that actual oi potcntial conicts cxist bctwccn thc implcmcntation ol thc
TRIPS Agiccmcnt and thc icalization ol cconomic, social and cultuial iights in
iclation to . thc icduction ol communitics' (cspccially indigcnous communi-
tics') contiol ovci thcii own . natuial icsouiccs and cultuial valucs." It dcclaics
that thc implcmcntation ol thc TRIPS Agiccmcnt docs not adcquatcly iccct
thc lundamcntal natuic and indivisibility ol all human iights, including . thc
iight to scll-dctcimination. Thcic aic appaicnt conicts bctwccn thc intcllcctual
piopcity iights icgimc cmbodicd in thc TRIPS Agiccmcnt, on thc onc hand, and
intcinational human iights law, on thc othci." Thc Sub-Commission uigcd national
govcinmcnts, intcigovcinmcntal oiganizations, and civil socicty gioups to givc
human iights piimacy ovci cconomic policics and agiccmcnts. Sincc thc passagc
ol thc zooo/; Rcsolution, Human Rights bodics at thc UN havc invcstigatcd thc
iclationship bctwccn intcllcctual piopcity law and human iights, as discusscd by
Lawicncc Hcllci in this aiticlc.
lL0 C0NVN7l0N 169 0N lN0l0N0US AN0 7RlAL P0PL l1989)
Thc Intcinational Laboui Oiganization, a spccial agcncy undci thc auspiccs ol
thc UN, was thc list intcinational oiganization to attcmpt to dclnc indigcnous
populations and to dcclaic thc iights ol such populations. ILO Convcntion No.
6j icplaccd ILO Indigcnous and Tiibal Populations Convcntion No. o; (j,;),
which had bccn iatilcd by six Aliican statcs. Although no Aliican statcs havc yct
iatilcd ILO Convcntion 6j, thc ILO and thc Aliican Commission on Human
and Pcoplcs' Rights vicw this instiumcnt as an inspiiation and a iccction ol a
ticnd towaid thc piotcction ol indigcnous iights globally and in Aliica.
Convcntion 6j locuscs on indigcnous pcoplcs' iights to contiol thcii own
institutions, cconomic dcvclopmcnt, customs and bclicl systcms. It applics to tiibal
pcoplcs in indcpcndcnt countiics whosc social, cultuial and cconomic conditions
distinguish thcm liom othci scctions ol thc national community, and whosc status
is icgulatcd wholly oi paitially by thcii own customs oi tiaditions oi by spccial
laws oi icgulations" and to pcoplcs in indcpcndcnt countiics who aic icgaidcd
as indigcnous on account ol thcii dcsccnt liom thc populations which inhabitcd
thc countiy, oi a gcogiaphical icgion to which thc countiy bclongs, at thc timc ol
conqucst oi colonisation oi thc cstablishmcnt ol picscnt statc boundaiics and who,
iiicspcctivc ol thcii lcgal status, ictain somc oi all ol thcii own social, cconomic,
cultuial and political institutions" (Aiticlc ). Thc Convcntion docs not mcntion
intcllcctual piopcity iights, but sccks to piotcct indigcnous cultuic and iccognizcs
thc collcctivc ownciship that chaiactciizcs many indigcnous populations.
APT|CLL 4(!)
Spccial mcasuics shall bc adoptcd as appiopiiatc loi salcguaiding thc pcisons, insti-
tutions, piopcity, laboui, cultuics and cnviionmcnt ol thc pcoplcs conccincd.
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APT|CLL 5
. thc social, cultuial, icligious and spiiitual valucs and piacticcs ol thcsc pcoplcs
shall bc iccogniscd and piotcctcd, and duc account shall bc takcn ol thc natuic
ol thc pioblcms which lacc thcm both as gioups and as individuals,
z. thc intcgiity ol thc valucs, piacticcs and institutions ol thcsc pcoplcs shall bc
icspcctcd,
,. policics aimcd at mitigating thc dimcultics cxpciicnccd by thcsc pcoplcs in
lacing ncw conditions ol lilc and woik shall bc adoptcd, with thc paiticipation
and co-opciation ol thc pcoplcs afcctcd.
APT|CLL !3
. In applying thc piovisions ol this Pait ol thc Convcntion govcinmcnts shall
icspcct thc spccial impoitancc loi thc cultuics and spiiitual valucs ol thc
pcoplcs conccincd ol thcii iclationship with thc lands oi tciiitoiics, oi both as
applicablc, which thcy occupy oi othciwisc usc, and in paiticulai thc collcctivc
aspccts ol this iclationship.
RN C0NVN7l0N F0R 7H PR07C7l0N 0F
Ll7RARY AN0 AR7lS7lC W0RKS l1979)
Although thc Bcinc Convcntion (discusscd at lcngth in Modulc z) docs not mcntion
tiaditional knowlcdgc, Aiticlc ,() can bc intcipictcd to lcavc to thc disciction
ol cach mcmbci countiy how (il at all) to piotcct TCEs.
APT|CLL !5(4)
. In thc casc ol unpublishcd woiks whcic thc idcntity ol thc authoi is unknown,
but whcic thcic is cvciy giound to picsumc that hc is a national ol a countiy
ol thc Union, it shall bc a mattci loi lcgislation in that countiy to dcsignatc
thc compctcnt authoiity which shall icpicscnt thc authoi and shall bc cntitlcd
to piotcct and cnloicc his iights in thc countiics ol thc Union.
lN7RNA7l0NAL C0VNAN7 0N C0N0MlC,
S0ClAL AN0 CUL7URAL Rl0H7S l1966)
Thc Intcinational Covcnant on Economic, Social and Cultuial Rights (ICESCR)
cstablishcs a iight to thc piotcction ol thc moial and matciial intcicsts icsulting
liom any scicntilc, litciaiy, oi aitistic pioduction. ICESCR has 6o paitics, 6j
ol which aic signatoiics. In conjunction with thc j8 Univcisal Dcclaiation ol
Human Rights, and iccognizing thc binding natuic ol thc ticaty upon its signato-
iics, thc ICESCR can bc intcipictcd as guaiantccing intcllcctual piopcity iights as
a human iight. In zoo,, thc Committcc on Economic, Social and Cultuial Rights
(CESCR) commcntcd on Aiticlc , ol thc ICESCR (icpioduccd bclow), cxpanding it
to piotcct indigcnous gioups' cxpicssions ol cultuial hciitagc. CESCR calls upon
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.o COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
signatoiics to adopt piotcctivc mcasuics that iccognizc, icgistci and piotcct thc
individual oi collcctivc authoiship ol indigcnous pcoplcs undci national intcllcctual
piopcity iights icgimcs and should picvcnt thc unauthoiizcd usc ol scicntilc,
litciaiy and aitistic pioductions ol indigcnous pcoplcs by thiid paitics."
APT|CLL !5
. Thc Statcs Paitics to thc picscnt Covcnant iccognizc thc iight ol cvciyonc:
. To takc pait in cultuial lilc,
z. To cnjoy thc bcnclts ol scicntilc piogicss and its applications,
,. To bcnclt liom thc piotcction ol thc moial and matciial intcicsts icsult-
ing liom any scicntilc, litciaiy oi aitistic pioduction ol which hc is thc
authoi.
z. Thc stcps to bc takcn by thc Statcs Paitics to thc picscnt Covcnant to achicvc
thc lull icalization ol this iight shall includc thosc ncccssaiy loi thc consciva-
tion, thc dcvclopmcnt and thc difusion ol scicncc and cultuic.
,. Thc Statcs Paitics to thc picscnt Covcnant undcitakc to icspcct thc liccdom
indispcnsablc loi scicntilc icscaich and cicativc activity.
lN7RNA7l0NAL C0VNAN7 0N ClVlL AN0 P0Ll7lCAL Rl0H7S l1966)
Thc Intcinational Covcnant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) iccognizcs thc
scll-dctcimination ol minoiity gioups and thcii iight to contiol thcii cultuic. Thc
ICCPR has 6, paitics, ;z ol which aic signatoiics. Although thc ICCPR is silcnt
on most cultuial and intcllcctual piopcity iights issucs, considcicd in conjunction
with thc j66 Intcinational Covcnant on Economic, Social and Cultuial Rights
and thc j8 Univcisal Dcclaiation ol Human Rights, thc ICCPR can bc vicwcd
as cstablishing intcllcctual piopcity iights as human iights.
APT|CLL !
. All pcoplcs havc thc iight ol scll-dctcimination. By viituc ol that iight thcy
liccly dctciminc thcii political status and liccly puisuc thcii cconomic, social
and cultuial dcvclopmcnt.
APT|CLL 2/
In thosc Statcs in which cthnic, icligious oi linguistic minoiitics cxist, pcisons
bclonging to such minoiitics shall not bc dcnicd thc iight, in community with
thc othci mcmbcis ol thcii gioup, to cnjoy thcii own cultuic, to piolcss and
piactisc thcii own icligion, oi to usc thcii own languagc.
UNlVRSAL 0CLARA7l0N 0F HUMAN Rl0H7S l1948)
Thc Univcisal Dcclaiation ol Human Rights (UDHR) cstablishcs thc iight to thc
piotcction ol moial intcicsts and matciials dciiving liom any scicntilc, litciaiy, oi
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aitistic pioduction. Thc UDHR is not a binding documcnt, but it is a loundational
documcnt loi thc Unitcd Nations and loi thc two j66 covcnants, thc Intcinational
Covcnant on Economic, Social and Cultuial Rights and thc Intcinational Covcnant
on Civil and Political Rights.
Although thc UDHR docs not addicss intcllcctual piopcity iights, Aiticlc z;
iccognizcs thc moial and matciial intcicsts" ol authois and invcntois and thc
iight ol thc public to cnjoy thc aits and to shaic in scicntilc advanccmcnt and
its bcnclts." This aiticlc cxpicsscs thc challcngc ol balancing piivatc intcllcctual
piopcity iights and a vibiant public domain.
APT|CLL !/
. Evciyonc has thc iight to own piopcity alonc as wcll as in association with
othcis.
z. No onc shall bc aibitiaiily dcpiivcd ol his piopcity.
APT|CLL 2/
. Evciyonc has thc iight to liccly paiticipatc in thc cultuial lilc ol thc community,
to cnjoy thc aits and to shaic in scicntilc advanccmcnt and its bcnclts.
z. Evciyonc has thc iight to thc piotcction ol thc moial and matciial intcicsts
icsulting liom any scicntilc, litciaiy oi aitistic pioduction ol which hc is thc
authoi.
Pollcy arguments
As indicatcd abovc, thc qucstions ol whcthci and how to piotcct tiaditional
knowlcdgc aic cuiicntly bcing dcbatcd and aic highly contiovcisial. At thc
intcinational lcvcl and within many individual countiics, stiong difcicnccs ol
opinion can bc lound. Sct loith bclow aic summaiics ol thc piimaiy aigumcnts
madc in this dcbatc.
WHY PR07C7 7K1
APGUMLNTS PPOM PLPSONHOOD
Foi many indigcnous gioups, TK cncompasscs cultuial clcmcnts that aic intcgial
to thc gioup's scnsc ol idcntity. Onc can aiguc that objccts and cxpicssions
that aic lundamcntal to a pcison's oi gioup's idcntity mciit piotcction, and, at
thc cxticmc, could bc considcicd inalicnablc. Similaily, somc advocatcs loi TK
piotcction havc pioposcd a cultuial stcwaidship" justilcation loi this piotcction.
Foi cxamplc, Kiistcn Caipcntci, Sonya Katyal and Angcla Rilcy advocatc allowing
indigcnous communitics to ictain contiol, il not cxclusivc acccss and ownciship,
ol TK bccausc ol its impoitancc in shaping thc idcntity ol thc indigcnous gioup
and its cultuic.
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.. COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
Closcly iclatcd to aigumcnts liom pcisonhood aic aigumcnts liom moial iights,
which wc discusscd in Modulc . It is aigucd that, just as an individual aitist
should cnjoy a iight ol attiibution and intcgiity with icspcct to hci cications, so
should a community cnjoy a iight ol attiibution and intcgiity with icspcct to its
collcctivc cications.
APGUMLNTS 8ASLD ON PPLSLPvAT|ON
Anothci icason to advocatc loi piotcction ol TK is that, unlikc many loims ol
intcllcctual piopcity, cultuial cxpicssions may icquiic piotcction in oidci to
picscivc thcii valuc. Foi cxamplc, icligious ccicmonics and sacicd iituals may
bc valuablc to a cultuic in pait bccausc thcy aic not widcspicad, thcii iaiity
is intcgial to thcii placc in thc cultuic. In oidci to maintain thc valuc ol thcsc
tiaditions, it may bc ncccssaiy to icstiict thcii usc.
APGUMLNTS 8ASLD ON PLPAPAT|ONS
A thiid aigumcnt in lavoi ol piotcction loi TK is bascd upon thc idca that many
indigcnous cultuics havc bccn damagcd by invasivc colonialism piacticcd by
Wcstcin countiics in thc past lcw ccntuiics. Suppoitcis ol this aigumcnt bclicvc
that piotcction ol TK is a way ol pioviding icpaiations, symbolic as wcll as
monctaiy, loi thc wiongs committcd against thcsc indigcnous gioups.
H0W SH0UL0 7K PR07C701
TPAD|T|ONAL |P MODLS OP PPOTLCT|ON
Copyrlght As wc havc sccn, many nations havc uscd copyiight law (cithci alonc
oi in conjunction with sui qeneris laws) to piotcct TK. Howcvci, thcic aic many
aigumcnts against using standaid copyiight to piotcct TK.
. Tne xation requirement. Somc copyiight systcms icquiic that a woik bc lxcd
in a matciial loim. This is an obstaclc in thc piotcction ol TCEs, which aic
not always manilcstcd in tangiblc cxpicssions.
z. Oriqina|it,. Copyiight law icquiics that a woik bc oiiginal" in oidci to mciit
piotcction. Sincc most TK is tiaditional" iathci than ncw, this oiiginality
icquiicmcnt will oltcn bc dimcult to satisly.
,. Autnorsnip. Much cultuial cxpicssion dcvclops giadually ovci timc thiough thc
contiibutions ol scvcial mcmbcis ol a community. Il no singlc authoi oi gioup
ol authois can bc idcntilcd, it will bc dimcult loi copyiight piotcction to bc
obtaincd.
. Tne term oj protection. Thc tcim ol piotcction loi copyiight in most countiics
is limitcd. Many loims ol TK aic in lact oldci than thc copyiight tcim. As a
icsult, copyiight piotcction may bc unavailablc loi thcm.
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To avoid thcsc dimcultics, it is possiblc loi countiics to modily copyiight lcgisla-
tion so that it has difcicnt icquiicmcnts loi lolkloic oi cultuial cxpicssion. Foi
cxamplc, thc Tunis Modcl Law loi Copyiight in thc Dcvcloping Countiics, adoptcd
in j;6, advocatcs cxtcnding copyiight piotcction to woiks ol lolkloic without
icquiiing lxation and with an unlimitcd tcim ol piotcction.
Trademark law Somc cxpicssions ol lolkloic might bc icgistcicd as tiadcmaiks.
Tiadcmaik law piotccts not only giaphic icpicscntations, but also woids and
(in somc countiics) sounds. An advantagc ol piotcction thiough tiadcmaik law
is its ncai indclnitc tcim ol piotcction and its lack ol a novclty icquiicmcnt,
it is sumcicnt loi puiposcs ol piotcction that thc tiadcmaik has a distinctivc
chaiactci." Howcvci, at lcast in somc countiics, tiadcmaik piotcction, unlikc
copyiight and patcnt piotcction, icquiics that thc applicant dcmonstiatc usc ol
thc maik in commcicc. Many cultuial cxpicssions do not havc a diicct link to
commcicc and aic not uscd as dcsignations ol souicc to thc consuming public.
Fuithcimoic, thc application ol tiadcmaik law to TK is complicatcd, sincc by
icgistciing a maik thc community makcs public TK that thc community may
dcsiic to kccp sccict loi icligious oi othci icasons.
Collectlve trademarks, certlflcatlon marks, and geographlc lndlcators Collcctivc
tiadcmaiks, ccitilcation maiks, and gcogiaphic indicatois loim a subsct ol
tiadcmaik law that could bc paiticulaily usclul loi thc piotcction ol TK. Col-
lcctivc tiadcmaiks aic tiadcmaiks that aic uscd by a gioup ol pioduccis iathci
than onc pioducci. Collcctivc maiks aic hcld by an association iathci than
an individual, in oidci to bc usclul loi piotccting TK, mcmbcis ol indigcnous
gioups would nccd to loim an association loi thc puiposc ol maiking thcii
cultuial cxpicssions.
Ccitilcation maiks indicatc that thc pioducci ol a good has mct ccitain standaids
ol quality. (A populai cxamplc is thc Good Housckccping ccitilcation piomincnt
on houschold pioducts sold in thc Unitcd Statcs.) Ccitilcation maiks could bc uscd
to spccily which TCEs mcct thc standaids ol thc indigcnous community in which
thcy oiiginatcd. This, likc a collcctivc tiadcmaik, would icquiic thc loimation ol
an omcial ovcisight oiganization to act on bchall ol thc indigcnous community in
dctcimining which cxpicssions can bcai thc ccitilcation maik.
Gcogiaphic indicatois, as thc namc suggcsts, aic maiks that can bc placcd on
pioducts that comc liom a spccilc gcogiaphic aica. Gcogiaphic indicatois aic
oltcn uscd loi lood pioducts, such as wincs, but somc indigcnous gioups havc
cxpciimcntcd with using gcogiaphic indicatois as a mcans ol piotccting cultuial
cxpicssions by authcnticating pioducts that aic sold clscwhcic. Onc cxamplc ol
such a piogiam is thc Alaskan Silvci Hand Piogiam.
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5ul ClNlkl5 LAwS
As wc havc sccn, whcic TK docs not map onto tiaditional intcllcctual piopcity
icgimcs, sui qeneris laws may bc adoptcd. Sui qeneris lcgislation is a piomising
ioutc loi advocatcs ol TK piotcction, as it can piovidc stiong piotcction whilc
avoiding thc huidlcs that scpaiatc TK liom tiaditional IP subjcct mattci.
A8SOLUTL OwNLPSH|P
Onc possibility loi TK piotcction is to givc absolutc ownciship ol thc cultuial
cxpicssion to thc indigcnous gioup liom which it oiiginatcd. Howcvci, this is a
iclativcly unpopulai option, as it would impcdc thc spicad ol knowlcdgc and iisk
thc loss ol cultuial cxpicssions and inloimation in thc cvcnt that thc gioup is
disbandcd oi its mcmbcis aic assimilatcd into thc gcncial population.
NLGOT|AT|ON AND MUTUAL PLSPLCT
Michacl Biown aigucs that thc law should, at most, lostci ncgotiation and mutual
icspcct" bctwccn indigcnous cultuics and thosc who scck to cmploy a cultuic's
tiaditional cxpicssions. This appioach would givc indigcnous gioups much lcss
piotcction, but would lacilitatc, hc aigucs, bcnclcial cultuial intcichangc.
|NTLPNAT|ONAL HUMAN P|GHTS
Othci scholais, such as Lauicncc R. Hcllci, appioach thc issuc as onc ol human
iights. Thcy advocatc gianting TK piotcction that is laii and balanccd and not
ovciicaching. Thcii ambition is to balancc thc nccds ol indigcnous gioups and
thc bcnclts ol a iobust public domain.
In this vcin, Duncan M. Matthcws points out that
a human iights appioach takcs what is oltcn an implicit balancc bctwccn
thc iights ol invcntois and cicatois and thc intcicsts ol thc widci socicty
within intcllcctual piopcity paiadigms and it makcs it lai moic cxplicit and
cxacting. . [Thc iights ol thc cicatoi aic not absolutc but conditional on
contiibuting to thc common good and wcllaic ol socicty. . [Bccausc a human
iights appioach also cstablishcs a difcicnt and oltcn moic cxacting standaid
loi cvaluating thc appiopiiatcncss ol gianting intcllcctual piopcity piotcc-
tion, in oidci loi intcllcctual piopcity to lullll thc conditions ncccssaiy to bc
iccogniscd as a univcisal human iight, intcllcctual piopcity icgimcs and thc
mannci thcy aic implcmcntcd list and loicmost must bc consistcnt with thc
icalisation ol thc othci human iights, paiticulaily thosc cnumciatcd in thc
Covcnant.
SSTLM OP DOMA|N PU8L|C PAANT
Thc doctiinc ol domain public payant, advocatcd by thc Tunis Modcl Law and
discusscd at WIPO's jjj Round Tablc on IP and TK (Scction ,b ol thc Round
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Tablc minutcs), advocatcs paymcnt ol ioyaltics loi woiks, including TCEs, that
aic in thc public domain bccausc thcy do not qualily loi piotcction undci tiadi-
tional intcllcctual piopcity law. This would piovidc monctaiy compcnsation loi
indigcnous communitics, but would not bc a satislactoiy solution loi communitics
whosc piioiity is contiol ovci thcii TCEs iathci than icmunciation. Foi moic on
difcicnt vcisions ol domain public payant, scc thc UNESCO Copyiight Bullctin
liom jj.
WHY N07 PR07C7 7K1
Somc obscivcis think that lcgal piotcction loi tiaditional knowlcdgc is highly
pioblcmatic. Hcic aic somc ol thcii aigumcnts:
TK does not map onto |P law easlly As indicatcd abovc, tiaditional cultuial
cxpicssions aic oltcn not put into a lxcd loim, aic not oiiginal," and do not havc
a dclncd authoi - thicc icquiicmcnts loi copyiight piotcction. Fuithcimoic, as
indicatcd abovc, most cxpicssions ol lolkloic aic not uscd in commcicc as a mcans
ol idcntilying thcii souicc, and so would not bc cligiblc loi tiadcmaik piotcction.
Finally, patcnt law may not bc availablc to piotcct TK bccausc, by dclnition, TK has
bccn uscd and passcd down thiough gcnciations, and this typc ol piioi public usc
may piccludc patcnt piotcction, as lcast il it is publicly iccoidcd. Thus, it appcais
that ccitain attiibutcs ol TK makc it a dimcult lt with all thicc ol thc majoi typcs
ol intcllcctual piopcity law. Additionally, piotcction loi TK docs not lt wcll with
thc piincipal goals undcilying thc piotcction ol intcllcctual piopcity law. Thcic
is littlc cvidcncc that piotcction ol TK is ncccssaiy to inccntivizc thc cication ol
cultuial cxpicssion, as othci lactois havc succcsslully motivatcd thc cication ol
thcsc cxpicssions loi millcnnia. Fuithcimoic, thc laboi-dcscit thcoiy docs not
casily lt with TK piotcction, as thosc who cicatcd thc tiaditional cxpicssion aic
cithci unidcntilablc bccausc thc cxpicssion was thc pioduct ol collaboiation oi,
in somc cascs, long dcad. Cuiicnt mcmbcis ol thc cultuic do not havc as stiong
a claim loi piotcction liom a laboi-dcscit pcispcctivc.
Protectlon of TK would lnvolve perpetuatlon of llllberal soclal hlerarchles
and oppresslve customs wlthln lndlgenous groups Anothci aigumcnt against
pioviding piotcction loi TK is that doing so may pcipctuatc incquality and oppics-
sion within indigcnous gioups. Whcn an indigcnous gioup is givcn thc iight to
contiol thc usc ol TK, thc powcilul mcmbcis ol that indigcnous gioup may bcnclt
at thc cxpcnsc ol thc gioup's minoiitics. Paul Kuiuk aigucs that piotcction ol
TK may luithci thc oppicssion ol womcn and suboidinatcd social and cconomic
gioups within an indigcnous cultuic.
Protectlon of TK may deprlve the world communlty of valuable knowledge
Somc might aiguc that piinciplcs ol libcial dcmociacy dictatc that knowlcdgc should
bc liccly shaicd iathci than icstiictcd to ccitain pcoplc oi gioups. Piotcction ol
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TK might dcpiivc outsidcis ol a chancc to bcnclt liom thc tiaditions, mcdicinal oi
othciwisc, ol an indigcnous cultuic. Whcn advancing this aigumcnt, howcvci, onc
should kccp in mind that piinciplcs ol libcial dcmociacy, whilc widcly acccptcd in thc
Wcstcin woild, aic not ncccssaiily an agiccd-upon staiting point loi this dcbatc.
|ncrease awareness rather than changlng the law Somc oiganizations havc
advocatcd piotcction ol TK thiough nongovcinmcntal oiganizations and piojccts
iathci than thiough lcgislation. Foi cxamplc, thc Intcigovcinmcntal Commit-
tcc loi thc Salcguaiding ol Intangiblc Cultuial Hciitagc has compilcd a List ol
Intangiblc Hciitagc in Nccd ol Uigcnt Salcguaiding. UNESCO lists piojccts loi
salcguaiding intangiblc cultuial hciitagc in Aliican countiics. Finally, gioups
ol acadcmics and activists havc cicatcd community standaids loi thosc, such
as anthiopologists, whosc woik impacts indigcnous cultuics and may involvc
scnsitivc issucs ol disclosuic ol TK.
Nadla should make Angela aware of the varlous types of natlonal lntellectual
property law that could apply to thls sltuatlon. Por example, ln thelr country
tradltlonal dances mlght be protected under copyrlght or su| enet|s statutes.
However, those laws would only apply wlthln thelr country, not to the dlstrlbutlon
of the Madonna vldeo ln other countrles. Nadla should also make Angela aware of
reglonal organlzatlons of whlch thelr country may be a member. Plnally, Nadla could
help equlp Angela to advocate for protectlon of her communlty's tradltlonal cultural
expresslons by maklng her aware of the pollcy recommendatlons and reports of
lnternatlonal organlzatlons, such as w|PO, and the relevant commlttees that may be
proposlng draft leglslatlon on tradltlonal knowledge ln the near future.
0NRAL
Silkc Von Lcwinski, cd., Indiqenous Heritaqe and Inte||ectua| Iropert, (znd cdn, zoo8).
WIPO's databasc contains cxisting codcs, guidcs, policics, piotocols, and standaid agicc-
mcnts iclating to thc iccoiding, digitization, and disscmination ol intangiblc cultuial
hciitagc, with an cmphasis on intcllcctual piopcity issucs.
Michacl F. Biown, Wno Owns âtive Cu|ture (Haivaid Univcisity Picss, zoo,, and http://wcb.
williams.cdu/AnthSoc/nativc/indcx.htm) is a good icsouicc loi undcistanding cuiicnt
dcbatcs about thc lcgal status ol indigcnous ait, music, lolkloic, biological knowlcdgc,
and sacicd sitcs.
Intcllcctual Piopcity Rights Onlinc, http://www.ipisonlinc.oig/icsouiccs/tk.htm=zoo6, is
a compcndium ol aiticlcs about tiaditional knowlcdgc and cultuial cxpicssions.
Thc Aliican Copyiight 8 Acccss to Knowlcdgc Piojcct (ACAzK), http://www.acazk.oig/
indcx.php?option=com_contcnt8vicw=aiticlc8id=;8Itcmid=6o8lang=cn, piobcs thc
iclationship bctwccn national copyiight cnviionmcnts and acccss to knowlcdgc in
Aliican countiics.
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WIPO, âtiona| Lxperiences witn tne Irotection oj Traditiona| Cu|tura| Lxpressions/Lxpres-
sions oj Io|k|ore: http://www.wipo.int/tk/cn/studics/cultuial/cxpicssions/piclacc/indcx.
html.
WIPO's icsouiccs on Tiaditional Cultuial Expicssions (lolkloic): www.wipo.
int/tk/cn/lolkloic/.
Cicativc Hciitagc Piojcct: Stiatcgic Managcmcnt ol IP Rights and Intcicsts, www.wipo.
int/tk/cn/cultuialhciitagc, lists icsouiccs loi dcvcloping bcst piacticcs and suivcys
cxisting piacticcs, piotocols and policics.
Rcsouiccs on Indigcnous Cultuics and Cultuial Piopcity, www.caslon.com.au/ipguidc.
htm, is a scaichablc databasc ol codcs, guidcs, policics, piotocols, and agiccmcnts iclating
to IP and thc digitization ol ICH. It also includcs shoit casc studics picscnting inloimal
summaiics ol bcst piacticcs, multimcdia matciials, aiticlcs, laws, and othci icsouiccs.
Is a Sui Gcnciis Systcm Ncccssaiy? http://iipi.oig/zoo/o/is-a-sui-gcnciis-systcm-ncccs-
saiy-bcnclt-shaiing-agiccmcnts, icvicws tiaditional IP laws and outlincs potcntial
pioblcms with sui qeneris systcms.
WIPO list ol lcgislativc tcxts on thc piotcction ol TK: www.wipo.int/tk/cn/laws/tk.html.
WIPO casc studics ol appiopiiatcd tiaditional cultuial cxpicssions: www.wipo.
int/tk/cn//studics/cultuial/minding-cultuic/studics.
NA7l0NSPClFlC RULS 00VRNlN0 7RA0l7l0NAL KN0WL00
Pctci }aszi, Traditiona| Cu|ture. A Step Iorward jor Irotection in Indonesia (zooj), http://papcis.
ssin.com/sol,/papcis.clm?abstiact_id=6;z,.
Lauiyn Giant, Thc Piotcction ol Tiaditional oi Indigcnous Knowlcdgc," S}oj AII-ABA
6j (zoo).
Paul Kuiuk, Goading a Rcluctant Dinosaui: Mutual Rccognition Agiccmcnts as a Policy
Rcsponsc to thc Misappiopiiation ol Foicign Tiaditional Knowlcdgc in thc Unitcd
Statcs," , Iepp. I. Rev. 6zj (zoo;).
Paul Kuiuk , Thc Rolc ol Customaiy Law Undci Sui Generis Fiamcwoiks ol Intcllcctual
Piopcity Rights in Tiaditional and Indigcnous Knowlcdgc," ; Ind. Int| 8 Comp. I. Rev.
6; (zoo;).
Paul Kuiuk, Piotccting Folkloic Undci Modcin Intcllcctual Piopcity Rcgimcs: A Rcap-
piaisal ol thc Tcnsions Bctwccn Individual and Communal Rights in Aliica and thc
Unitcd Statcs," 8 Am. U. I. Rev. ;6j (jjj).
Stcphcn R. Munzci and Kal Raustiala, Thc Uncasy Casc loi Intcllcctual Piopcity Rights
in Tiaditional Knowlcdgc," z; Cardozo Arts 8 Lnt. I.}. ,; (zooj).
Wikipcdia: thc Unitcd Statcs' Nativc Amciican Mascot Contiovcisy, http://cn.wikipcdia.
oig/wiki/Nativc_Amciican_mascot_contiovcisy.
R0l0NAL C00S 00VRNlN0 7RA0l7l0NAL KN0WL00
Adcbambo Adcwopo, Thc Global Intcllcctual Piopcity Systcm and Sub-Sahaia Aliica: A
Piognostic Rccction," ,, U. To|. I. Rev. ;j (zooz).
Aliican Intcllcctual Piopcity Oiganization (OAPI), www.wipo.int/aliica/cn/paitncis_oig/
paitncis/oapi_bg.html.
Aliican Rcgional Intcllcctual Piopcity Oiganization (ARIPO), www.aiipo.oig.
Andcan Community, www.comunidadandina.oig/cndcx.htm.
Common Maikct ol thc South (MERCOSUR), unticaty.un.oig/unts/o;8_,8;8o/
z/o/,ooj.pdl.
Pacilc Islands Foium Sccictaiiat, www.loiumscc.oig/indcx.clm.
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lN7RNA7l0NAL L0AL lNS7RUMN7S
Lauicncc R. Hcllci, Towaid a Human Rights Fiamcwoik loi Intcllcctual Piopcity," o U.C.
Davis Iaw Review j; (zoo;).
A ciitiquc ol WIPO's Dialt Piinciplcs liom a coalition ol indigcnous gioups, 'Thc Gap
bctwccn Indigcnous Pcoplcs' Dcmands and WIPO's Fiamcwoik on Tiaditional Knowl-
cdgc', http://www.wipo.int/cxpoit/sitcs/www/tk/cn/igc/ngo/cicl_gap.pdl.
P0LlCY AR0UMN7S
Mcgan Caipcntci, Intcllcctual Piopcity Law and Indigcnous Pcoplcs, Adapting Copyiight
Law to thc Nccds ol a Global Community," ; Ya|e Hum. Rts. 8 Dev. I.}. , (zoo).
Patty Gcistcnblith, Idcntity and Cultuial Piopcity: Thc Piotcction ol Cultuial Piopcity
in thc Unitcd Statcs," ;, B.U.I. Rev. ,,j, ,;o (jj,).
Loiic Giaham and Stcphcn Mc}ohn, Indigcnous Pcoplcs and Intcllcctual Piopcity," j
Wasn. U.}.I. 8 Io|, ,, (zoo,).
Kiistcn A. Caipcntci, Rcal Piopcity and Pcoplchood," z; Stan. Lnvt|. I.}. ,,, ,,-,, ,,,-,;
(zoo8).
Paul Kuiuk, Piomoting Folkloic undci Modcin Intcllcctual Piopcity Rcgimcs: A Rcap-
piaisal ol thc Tcnsions bctwccn Individual and Communal Rights in Aliica and thc US,"
8 Am. U. I. Rev. ;6j (jjj).
Anupam Chandci 8 Madhavi Sundci, Thc Romancc ol thc Public Domain," jz Ca|ijornia
Iaw Review ,, (zoo).
Kiistcn A. Caipcntci, Sonia Katyal, and Angcla Rilcy, In Dclcnsc ol Piopcity," 8 Ya|e I.}.
ozz (zooj).
ASSl0NMN7
Answer one of the followlng questlons:
:. Should lntellectual property protectlon of any sort be granted to tradltlonal
knowledge!
z. Assumlng some sort of lntellectual property protectlon for tradltlonal knowledge
ls approprlate, whlch of the many legal systems dlscussed ln thls module ls the
best!
0lSCUSSl0N US7l0NS
Select one of the answers that your colleagues provlded to the Asslgnment
questlons and comment on lt. Lxplaln why you agree or dlsagree.
Contributors
This modulc was cicatcd by Emily Cox, Adiicnnc Bakci, Aiicl Rosthstcin, and
Miiiam Wcilci. It was thcn cditcd by William Fishci.
ncJJ|o ,
Activism
Learning objective
This modulc tiics to assist libiaiians in dcvcloping countiics who aic considciing
oiganizing to inucncc thc shapc ol copyiight laws. It docs so by cxamining how
othci gioups havc sought in thc past to modily (oi to icsist modilcations of)
copyiight systcms.
To that cnd, it ofcis thicc casc studics, involving shaiply difcicnt issucs and
countiics. No simplc lcsson cmcigcs liom thcsc casc studics. Rathci, thcy aic
intcndcd to piovidc thc basis loi iccction and discussion conccining what loims
ol activism aic cfcctivc - and what loims aic not.
Case studies
The Swedlsh Plrate Party
CHALLN00 LAW
On }uly , zoo,, thc Swcdish Pailiamcnt, thc Riksdag, amcndcd its copyiight law
to comply with a zoo Euiopcan Union diicctivc icquiiing all mcmbci nations to
ban downloads ol copyiightcd matciial without thc iights-holdci's conscnt. Bcloic
thc cnd ol thc ycai, a Swcdish couit handcd down thc countiy's list conviction
and lnc loi an illcgal download.
L0CAL FAC70RS
Swcdcs wcic wcll poiscd to oiganizc against thc tightcning copyiight law bccausc
ol thc lollowing local lactois:
. Thc Swcdish govcinmcnt was an caily adoptci ol public high-spccd bioadband,
which madc unauthoiizcd downloading ol audio and vidco iccoidings paiticu-
laily casy.
z. Swcdcs wcic cultuially picdisposcd to undcistand piopcity iights as tools loi
public good iathci than as natuial iights ol thc holdcis.
,. A giassioots think-tank namcd Piiatbyian (Piiacy Buicau") had bccn publicly
contcsting copyiight piotcction in Swcdcn sincc zoo,.
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F0UN0lN0 7H PlRA7 PAR7Y
On Ncw Ycai's Day ol zoo6, just months altci thc list llc-shaiing piosccution, an
IT cnticpicncui namcd Rickaid Falkvingc loimcd Piiatpaitict, thc Swcdish Piiatc
Paity. Ncithci Falkvingc noi his co-loundcis had any loimal political cxpciicncc
whcn thcy madc thc dccision to launch thc paity. As a icsult, thcy did not know that
thc paity nccdcd z,ooo signatuics to icgistci loimally with thc Swcdish Elcction
Authoiity, Valmyndighctcn. Whcn thcy bccamc awaic, thcy hostcd a wcbsitc loi
citizcns to dcclaic thcii mcmbciship publicly and thcn bcgan collccting physical
signatuics in pcison. Oncc loimally icgistcicd, thc paity icciuitcd candidatcs loi
thc Riksdag clcctions in Scptcmbci, dialtcd a paity platloim, lundiaiscd, and built
local oiganizations in both uiban and iuial aicas thioughout Swcdcn.
0RAF7lN0 7H PlRA7 PAR7Y'S PLA7F0RM
Thc Piiatc Paity aiticulatcd its copyiight policy goals as pait ol a laigci cfoit to
cxpand liccdom ol acccss to cultuic and to piotcct lundamcntal iights.
Thc paity has dcvclopcd its platloim in succcssivc vcisions. Sincc Fcbiuaiy zoo6,
all ol thcsc havc lcatuicd thicc coic piinciplcs: lundamcntal copyiight icloim,
abolition ol patcnts, and govcinmcnt icspcct loi pcisonal piivacy.
Undci thc slogan Ficc Oui Cultuic," thc Piiatc Paity dcclaics thicc dctailcd
policy aims: to icducc copyiight piotcction loi any woik to lvc ycais altci its
publication, to cxcmpt all dciivativc woiks liom copyiight piotcction, and to limit
cxccptions to this gcncial iulc to thosc giantcd by cxplicit statutoiy cnactmcnt.
Thc cuiicnt piogiam, titlcd Piiatc Paity Dcclaiation ol Piinciplcs ,.z," dcsciibcs
an ongoing movcmcnt to clcai lcgal obstaclcs liom thc path ol thc cmciging
inloimation socicty." It also announccs thc paity's opcn stancc towaid paitnciing
with any political alliancc to achicvc its stiatcgic objcctivcs: Oui goal is to usc a
tic bicakci position in pailiamcnt as lcvciagc."
7H PlRA7 AY
Thc Motion Pictuic Association ol Amciica and its Swcdish amliatc, thc APB,
icactcd to thc mobilization by picssuiing thc Swcdish govcinmcnt to puisuc thc
countiy's laigcst lacilitatoi ol illcgal downloads: thc Piiatc Bay.
Picviously, Amciican iights-holdcis had spcnt considciablc icsouiccs biinging
succcsslul civil lawsuits against thc laigcst US-bascd llc shaiing sciviccs: Napstci,
Aimstci, Giokstci, and Moiphcus. Thc iights-holdcis had bccn lcss succcsslul,
howcvci, in shutting down Bittoiicnt tiackci scaich cngincs, such as Supinova,
Elitc Toiicnts, ToiicntSpy, and cDonkcy, which cnablc onc computci to download
a copyiightcd woik moic cmcicntly by connccting it to multiplc othci computcis,
cach taskcd with tianslciiing a small piccc ol thc oiiginal llc.
As thc laigcst and most inlamous Bittoiicnt tiackci scaich cnginc, thc Piiatc Bay
was a paiticulaily conspicuous lacilitatoi ol unchcckcd illcgal downloading, and it
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was hcadquaitcicd in Swcdcn. Thc Piiatc Bay was dcsigncd by Gottliig Svaitholm,
a loimci mcmbci ol thc Piiatbyian think-tank.
Thc TRIPS Agiccmcnt, thc EU Diicctivcs (both discusscd in Modulc z), and
thc Riksdag's implcmcnting lcgislation all sticngthcncd thc iights-holdcis' hand.
Il Swcdcn icluscd to cnloicc its intcllcctual piopcity laws against Thc Piiatc Bay,
thc iights-holdcis could cncouiagc thc US govcinmcnt to initiatc a Woild Tiadc
Oiganization disputc icsolution piocccding, which, il succcsslul, would havc
cxposcd Swcdcn to ictaliatoiy tiadc sanctions. Thc Motion Pictuic Association ol
Amciica contactcd thc Swcdish Ministiy ol }usticc diicctly, cncouiaging it to act.
On May ,, zoo6, Swcdcn's govcinmcnt giantcd domcstic policc a waiiant to
scaich Thc Piiatc Bay's lacilitics and scizc its llc scivcis.
SP7MR 2006 RlKS0A0 LC7l0NS
Thc clampdown piovokcd sticct piotcsts in Swcdcn, which in tuin attiactcd
intcinational mcdia attcntion. Thc Piiatc Paity's mcmbciship incicascd iapidly,
cspccially altci thc Piiatc Bay icsuilaccd in thc Ncthcilands. Thc Piiatc Paity
has no loimal conncction to thc Piiatc Bay oi to thc Piiatc Buicau think-tank,
but thc public pciccivcs thc thicc as linkcd.
Thc majoiity ol thc ncw mcmbcis ol thc paity wcic too young to votc. Swcdish
schools icgulaily hold mock clcctions, and thc Piiatc Paity took appioximatcly o
pciccnt ol thc zoo6 studcnt votc. Rccognizing thc potcntial long-tcim powci ol
this gioup, thc Piiatc Paity dccidcd to invcst its icsouiccs and political capital in
sccuiing thc votcs thcsc mcmbcis would cvcntually icpicscnt. Thc paity oiganizcd
Young Piiatcs" studcnt gioups.
Adult Swcdcs in zoo6 wcic lcss inclincd to suppoit thc Piiatc Paity than thc
youth, cspccially il thc cost wcic to loigo thc oppoitunity to votc loi onc ol thc
iuling paitics. That disinclination was icinloiccd by a }uly zoo6 ncwspapci aiticlc
icvcaling that Thc Piiatc Bay was piolting substantially thiough advcitising
icvcnuc. This sccmcd out ol stcp with thc public-scivicc cthos Thc Piiatc Bay's
lcadcis had championcd. Again, although thc Piiatc Paity has no loimal conncction
to thc Piiatc Bay, thc public pciccivcd thcm as intciconncctcd.
Whcn thc zoo6 ballots wcic cast, Piiatpaitict caincd lcss than pciccnt ol thc
votc and thcicloic lailcd to qualily loi a scat in thc Riksdag.
1UN 2009 UR0PAN PARLlAMN7 LC7l0NS
Thc Swcdish Piiatc Paity was moic succcsslul in sccuiing scats in thc Euiopcan
Pailiamcnt. In thc }unc zooj clcctions, thc paity sccuicd cnough votcs to bc
awaidcd z ol ;,6 scats in thc Pailiamcnt.
Thc paity's succcss was lacilitatcd by low tuinout loi thc clcctions. Thc Piiatc
Paity suigcd as suppoit loi its compctitois laggcd. Piiatpaitict caincd moic than
; pciccnt ol thc Swcdish votc, most ol which it pickcd up liom thc Lclt Paity.
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Thc paity's two clcctcd mcmbcis wcic Chiistian Engstiom, an anti-soltwaic-
patcnt activist and loimci tcchnology cxccutivc, and zz-ycai-old Amclia Andcisdot-
tci, onc ol thc caily studcnt mcmbcis.
2010 RlKS0A0 LC7l0NS
In zooj, it was cstimatcd that thc Piiatc Paity had ovci ,o,ooo mcmbcis, making
it thc thiid laigcst political paity in Swcdcn in tcims ol mcmbcis. In thc zoo
Riksdag clcctions, whilc thc pciccntagc ol thcii votc incicascd, this did not mcct
thc icquiicd thicshold and so thc paity did not gain any scats in thc clcction.
In any casc, thc Piiatc Paity has ccitainly cxpandcd its inucncc ovci thc last
numbci ol ycais. Suppoit loi libcializing copyiight pcnaltics loi piivatc individuals
who download audio and vidco iccoidings loi non-commcicial pcisonal usc, thc
most impoitant plank in thc Piiatc Paity's platloim, has bccn voiccd by Swcdcn's
majoi lclt-wing paitics. Thc piobability that such policics will cvcntually bc adoptcd
sccms to bc incicasing.
"Cllck wrap" llcenses
and the Unlform Commerclal Code
7H UCC
In thc Unitcd Statcs, contiact law is shapcd and cnloiccd by thc lcgislatuics and
couits ol thc individual statcs, not by thc national lcgislatuic and couits. To
piomotc national uniloimity ol contiact law, a piomincnt oiganization ol lcgal
scholais and piactitioncis, known as thc Amciican Law Institutc (ALI), woiks with
thc National Conlcicncc ol Commissioncis on Uniloim Statc Laws (NCCUSL)
to piomulgatc thc Uniloim Commcicial Codc (UCC), a compichcnsivc modcl
sct ol contiact laws which it ofcis as thc idcal vcision ol statc law. Although
no statc is obligcd to adopt thc UCC, all ol thc statcs havc donc so. Thc UCC is
not publishcd on bchall ol any onc sct ol political intcicsts oi lcgal pcispcctivcs.
That auia ol objcctivity, which thc ALI-NCCUSL sustains by opcning its dialting
pioccss to lcgal piactitioncis and scholais ol all political stiipcs, backgiounds, and
souiccs ol cxpcitisc, cncouiagcs statc lcgislatuics to cnact succcssivc vcisions ol
thc UCC with lcw altciations.
In jj, thc ALI bcgan woik with thc NCCUSL to cialt an addcndum to thc
cxisting UCC that would addicss thc cnloiccability ol click wiap" liccnscs.
"CLlCK WRAP" LlCNSS
Sincc thc j8os, many soltwaic companics had bccn cncasing thc boxcs containing
physical copics ol thcii pioducts in plastic wiappcis callcd shiink wiap." Oltcn thcy
would includc in thc packagcs documcnts sctting loith piovisions that puichascis
ol thc pioducts would bc obligcd to obcy. Somctimcs thcsc tcims wcic piintcd
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on thc boxcs thcmsclvcs (and thus visiblc thiough thc plastic wiapping), at othci
timcs thcy wcic piintcd on scpaiatc picccs ol papci (and thus invisiblc piioi to
puichasc). Invaiiably, among thc list ol tcims was a piovision indicating that,
by tcaiing opcn thc wiapping, thc puichasci agiccd to abidc by all ol thc othci
tcims - unlcss hc oi shc ictuincd thc pioduct to thc scllci. Soltwaic companics
iclciicd to this piacticc as shiink wiap" liccnsing.
Latci, it bccamc customaiy to distiibutc piopiictaiy soltwaic not thiough thc
salc ol physical copics, but by cnabling consumcis, altci paying a lcc, to download
thc pioduct liom thc Intcinct. Whcn thcy shiltcd to this ncw appioach, thc
soltwaic lims altcicd thcii liccnsing stiatcgy somcwhat. Instcad ol including a
sct ol tcims in a physical documcnt, thc lims picscntcd thc samc tcims on a wcb
pagc. To download thc pioduct, a consumci had to click" a box indicating that
hc oi shc agiccd to thc tcims. This modilcd stiatcgy camc to bc known as click
wiap" liccnsing.
As thcsc piacticcs spicad, acadcmics and consumci gioups incicasingly challcngcd
thc cnloiccability ol thcsc liccnscs. Thcii objcctions wcic iootcd in pait in loimal
contiact law. Bicaking thc plastic wiapping oi clicking" a box was insumcicnt, thcy
aigucd, to constitutc acccptancc" ol thc contiact tcims, paiticulaily in light ol thc
oncious chaiactci ol many ol thosc tcims. Thcii objcctions also dicwsticngth liom
thc appaicnt unlaiincss ol thc piacticc. Consumcis had no ical option but to agicc
to a sct ol piovisions that dcpiivcd thcmol many ol thc iights thcy would othciwisc
cnjoy undci copyiight law and undci statc toit and contiact law.
In light ol thcsc objcctions, whcthci thc liccnscs wcic binding on consumcis
icmaincd unccitain.
7H ALl A00RSSS 7H lSSU
Thc ALI and thc NCCUSL sct out to icsolvc thc unccitainty. Thcy assigncd thc task
ol dialting a ncw click wiap" addcndum to thc UCC to thc Dialting Committcc
on Rcvision ol UCC Aiticlc z. Thc dialting committcc publishcd an initial sct
ol dialt modcl laws, in which it suggcstcd that click wiap" liccnscs wcic valid
contiacts and should thcicloic bc cnloiccablc. Mcmbcis ol thc Amciican Law
Institutc icalizcd that this was a contiovcisial position. Thc ALI invitcd potcntial
ciitics ol thc dialt to a sciics ol committcc mcctings and solicitcd commcnts via
mcmoianda and lcttcis.
CRl7lClSM FR0M C0PYRl0H7 SCH0LARS
An impoitant gioups ol acadcmics - lcd by Ccm Kanci, Pamcla Samuclson, and
David Nimmci - acccptcd thc invitation. In thcii submissions to thc committcc
and in a sciics ol aiticlcs publishcd in lcgal pciiodicals, thcy aigucd that thc
liccnscs should not bc cnloiccablc and that thc UCC should not bc modilcd to
lcnd thcm suppoit. Thcii submissions minglcd lcgal and cconomic aigumcnts.
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LLGAL APGUMLNTS
Thc Unitcd Statcs Constitution limits thc powci ol thc national lcgislatuic, but
also piovidcs that laws piopcily adoptcd by thc national lcgislatuic ovciiidc oi
pic-cmpt" inconsistcnt statc laws. Thc lcdcial couits havc intcipictcd this piinciplc
to invalidatc not only statc laws that aic clcaily inconsistcnt with valid lcdcial
statutcs, but also statc laws that undciminc thc spiiit oi puiposcs ol valid lcdcial
statutcs. Thc icsult is that thc scopc ol this piinciplc ol lcdcial piccmption" is
somcwhat vaguc. Somc lcdcial statutcs, including thc Copyiight Statutc, tiy to
icducc that vagucncss by spccilying thc kinds ol statc laws thcy piccmpt, but
such piovisions do not altogcthci climinatc thc unccitainty.
In this muiky cnviionmcnt, thc ciitics ol click-wiap liccnscs aigucd that using
statc contiact law to cnloicc thcm should bc dccmcd piccmptcd by lcdcial copyiight
law. Thc piimaiy icason was that click-wiap liccnscs typically dcpiivcd consumcis
ol many ciucial piivilcgcs undci copyiight law and thcicloic upsct thc dclicatc
balancc bctwccn thc iights ol copyiight-holdcis and thc cxccptions and limitations
that bcnclt uscis - a balancc that, as wc havc sccn, is ciucial to thc copyiight
systcm.
At a minimum, thc ciitics aigucd, thc issuc was sumcicntly complcx that thc
lcdcial couits would stiugglc loi ycais to dctciminc thc cxtcnt to which thc pic-
cmption piinciplc applicd in this contcxt, lcaving thc cnloiccability ol thc liccnscs
unclcai and undcimining thc ovciall aspiiation ol thc UCC to sccuic nationwidc
uniloimity in contiact law.
Finally, acadcmic ciitics such as David Nimmci aigucd that, il mass-maikct
click-wiap liccnscs wcic validatcd by pioposcd icvision ol thc UCC, soltwaic
vcndois could dcpiivc consumcis ol choicc and compctition by using thc samc
takc-it-oi-lcavc-it" click-wiap liccnscs acioss thc industiy. Nimmci suggcstcd that
this would amount to 'piivatc lcgislation' that scivcs to altci cn massc thc public's
iights giantcd undci thc Copyiight Act."
LCONOM|C APGUMLNTS
Ccm Kanci contcndcd in public mcctings and in publishcd loimal lcttcis that thc
pioposcd modilcation ol thc UCC would shilt thc iclationship bctwccn soltwaic
companics and thcii customcis. Whcthci oi not you agicc with mc, it's impoitant
that you undcistand that thc giound iulcs aic about to changc," hc wiotc in a
Maich jj6 magazinc aiticlc.
Kanci acknowlcdgcd thc lcgitimacy ol thc soltwaic companics' conccins. Il
contiact law wcic not altcicd to limit thc companics' liability loi thc conscqucnccs
ol laulty pioducts, thc companics would bc obligcd to iaisc thc piiccs ol thcii
pioducts. All consumcis would thus sufci to somc dcgicc. Moic picciscly, consum-
cis as a gioup would bcai thc cost ol compcnsating thc iclativcly lcw consumcis
who sufcicd cconomic injuiics icsulting liom dclccts in soltwaic pioducts.
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Howcvci, Kanci aigucd, cnabling thc companics to usc click-on liccnscs to avoid
liability loi dclccts would lcavc to cvcn woisc outcomcs. Thc incicascd lcvciagc loi
soltwaic scllcis, hc aigucd, would not motivatc thcm to convcit thcii savings into
lowci piiccs loi thcii pioducts. Rathci, it would inducc thcm to spcnd lcss moncy
on tcsting thcii pioducts loi majoi pioblcms oi on lxing thosc pioblcms bcloic
iclcasing thcii pioducts onto thc opcn maikct.
David Nimmci aigucd that thc scllcis ol othci kinds ol intcllcctual pioducts
would likcly lollow thc lcad ol thc soltwaic companics. Hc picdictcd that Amciican
consumcis would soon bc ablc to buy poctiy, ait, novcls, and lcatuic llms only liom
onlinc ictail contcnt stoics that uscd click-wiap liccnscs to disclaim all potcntial
waiiantics.
McMANlS AMN0MN7
In May jj;, Piolcssoi Chailcs McManis ofcicd a motion at a Dialting Committcc
mccting to amcnd thc initial dialts ol thc pioposcd Aiticlc zB - thc dialt piovi-
sion that would havc madc thc liccnscs cnloiccablc. Thc McManis Amcndmcnt
addicsscd thc piccmption issuc hcad on by piohibiting any mass-maikct soltwaic
liccnsc that limitcd thc iights piovidcd by thc lcdcial copyiight statutc. It was
adoptcd by a slim majoiity.
Thc McManis Amcndmcnt was lciccly ciiticizcd by soltwaic companics. Thcii
objcctions wcic aiicd at an impoitant acadcmic conlcicncc hcld at thc Univcisity
ol Caliloinia at Bcikclcy.
UC RKLY UCC 2 C0NFRNC
Thc Univcisity ol Caliloinia at Bcikclcy's Ccntci loi Law and Tcchnology hostcd
a conlcicncc in Apiil jj8 to cxploic thc implications and mciits ol pioposcd
Aiticlc zB. Thc conlcicncc was co-sponsoicd by thc ALI and biought togcthci
piactitioncis and law piolcssois with difciing vicws.
A divcisc aiiay ol aigumcnts wcic picscntcd. Thc kcynotc spcakci was Raymond
Nimmci, thc Rcpoitci to thc Dialting Committcc, who aiticulatcd opposition to
thc McManis Amcndmcnt bccausc hc bclicvcd Aiticlc zB was alicady ncutial" in its
cfccts on lcdcial copyiight law. Many paiticipants, howcvci, disagiccd. By thc cnd,
thc dominant vicw sccmcd to bc that (a) click wiap" liccnscs did not givc consumcis
thc oppoitunity mcaninglully to asscnt to oi icjcct thc tcims ol non-ncgotiablc
mass liccnscs, and (b) thc scopc ol lcdcial piccmption was sumcicntly unccitain
that lcdcial couits would likcly disagicc, gcnciating an undcsiiablc patchwoik ol
inconsistcnt laws acioss thc countiy.
CALlF0RNlA LAW RVlW SYMP0SlUM
A sciics ol acadcmic papcis by thc conlcicncc attcndccs was publishcd in jjj in
a Ca|ijornia Iaw Review symposium volumc dcdicatcd to Aiticlc zB. By that timc,
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howcvci, thc ALI and thc NCCUSL wcic sumcicntly pcisuadcd that Aiticlc zB's
intcilcicncc with lcdcial copyiight law was a latal aw that thcy backcd away liom
thc pioposcd icvision. Thc NCCUSL issucd a dcclaiation that any lnal vcision ol
Aiticlc zB should contain a piovision that allows couits to invalidatc mass maikct
soltwaic liccnscs that wcic unconscionablc," and thc ALI dclciicd appioval ol
thc Aiticlc pcnding luithci considciation ol its iclationship to lcdcial copyiight
law. Finally, in Apiil jjj, thc ALI-NCCUSL announccd in a picss iclcasc that
thc two gioups would not issuc Aiticlc zB.
Thc NCCUSL latci publishcd its own iccommcndations to validatc click-wiap
liccnscs undci a modcl law with a scpaiatc titlc: Thc Uniloim Computci Inloima-
tion Tiansactions Act (UCITA). Howcvci, only z ol ,o statc lcgislatuics adoptcd
thc mcasuic, and scvcial statcs adoptcd piovisions that sought to shicld thcii own
icsidcnts liom its impact.
Thc cfoit to solidily thc cnloiccability ol click-wiap liccnscs thioughout thc
nation had lailcd.
Copyrlght law and folklore
SKlN0 0RA7R PR07C7l0N F0R 7RA0l7l0NAL KN0WL00
As wc saw in Modulc 8, many indigcnous gioups vicw cultuial knowlcdgc and
ancicnt cxpicssions in myths and aitwoik to bc collcctivcly owncd and salcguaidcd.
Thcy havc sought sticngthcncd intcllcctual piopcity iights loi TCEs and othci
loims ol tiaditional knowlcdgc at both intcinational and national lcvcls. Thcii
majoi giicvanccs aic thc abscncc ol sumcicnt icmunciation loi commcicial usc
ol indigcnous cxpicssions, widcspicad disicgaid loi indigcnous communal iights,
misicpicscntation ol sacicd indigcnous cultuial clcmcnts, and unauthoiizcd
publication ol scnsitivc inloimation and lolkloic.
M0lLlZA7l0N 0F lN0l0N0US C0MMUNl7lS
w|PO'S !99899 PACTP|ND|NG M|SS|ONS
Thc Unitcd Nation's Woild Intcllcctual Piopcity Oiganization icactcd to thc
giowing picssuic liom indigcnous gioups - and liom thc national govcinmcnts ol
thc countiics in which thosc gioups wcic locatcd - by dcsigning ninc lact-lnding
missions covciing z8 countiics to dctciminc thc cxpcctations and IP nccds ol thc
gioups. Indigcnous icpicscntativcs inloimcd WIPO omcials about thc obstaclcs to
piotccting thcii local intcllcctual piopcity piacticcs, thc dimculty ol documcnting
sacicd clcmcnts ol thcii cultuics, and thcii stiugglcs to cuib misappiopiiation ol
indigcnous cxpicssions by thc Amciican cntcitainmcnt industiy.
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WIPO collatcd thc icspondcnts' asscssmcnts ol spccilc national icgimcs and
publishcd a icpoit. Somc icspondcnts lavoicd national public ioyalty systcms loi thc
appiopiiation ol indigcnous cultuics. Othcis disappiovcd ol any systcm loi sclling
acccss to lolkloic. Somc lavoicd govcinmcnt documcntation ol indigcnous lolkloic,
but othcis lclt that would lacilitatc misappiopiiation by pioviding a convcnicnt
catalog loi companics sccking ncw cultuial symbols to commoditizc.
WIPO also collcctcd local pcispcctivcs on how bcst to oiganizc indigcnous popu-
lations aiound intcllcctual piopcity icloim. Somc suggcstcd that local customaiy
noims would havc to adopt somc ol thc piinciplcs ol copyiight law in oidci to takc
advantagc ol copyiight piotcction. Othcis callcd loi cducation/awaicncss piogiams,
stiongci icstiictions on public acccss to thcii lolkloic, collcctivc dialting ol icgional
modcl laws, public lunds loi lcgal aid, oi moic piolongcd cfoits to claiily cxisting
lcgal iights loi indigcnous communitics.
Sct loith bclow is a collcction ol indigcnous dcclaiations dclning and sccking
piotcction loi tiaditional knowlcdgc.
THL MATAATUA DLCLAPAT|ON, NLw ZLALAND
Onc ol thc most notablc cxpicssions ol thcsc giicvanccs was thc Mataatua Dcclaia-
tion on Cultuial and Intcllcctual Piopcity Rights ol Indigcnous Pcoplcs, loigcd
altci a conlcicncc in }unc ol jj,. Thc conlcicncc was hostcd by thc ninc tiibcs
ol Mataatua in Ncw Zcaland. Ovci ,o dclcgatcs liom countiics attcndcd.
Thc Dcclaiation pioclaimcd that indigcnous gioups wcic thc cxclusivc owncis
and piimaiy bcnclciaiics ol indigcnous knowlcdgc and lolkloic, and that all loims
ol misappiopiiation, whcthci disciiminatoiy dcpiction oi commcicial cxploitation,
must ccasc."
Thc Dcclaiation piovidcd suggcstions loi indigcnous gioups acioss thc woild,
which was an csscntial clcmcnt to mobilizing a globally dispciscd political basc. In
a scction labclcd Rccommcndations," indigcnous gioups wcic instiuctcd to dclnc
thcii own intcllcctual piopcity piacticcs and dcvclop a codc loi cxtcinal uscis to
obscivc that includcd sanctions loi misusc.
Thc Dcclaiation also dcmandcd that individual national govcinmcnts iccognizc
indigcnous gioups as thc kccpcis ol thcii cultuial cxpicssions and lcgally iccognizc
multi-gcnciational, coopciativc, collcctivc ownciship ovci cultuially signilcant
itcms.
KAP|OCA DLCLAPAT|ON AND THL |ND|GLNOUS PLOPLLS' LAPTH CHAPTLP
At mcctings in Biazil and Indoncsia in jjz, indigcnous gioups liom Asia, Aliica,
Euiopc, and thc Pacilc piomulgatcd thc Kaii-Oca Dcclaiation and thc Indigcnous
Pcoplc's Eaith Chaitci. Thc scction on cultuic, scicncc, and intcllcctual piopcity
dcclaics that
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oo. Matciial cultuic is bcing uscd by thc nonindigcnous to gain acccss to oui
lands and icsouiccs, thus dcstioying oui cultuics.
o. Most ol thc mcdia at this conlcicncc wcic only intcicstcd in thc pictuics
which will bc sold loi piolt. This is anothci casc ol cxploitation ol indigcnous
pcoplcs. This docs not advancc thc causc ol indigcnous pcoplcs.
oz. As cicatois and caiiicis ol civilizations which havc givcn and continuc to
shaic knowlcdgc, cxpciicncc, and valucs with humanity, wc icquiic that
oui iight to intcllcctual and cultuial piopcitics bc guaiantccd and that
thc mcchanism loi cach implcmcntation bc in lavoui ol oui pcoplcs and
studicd in dcpth and implcmcntcd. This icspcct must includc thc iight ovci
gcnctic icsouiccs, gcncbanks, biotcchnology, and knowlcdgc ol biodivcisity
piogiams.
o,. Wc should list thc suspcct muscums and institutions that havc misuscd oui
cultuial and intcllcctual piopcitics.
o. Thc piotcction, noims, and mcchanisms ol aitistic and aitisan cication ol
oui pcoplcs must bc cstablishcd and implcmcntcd in oidci to avoid plundci,
plagiaiism, unduc cxposuic, and usc.
o,. Whcn indigcnous pcoplcs lcavc thcii communitics, thcy should makc cvciy
cfoit to ictuin to thc community.
o6. In many instanccs, oui songs, danccs, and ccicmonics havc bccn vicwcd
as thc only aspccts ol oui livcs. In somc instanccs, wc havc bccn askcd to
changc a ccicmony oi a song to suit thc occasion. This is iacism.
o;. At local, national, and intcinational lcvcls, govcinmcnts must commit lunds to
ncw and cxisting icsouiccs to cducation and tiaining loi indigcnous pcoplcs,
to achicvc thcii sustainablc dcvclopmcnt, to contiibutc and to paiticipatc
in sustainablc and cquitablc dcvclopmcnt at all lcvcls. Paiticulai attcntion
should bc givcn to indigcnous womcn, childicn, and youth.
o8. All kinds ol lolkloiic disciimination must bc stoppcd and loibiddcn.
SANTA CPUZ DL LA S|LPPA STATLMLNT ON |NTLLLLCTUAL PPOPLPT
Thc Cooidinating Body ol thc Indigcnous Pcoplcs ol thc Amazon Basin (COICA)
oiganizcd thc Intcinational Consultation on Intcllcctual Piopcity Rights and
Biodivcisity at Santa Ciuz dc la Siciia, Bolivia, in Scptcmbci jj. Thc COICA
Statcmcnt cchocd thc scll-dctcimination thcmc ol thc Mataatua Dcclaiation. It
dcclaics that
Foi mcmbcis ol indigcnous pcoplcs, knowlcdgc and dctcimination ol thc
usc ol icsouiccs aic collcctivc and intcigcnciational. No . individuals oi
communitics, noi thc Govcinmcnt, can scll oi tianslci ownciship ol [cultuial
icsouiccs which aic thc piopcity ol thc pcoplc and which cach gcnciation has
an obligation to salcguaid loi thc ncxt.
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Woik must bc conductcd on thc dcsign ol a piotcction and iccognition
systcm which is in accoidancc with . oui own conccption, and mcchanisms
must bc dcvclopcd . which will picvcnt appiopiiation ol oui icsouiccs and
knowlcdgc.
Thcic must bc appiopiiatc mcchanisms loi maintaining and cnsuiing thc
iight ol Indigcnous pcoplcs to dcny indisciiminatc acccss to thc [cultuial
icsouiccs ol oui communitics oi pcoplcs and making it possiblc to contcst
patcnts oi othci cxclusivc iights to what is csscntially Indigcnous.
1ULA|N8UL STATLMLNT ON |ND|GLNOUS |NTLLLLCTUAL PPOPLPT P|GHTS
Thc Conlcicncc on Cultuial and Intcllcctual Piopcity hcld at }ingaiiba adoptcd
thc }ulayinbul Statcmcnt on Indigcnous Intcllcctual Piopcity Rights. Thc dcc-
laiation icamims thc iight ol indigcnous pcoplcs and nations to dclnc loi
thcmsclvcs thcii own intcllcctual piopcity, acknowlcdging . thc uniqucncss ol
thcii own paiticulai hciitagc." It statcs that Aboiiginal intcllcctual piopcity,
within Aboiiginal Common Law, is an inhcicnt, inalicnablc iight which cannot
bc tciminatcd, cxtinguishcd, oi takcn . Any usc ol thc intcllcctual piopcity ol
Aboiiginal Nations and Pcoplcs may only bc donc in accoidancc with Aboiiginal
Common Law, and any unauthoiiscd usc is stiictly piohibitcd."
AC7l0N Y lN0l0N0US 0R0UPS 70 PR07C7 7K
In addition to agitating loi lcgal changc, indigcnous gioups havc icccntly bcgun
to act - somctimcs on thcii own, somctimcs with thc aid ol othci oiganizations
- to piotcct thcii tiaditional knowlcdgc. Somc cxamplcs lollow.
TPA|N|NG A8OUT |P P|GHTS AND TLCHNOLOG USLS
In zoo8, two mcmbcis ol a Maasai community liom Laikipia, Kcnya, and an cxpcit
liomthc National Muscums ol Kcnya tiavclcd to thc Amciican Folklilc Ccntci (AFC)
and thc Ccntci loi Documcntaiy Studics (CDS) in thc Unitcd Statcs loi intcnsivc,
hands-on tiaining in documcntaiy tcchniqucs and aichival skills ncccssaiy loi
cfcctivc community-bascd cultuial conscivation. WIPO piovidcd IP tiaining. In
August zooj, WIPOpiovidcd thc Maasai community in Kcnya with digital tcchnol-
ogy to iccoid thcii cultuial hciitagc. WIPO tiaincd attcndccs, pioviding thcm with
icquisitc tcchnical skills, a digital camcia, sound iccoiding cquipmcnt, and a laptop
to documcnt and digitizc thcii cultuial hciitagc on an ongoing basis.
CONTPACT|NG |P P|GHTS AT THL GAPMA PLST|vAL, GULKULA, AUSTPAL|A
Thc Gaima Fcstival is a cclcbiation ol thc Yolngu cultuial inhciitancc. Rcgaidcd
as Austialia's most signilcant indigcnous cultuial cxchangc cvcnt, thc Gaima
Fcstival attiacts clan gioups liom noithcast Ainhcm Land, as wcll as icpicscntativcs
liom clan gioups and ncighboiing indigcnous pcoplcs thioughout Ainhcm Land,
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thc Noithcin Tciiitoiy, and Austialia. Gaima is oiganizcd by thc Yothu Yindi
Foundation, a not-loi-piolt Aboiiginal chaiitablc coipoiation. All attcndancc lccs
and othci icvcnucs icccivcd go to thc opciation ol thc Foundation's piogiams and
piojccts, such as Gaima, to achicvc thc lollowing outcomcs:
- Encouiaging and dcvcloping cconomic oppoitunitics loi Yolngu thiough cduca-
tion, tiaining, cmploymcnt and cntcipiisc dcvclopmcnt.
- Shaiing knowlcdgc and cultuic, thcicby lostciing gicatci undcistanding bctwccn
indigcnous and non-indigcnous Austialians.
- Nuituiing and maintaining ol Yolngu cultuial tiaditions and piacticcs.
Gaima Fcstival oiganizcis icquiic that attcndccs sign thc Gcncial Authoiity to
Makc a Rccoid ol thc Fcstival contiact il attcndccs scck to takc photogiaphs oi
makc any othci iccoiding ol thc cvcnt. It is inappiopiiatc to takc any photogiaphs
ol Yolngu without list sccking thc pcimission ol a scnioi cldci.
SLLK|NG CONSLNT PPOM THL ST: LO NAT|ON POP USL OP CULTUPAL HLP|TAGL
St:lo Nation Hciitagc Policy icquiics uscis ol St:lo Nation cultuial hciitagc to
scck conscnt liom thc Nation and to givc piopci attiibution. It piohibits uscis liom
misicpicscnting thcii amliation with St:lo Nation. Thc policy allows loi thc laii
usc ol cxccipts ol cultuial hciitagc (cxccpt loi piopcity that is conldcntial, sccict,
oi piivatc) il thc hciitagc is uscd loi cducational, inloimational, commcntaiy, oi
puiposcs othci than piolt, so long as thc St:lo ownci is piopcily iclcicnccd.
Piioi conscnt is still cncouiagcd loi this usc, but is not icquiicd.
US|NG TPADLMAPKS TO PPOTLCT TK
Thc Gab Titui Cultuial Ccntic, Thuisday Island in thc Toiics Stiait Islands,
Austialia, is a public kccping placc loi histoiical Islandci aitilacts and tiaditional
and modcin ait. It has icgistcicd a tiadcmaik loi Toiics Stiaits cultuial matciial
(AU Tiadc Maik numbci jjzz).
Thc Silvci Hand Piogiam in Alaska, US, uscs thc Silvci Hand Logo and tag to
piomotc authcntic Alaskan Nativc ait madc in thc statc. A pcimit to usc thc tag is
awaidcd loi two ycais liom thc datc issucd and must bc icncwcd cvciy two ycais
to icmain activc. Only lull-timc icsidcnts ol Alaska ovci thc agc ol 8, who can
vciily Alaska Nativc tiibal cniollmcnt and who pioducc ait cxclusivcly in thc statc,
aic cligiblc loi thc scal. Only oiiginal aitwoik, not icpioductions, may bc idcntilcd
with thc Silvci Hand scal.
In jjj, thc Pauktuutit Inuit Womcn's Association ol Canada sought to piotcct
thcii intcllcctual piopcity iights in thc amauti, a tiaditional Inuit womcn's paika.
Thc cfoit was piovokcd by a visit to thc wcstcin aictic by a icpicscntativc liom
Donna Kaian, NY, a lashion dcsignci, who was sccking inspiiation loi thc zooo
lashion linc. Thc Pauktuutit Inuit Womcn's Association mobilizcd a mcdia and
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lcttci-wiiting campaign to picvcnt what thcy saw as a misappiopiiation ol Inuit
cultuic. Thc plan to piotcct thc amauti involvcd thicc stagcs. Fiist, thcy sought
thc thoughts and opinions ol thc kcy stakcholdcis - Inuit clothing pioduccis. This
was complctcd in May zoo at a woikshop in Rankin Inlct, Nunavut. Thc sccond
stagc involvcd dcvcloping a national invcntoiy oi icgistiy to iccognizc all thc
scamsticsscs and dcsigncis and to documcnt icgional vaiiations in dcsign. Thc
thiid stagc cnvisioncd an association ol manulactuicis who will shaic a tiadcmaik
oi maik ol authcnticity that will guaiantcc consumcis that thcy aic buying tiuc
handcialtcd pioducts. As ol Fcbiuaiy 8, zoo, no tiadcmaik mcntioning Amauti
was locatcd on thc Canadian Intcllcctual Piopcity Omcc Tiadcmaik Databasc, but
thc piojcct appcais to bc ongoing.
0NRAL
Susan K. Scll, Piivatc Powci, Iub|ic Iaw. Tne G|oba|ization oj Inte||ectua| Iropert, Riqnts.
Cambiidgc: Cambiidgc Univcisity Picss, zoo,.
SW0N'S PlRA7 PAR7Y
Wikipcdia: Piiatc Paity (Swcdcn). http://cn.wikipcdia.oig/wiki/Piiatc_Paity_z8Swcdcn
zj.
Miaoian Li, Thc Piiatc Paity and thc Piiatc Bay: How thc Piiatc Bay Inucnccs Swcdcn
and Intcinational Copyiight Rclations," z Iace Internationa| Iaw Review z8, zooj.
}onas Andcison, Foi thc Good ol thc Nct: Thc Piiatc Bay As a Stiatcgic Sovcicign," Cu|tura|
Macnine o: zooj.
Hcniy Chu, Swcdcn's Piiatc Paity Battlcs Wcb Laws," Ios Anqe|es Times, Dcccmbci z;,
zooj.
Swcdish Piiatc Paity gains votcs in Euiopcan clcctions," Independent, }unc 8, zooj.
Maiic Dcmkci, A êw Lra oj Iart, Io|itics in a G|oba|ised Wor|d. Tne Concept oj Virtue Iarties,
Univcisity ol Gothcnbuig, Quality ol Govcinmcnt Institutc, Scptcmbci zoo8.
Quinn Noiton, A Nation Dividcd Ovci Piiacy," Wired, August ;, zoo6.
Quinn Noiton, Sccicts ol thc Piiatc Bay," Wired, August 6, zoo6.
Quinn Noiton, Piiatc Bay Bloodicd But Unbowcd," Wired, }unc 6, zoo6.
Ann Haiiison, Thc Piiatc Bay: Hcic To Stay?," Wired, Maich ,, zoo6.
Swcdcn Convicts Fiist Filc-Shaici," BBC êws, Octobci z,, zoo,.
CLlCK WRAP LlCNSS AN0 7H UNlF0RM C0MMRClAL C00
Wikipcdia: Uniloim Commcicial Codc, http://cn.wikipcdia.oig/wiki/Uniloim_
Commcicial_Codc.
Gaiiy L. Founds, Shiinkwiap and Clickwiap Agiccmcnts: zB oi Not zB?," ,z Iedera| Com-
munications Iaw }ourna| jj, jjj.
Pamcla Samuclson and Kuit Opsahl, Liccnsing Inloimation in thc Global Inloimation
Maikct: Ficcdom ol Contiact Mccts Public Policy," z Luropean Inte||ectua| Iropert,
Review ,86, jjj.
Pamcla Samuclson, Symposium: Intcllcctual Piopcity and Contiact Law loi thc Inloima-
tion Agc: Foicwoid," 8; Ca|ijornia Iaw Review , jjj.
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D. Nimmci, E. Biown, and G. Fiischling, Symposium: Thc Mctamoiphosis ol Contiact
into Expand," 8; Ca|ijornia Iaw Review ;, jjj.
Chailcs McManis, Symposium: Piivatization oi Shiink-Wiapping ol Amciican Copyiight
Law," 8; Ca|ijornia Iaw Review ;,, jjj.
Pamcla Samuclson, Lcgally Spcaking: Docs Inloimation Rcally Want to bc Liccnscd?,"
Communications oj tne ACM j, Scptcmbci jj8.
Subcommittccc On Soltwaic Contiacting Ol thc Uniloim Commcicial Codc Committcc,
Biiclng Papci: Pioposcd UCC Aiticlc zB, American Bar Association, }uly z, jj;.
Pamcla Samuclson, Lcgally Spcaking: Thc Ncvci-Ending Stiugglc loi Balancc," o Com-
munications oj tne ACM ,, May jj;.
Ccm Kanci, Uniloim Commcicial Codc Aiticlc zB A Ncw Law ol Soltwaic Quality, ,
Sojtware Qua|it, Assurance o, Maich jj6.
C0PYRl0H7 LAW AN0 F0LKL0R
Chiistoph Antons. cd., Traditiona| Inow|edqe, Traditiona| Cu|tura| Lxpressions, and Inte||ectua|
Iropert, Iaw in tne Asia-Iacic Reqion (Woltcis Kluwci, zooj).
Dcboia }. Halbcit, Resistinq Inte||ectua| Iropert, (Routlcdgc, zoo,).
}. Michacl Fingci and Philip Schulci, Pooi Pcoplc's Knowlcdgc: Piomoting Intcllcctual
Piopcity in Dcvcloping Countiics," Woild Bank, Apiil ,, zoo.
Sccictaiiat ol thc Pacilc Community, znd SPC/PIFS/NESCO Woiking Gioup Foi Lcgal
Expcits on thc Piotcction ol Tiaditional Knowlcdgc and Expicssions ol Cultuic," Ncw
Calcdonia, zoo,.
Siividhya Ragavan, Piotcction ol Tiaditional Knowlcdgc," z Minn. Inte||. Irop. Rev. .
Michacl Blakcncy, Piotccting Tiaditional Cultuial Expicssions: Thc Intcinational Dimcn-
sion," in F. Macmillan and K. Bowicy, cds, êw Directions in Cop,riqnt Iaw, vol. , (Edwaid
Elgai, zoo6).
Contributors
This modulc was cicatcd by Conoi Kcnncdy, Emily Cox, Adiicnnc Bakci, Aiicl
Rothstcin, and Miiiam Wcilci. It was thcn cditcd by William Fishci.
CIossary
ACA0MlC XCP7l0N
Academlc exceptlon ls the exceptlon for teachers and academlcs to the general rule
that employers hold copyrlght ln the creatlve works produced by thelr employees ln
the course of thelr employment.
Unlikc a woik-loi-hiic situation, acadcmics typically ictain thc copyiights in thc
scholaily woik thcy pioducc and may ictain, scll oi assign thosc copyiights, oi
dcdicatc thcm to thc public domain, at thcii disciction.
SLL ALSO Work for hire, 0pen access
AC7UAL KN0WL00
Havlng dlrect knowledge (as opposed to merely havlng reason to belleve) that
copyrlght lnfrlngement ls occurrlng.
Somc copyiight laws icquiic wcb hosts to icmovc contcnt liom thcii scivcis il
thcy posscs actual knowlcdgc" that thc contcnt inliingcs copyiight. Undci such
laws thc hosts may bccomc liablc il thcy do not icmovc thc contcnt.
Foi cxamplc, Scction ,z(c) ol thc US Digital Millcnium Copyiight Act icads:
Inloimation Rcsiding on Systcms oi Nctwoiks At Diicction ol Uscis. () In
gcncial. A scivicc piovidci shall not bc liablc loi monctaiy iclicl, oi, cxccpt
as piovidcd in subscction (j), loi injunctivc oi othci cquitablc iclicl, loi
inliingcmcnt ol copyiight by icason ol thc stoiagc at thc diicction ol a usci
ol matciial that icsidcs on a systcm oi nctwoik contiollcd oi opciatcd by oi
loi thc scivicc piovidci, il thc scivicc piovidci (A) (i) docs not havc actual
knowlcdgc that thc matciial oi an activity using thc matciial on thc systcm oi
nctwoik is inliinging.
SLL ALSO DMCA, Safe harbors
AMRlCAN LlRARY ASS0ClA7l0N lALA) C00 0F 7HlCS
The voluntary code of ethlcs adopted by the Amerlcan Llbrary Assoclatlon to govern
the work of llbrarlans.
Thc codc makcs known to thc piolcssion and to thc gcncial public thc cthical piin-
ciplcs that guidc thc woik ol libiaiians, othci piolcssionals pioviding inloimation
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sciviccs, libiaiy tiustccs and libiaiy stafs." Its tcncts piovidc a liamcwoik, thcy
cannot and do not dictatc conduct to covci paiticulai situations."
AN7lC0UN7RFl7lN0 7RA0 A0RMN7 lAC7A) PR0P0SAL
A proposed multllateral trade agreement (zoo;) that ls deslgned to better enforce
lntellectual property rlghts by combatlng the percelved lncreaslng threat of
counterfeltlng.
Thc countcilciting in qucstion can bc ol physical goods and copyiightcd woiks,
as wcll as digital and Intcinct-bascd matciials and tcchnologics. Spccilc dctails
ol thc Agiccmcnt's contcnt aic still mostly a sccict, and somc countiics, includ-
ing thc Unitcd Statcs, icstiict acccss to it on thc basis ol national sccuiity. Thc
Agiccmcnt is gcncially undcistood to supciscdc oi bypass UN, WIPO and TRIPS
guidclincs, and would, among othci things, makc all pcci-to-pcci llcshaiing
illcgal, icgaidlcss ol contcnt.
ASSl0NMN7
The means by whlch ownershlp of a copyrlght ls transferred to another person or
entlty.
Foi cxamplc, musicians oltcn assign thc copyiight to thcii music to thcii publishci
oi iccoid company as pait ol thcii contiact, although this is not a icquiicmcnt.
AU7H0R
The orlglnal creator of a work.
Whilc thc woid authoi" is uscd in common vcinaculai to idcntily thc pcison
who wiotc somcthing, such as a book, papci, oi aiticlc, thc tcim authoi" is uscd
in copyiight law to idcntily thc cicatoi ol any woik. Thus, a sculptoi, aitist, oi
photogiaphci would bc considcicd thc authoi" ol his oi hci woik.
Il a copyiight is assigncd oi tianslciicd to a sccond pcison oi cntity, that pcison
docs not bccomc thc authoi, mcicly thc ncw iights-holdci. Thc oiiginal authoi
always ictains that status oi dcsciiption, and in somc lcgal icgimcs has ccitain
iights that cannot bc assigncd, altcicd, oi icnounccd.
In countiics that iccognizc thc woik-loi-hiic doctiinc, thc cmployci can bc
considcicd thc authoi" ol thc woik.
SLL ALSO MoraI rights, Rights: of integrity, of withdrawaI, of attribution
RN C0NVN7l0N F0R 7H PR07C7l0N
0F Ll7RARY AN0 AR7lS7lC W0RKS
The 8erne Conventlon ls an lnternatlonal copyrlght agreement that was rst adopted
and lmplemented ln :886. |ts lntent was to harmonlze copyrlght law across natlonal
borders. There are currently :6( member countrles.
Accoiding to Wikipcdia,
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Thc Bcinc Convcntion was icviscd in Paiis in 8j6 and in Bcilin in jo8,
complctcd in Bcinc in j, icviscd in Romc in jz8, in Biusscls in j8, in
Stockholm in j6; and in Paiis in j;, and was amcndcd in j;j. Thc UK
signcd in 88; but did not implcmcnt laigc paits ol it until oo ycais latci
with thc passagc ol thc Copyiight, Dcsigns and Patcnts Act ol j88.
Thc Bcinc Convcntion is cuiicntly activc and is administcicd by thc Woild Intcl-
lcctual Piopcity Oiganization (WIPO).
Whilc thc Convcntion giants authois an aiiay ol iights, its most impoitant
aspcct is that countiics must giant an authoi that is a citizcn ol anothci mcmbci
countiy thc samc piotcctions it ofcis its own citizcns, in addition to any iights
that thc Convcntion itscll giants. That is to say, a Ficnch citizcn's woik in Poland
oi Moiocco automatically cnjoys thc samc piotcctions that thc woik ol a Polish oi
Moioccan citizcn would.
lLA7RAL A0RMN7S
A bllateral agreement ls an agreement or treaty made dlrectly between two
countrles.
This is in contiast to a multilatcial" agiccmcnt oi intcinational agiccmcnt
such as thc Bcinc Convcntion oi TRIPS. Whilc somc bilatcial agiccmcnts dcal
cxclusivcly with copyiight, copyiight piovisions may bc inscitcd into othci, laigci
ticatics, such as pcacc ticatics oi cconomic ticatics.
In a bilatcial agiccmcnt, an authoi liom onc countiy can claim copyiight
piotcctions in thc othci countiy. Such agiccmcnts aic oltcn uscd to cicatc copyiight
piotcctions oi piovisions that aic moic stiingcnt, oi moic gcncious, than would
bc possiblc in a bioadly multinational agiccmcnt.
A Bcinc Convcntion mcmbci countiy may cntci into bilatcial agiccmcnts as
long as thc piovisions ol thosc agiccmcnts mcct thc minimum standaids ol thc
Bcinc Convcntion. Foi instancc, although it is a mcmbci ol thc Bcinc Convcntion,
thc TRIPS Agiccmcnt, and othci multilatcial agiccmcnts, thc Unitcd Statcs has
bilatcial agiccmcnts with many difcicnt countiics.
LANK7 LlCNS
A blanket llcense allows a user to engage ln certaln uses of a large number of works
under preset terms, wlthout lndlvldual negotlatlon.
In thc copyiight contcxt, such a liccnsc addicsscs all ol a dclncd gioup ol copy-
iightcd woiks. It covcis" all ol thc iclcvant woiks likc a blankct. In this way, it
makcs it casici to ncgotiatc loi thc usc ol a woik by making it possiblc to makc
a dcal only oncc iathci than cntciing into many scpaiatc agiccmcnts.
Usually, such liccnscs aic giantcd and managcd by collcctivc iights managcmcnt
gioups, which contiol acccss to thousands, oi cvcn millions, ol copyiightcd woiks.
SLL ALSO CoIIective rights management organizations
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R0WSWRAP
"8rowsewrap" ls a slang term for a contract governlng access to or use of content on
a webslte that does not requlre the webslte user to cllck on a button or otherwlse
take actlon to expressly manlfest consent to the terms of the agreement. Typlcally,
the |nternet user ls consldered to have agreed to the terms of the browsewrap
agreement by accesslng or "browslng" the webslte.
Thc tcims ol a biowscwiap agiccmcnt govcining acccss to a wcbsitc aic not
always piomincntly displaycd to thc Intcinct usci, and instcad aic oltcn listcd
on a scpaiatc pagc that can only bc acccsscd by clicking a link at thc bottom ol
thc sciccn. Foi this icason, somc commcntatois qucstion whcthci biowscwiap
agiccmcnts cicatc cnloiccablc contiacts.
SLL ALSO CIickwrap
CASAN00SlS7 L77R
A letter sent to an alleged copyrlght lnfrlnger or the entlty hostlng allegedly
lnfrlnglng materlal, requestlng that certaln actlvltles be ceased or that access to the
allegedly lnfrlnglng materlal be dlsabled.
With icspcct to Intcinct contcnt, a ccasc-and-dcsist lcttci can takc thc loim ol
a takcdown noticc."
Undci thc US copyiight lcgislation known as thc Digital Millcnium Copyiight
Act, a copyiight holdci who bclicvcs that a wcbsitc is inliinging thc holdci's
copyiight, usually by hosting piotcctcd matciial without pcimission, can scnd a
ccasc-and-dcsist lcttci to thc cntity hosting thc matciial. Thc wcbsitc will not bc
hcld liablc il it immcdiatcly takcs down thc allcgcdly inliinging woik upon icccipt
ol thc takcdown noticc. Thcic aic pioccduics undci which thc pcison who postcd
thc contcnt can challcngc a takcdown noticc, and havc acccss to thc icstoicd.
CH0lC 0F LAWS
The doctrlne by whlch a court or other trlbunal determlnes whlch country's or
[urlsdlctlon's laws wlll apply to a partlcular case or clalm.
In any lcgal disputc that ciosscs political boidcis, whcthci domcstic oi intcinational,
thcic is a qucstion ol which laws will apply to thc disputc. Such cioss-boidci
disputcs aic incicasingly common in thc Intcinct cia. Foi instancc, il an Intcinct
usci in Italy acccsscs a scivci in Swcdcn, and downloads a copy ol a song by a US
iccoiding aitist, what laws should apply? Whcic should thc tiial bc hcld?
A couit hcaiing a suit likc this will icvicw thc lacts and dccidc what location
makcs thc most scnsc loi thc tiial, and will also dccidc which juiisdiction's laws
should apply. It is possiblc, whcn wiiting a contiact, to spccily what laws will
govcin in thc cvcnt ol a disputc. Occassionally, thc laws ol moic than onc countiy
oi juiisdiction might apply to difcicnt issucs oi claims in thc samc litigation.
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ClRCUMVN7l0N
The act of avoldlng, breaklng or otherwlse bypasslng protectlons on dlgltal
content and technology.
Many digital oi clcctionic icsouiccs, including onlinc databascs and soltwaic, comc
with built-in piotcctions which in thcoiy picvcnt illcgal copying oi impcimissiblc
uscs. Foi cxamplc, DVDs may havc a icgion codc" cmbcddcd in thcii data that
picvcnts thcm liom bcing playcd on DVD playcis liom difcicnt paits ol thc
woild. Likcwisc, soltwaic may havc addcd codc, oi cnciyption, which picvcnts
it liom bcing copicd.
Although thcsc tcchnological baiiicis may aiguably hclp to piotcct illcgal
copying oi usc ol contcnt, thcy can also gct in thc way ol lcgitimatc uscs, such as
playing a DVD on a Linux-bascd playci, oi making an aichival copy ol soltwaic. A
usci who wants to do thcsc things will thcicloic havc to ciicumvcnt, oi bicak, thc
piotcction mcasuics. Howcvci, this is illcgal in many countiics.
Notably, in thc Unitcd Statcs, Scction zo ol thc Digital Millcnnium Copyiight
Act (jj8) spccilcally loibids ciicumvcntion ol tcchnological piotcction mcasuics,
and cvcn makcs it illcgal to scll oi own anything that lacilitatcs ciicumvcntion.
Laws likc Scction zo aic contiovcisial, bccausc liom onc pcispcctivc thc
piotcctions a law likc this lacilitatcs aic paiallcl to, and can last longci than, thosc
ofcicd by copyiight. This aiguably dclcats thc puiposc ol copyiight law's limitcd
duiation piotcctions, violatcs copyiight's implicit baigain with thc public, and
haims thc public domain.
SLL ALSO DMCA, Right of access, 7PM
ClSAC
The |nternatlonal Confederatlon of Socletles of Authors and Composers. C|SAC ls an
organlzatlon composed of numerous natlonal preformlng rlghts socletles.
Accoiding to its wcbsitc, CISAC
woiks towaids incicascd iccognition and piotcction ol cicatois' iights. CISAC
was loundcd in jz6 and is a nongovcinmcntal, nonpiolt oiganisation. Its
hcadquaitcis aic in Paiis, with icgional omccs in Budapcst, Bucnos Aiics,
}ohanncsbuig and Singapoic. . As ol }unc zoo8, CISAC numbcis zz, authois'
socictics liom 8 countiics and indiicctly icpicscnts moic than z., million
cicatois within all thc aitistic icpcitoiics: music, diama, litciatuic, audio-
visual, giaphic and visual aits.
ClVlL LAW
A legal system ln whlch the law ls based almost excluslvely on leglslatlon.
Such a systcm is as opposcd to a common law systcm (bascd on tiadition and
couit dccisions) oi a icligious law systcm. Civil law icgimcs tcnd to bc cithci
inspiicd by oi diicctly dcsccndcd liom Roman lcgal systcms.
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Accoiding to Wikipcdia, Thc piinciplc ol civil law is to piovidc all citizcns with
an acccssiblc and wiittcn collcction ol thc laws which apply to thcm and which
judgcs must lollow. It is thc most picvalcnt and oldcst suiviving lcgal systcm in
thc woild."
Most ol Euiopc and its loimci colonics havc civil law-bascd lcgal systcms, many
ol which haik back to thc Napolconic Codc.
This vcision ol civil law is not to bc conluscd with thc soit that occuis in thc
civil law/ciiminal law distinction in, loi instancc, US law.
SLL ALSO Common Iaw, ReIigious IegaI system
CLlCKWRAP OP CLlCK0N
Clickwiap oi Click-on is a liccnsc agiccmcnt loi a wcbsitc oi soltwaic to which
thc usci agiccs by clicking on a button oi link.
Oncc thc usci clicks on thc I acccpt" oi I agicc" button oi link, thcicby
acccpting thc liccnsc, hc oi shc can acccss thc copyiightcd matciial and is bound
by thc tcims ol thc liccnsing agiccmcnt. An End-Usci Liccnsing Agiccmcnt" oi
EULA" is a classic cxamplc ol a clickwiap" agiccmcnt. Sincc thc usci has no choicc
cxccpt to acccpt thc liccnsing contiact in oidci to acccss thc contcnt oi piogiam,
in icccnt ycais both couits and public opinion havc bcgun to pciccivc thcsc soits
ol agiccmcnts as at lcast potcntially oppicssivc.
C0LLC7lV Rl0H7S MANA0MN7 0R0ANlZA7l0N/S0Cl7Y
An organlzatlon that controls the economlc rlghts to a large number of creatlve
works. Also known as "collectlng soclety" or a "copyrlght collectlve."
A collcctivc iights managcmcnt oiganization oi socicty most oltcn dcals with thc
iights to music and tcxt. Thcsc gioups lowci thc tiansaction costs ol acquiiing
iights and makc it casy loi would-bc uscis ol copyiightcd woiks to gct pcimission
to do so. With a collcctivc iights gioup, thcic nccd only bc onc sct ol ncgotiations
and onc lcc paid, icgaidlcss ol how many difcicnt woiks aic uscd. Compaic
having to lnd and ncgotiatc with thc iights-holdcis loi onc hundicd difcicnt
songs with ncgotiating a singlc contiact.
Whilc gioups likc this undoubtcdly solvc a maikct pioblcm, ciiticisms lcvclcd
against thcm includc thc lact that thcy do not channcl cnough ol thc lccs thcy
icccivc to thc actual aitists, and that thcy unlaiily scck to chaigc loi uscs ovci
which thcy should not havc contiol. Also, most notably, thcic aic no collcctivc
iights gioups managing thc iights to sound iccoidings, which has lcd to much
contiovcisy ovci sampling.
Somc collcctivc iights managcmcnt oiganizations includc:
- ASCAP (Unitcd Statcs)
- CISAC (intcinational)
- SoundExchangc (Unitcd Statcs)
- Haiiy Fox Agcncy (Unitcd Statcs)
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- GESAC (Euiopcan Union)
- AGICOA wcbsitc (intcinational)
- BIEM (intcinational)
- CEPIC (Euiopcan Union)
- IGE (Switzciland)
C0LLC7lV W0RK
A creatlve work that represents the creatlve lnput of more than one author.
Whcn two oi moic pcoplc shaic thc copyiight in a woik thcy aic iclciicd to as
joint authois." A movic is a classic cxamplc ol a collcctivc woik, involving as it
docs thc cfoits ol hundicds, il not thousands, ol pcoplc. Ncvcithclcss, thc iights
to collcctivc woiks aic usually hcld by only onc pcison, oi at most a lcw pcoplc.
In thc casc ol a movic, most ol thc pcoplc woiking on it aic ticatcd, by thcii
contiact, as cmployccs, iathci than as joint authois.
C0MM0N LAW
A legal system based prlmarlly on custom and the precedent of court declslons.
Intcinational lcgal systcms tcnd to lall into onc ol thicc catcgoiics. Typically
lound within countiics that havc somc histoiical conncction with thc Unitcd
Kingdom oi thc loimci Biitish Empiic, common law" systcms havc a lcgal systcm
bascd piimaiily on custom - thc picccdcnt sct by couit dccisions (casc law") ,
in contiast to civil law systcms oi icligious law systcms.
SLL ALSO CiviI Iaw, ReIigious IegaI system
C0MM0NS
Thls term refers to both the property that ls owned by the communlty ln general
and the soclal reglme for governlng usage of that resource.
Somc histoiical commons wcic tiuly opcn to all, but somc wcic govcincd by
iulcs that limitcd acccss. Howcvci, dcspitc what might sccm likc a complctc
lack ol any iulcs loi govcining thc maintcnancc and usagc ol a commons, thcy
wcic histoiically at thc ccntci ol a complcx wcb ol social noims, and wcic wcll-
monitoicd and maintaincd.
In thc latc j6os a school ol thought cmcigcd which claimcd that any ical
commons would quickly bc ovcicxploitcd by an cconomically iational usci, and
that only piivatc ownciship could succcsslully managc socictal icsouiccs.
Although this idca was quickly and widcly acccptcd, it has bccn challcngcd in
icccnt ycais loi misstating thc lacts suiiounding histoiical commons, as wcll as loi
ovcilooking thc ical pioblcms that can aiisc liom complcx wcbs ol piivatc ownci-
ship, a pioblcm Michacl Hcllci has callcd thc tiagcdy ol thc anti-commons."
With icspcct to copyiight, thc commons is thc cnoimous body ol cicativc woik to
which all ol socicty has acccss. Somc is histoiical, somc is contcmpoiaiy. Evciyonc
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having acccss to thcm docs not ncccssaiily mcan that no onc holds copyiight in thc
woiks that makc up thc commons. Somc woiks aic in thc public domain, which
mcans that not only can anyonc acccss thcm and makc usc ol thcm, but that no onc
has thc iight to icstiict thcii usagc in any way. On thc othci hand, woiks cxisting
undci icgimcs such as Cicativc Commons, oi thc GPL liccnsc, as wcll as so-callcd
Opcn Acccss" jouinals, aic cxamplcs ol copyiight-contiollcd inloimation that is
noncthclcss pait ol thc commons. Foi cxamplc, thc woiks ol Shakcspcaic, oi a
cultuic's lolk talcs, aic pait ol thc commons, as is any modcin woik which its authoi
has dcdicatcd to thc public domain. Fuithci, any woik to which anyonc has acccss,
but loi which thc usagcs aic icstiictcd (usually with icspcct to kccping luithci uscs
ol thc woik opcn to acccss), aic still considcicd pait ol thc commons.
SLL ALSO PubIic domain
C0MPlLA7l0N
A work that gathers together other prevlously exlstlng copyrlghted works or facts.
Foi cxamplc, an anthology ol stoiics is a compilation. A iccoiding that biought
togcthci songs liom a widc vaiicty ol aitists, such as a soundtiack album, would
bc a compilation. A databasc is also a compilation, ol lacts iathci than cicativc
woiks. In many juiisdictions, it is possiblc to hold a scpaiatc copyiight in a
compilation that is indcpcndcnt ol any copyiight in thc woiks that makc it up,
so long as thcic is sumcicnt cicativity in thc sclcction and aiiangcmcnt ol thc
woiks. It is also possiblc to hold copyiight in a databasc, bascd on thc sclcction
and aiiangcmcnt ol its lactual clcmcnts, oi, altcinativcly, bascd on thc cfoit that
wcnt into cicating it.
C0MPULS0RY LlCNS
A llcense for use of copyrlghted materlal that ls mandated by law to be made
avallable to everyone on an equal basls, usually ln exchange for the payment of a
set fee.
Fiom thc usci's pcispcctivc, it is a usc loi which thc usci docs not nccd to scck
pcimission. That is, thc iights-holdci may not iclusc to giant thc liccnsc to thc
usci. Thc iights-holdci still has thc iight to whatcvci icvcnuc comcs liom thc
usc, but has no iights ol contiol.
Such liccnscs aic always non-cxclusivc, sincc anyonc can obtain onc, and thc lccs
that aic paid to thc iights-holdci loi thcm aic usually sct by statutc. An cxamplc
ol a compulsoiy liccnsc is thc so-callcd mcchanical liccnsc" undci US law loi
iccoiding a ncw vcision ol an cxisting song. Oncc a song has bccn iclcascd to thc
public, any othci aitist may iccoid a vcision ol it, and must pay a sct lcc (cuiicntly
z., ccnts pci copy) to thc iights-holdci ol that song.
This is not thc only cxamplc ol a compulsoiy liccnsc. Thcic is a widc vaiicty,
whosc natuic and tcims dcpcnd on thc laws ol thc countiy in qucstion and thc
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natuic ol thc woik. Compulsoiy liccnsing schcmcs cxist loi music, tcxt, phaima-
ccuticals, and moic.
Rcccntly, somc copyiight scholais and activists havc pioposcd that thc solution
to thc pciccivcd pioblcm ol pcci-to-pcci llcshaiing will bc somc soit ol compulsoiy
liccnsing schcmc. Filcshaiing would bccomc lcgal, but aitists would gct paid, most
likcly out ol a lund cicatcd by lcvying taxcs on iccoidablc mcdia and associatcd
tcchnologics.
C0NFU
An abbrevlatlon of the "Conference on Palr Use."
Thc Conlcicncc on Faii Usc was a sciics ol mcctings hcld in thc Unitcd Statcs
in thc mid- to latc jjos. Thc puiposc ol CONFU was to havc a mcaninglul
discussion about laii usc" in an incicasingly digital agc, cspccially loi acadcm-
ics and libiaiians. Howcvci, duc in laigc pait to lundamcntal disagiccmcnts
among thc vaiious icpicscntcd intcicst gioups, thc mcctings lailcd to achicvc
any mcaninglul conscnsus.
SLL ALSO Fair use
C0PYRl0H7
The set of rlghts granted to the author of a creatlve work that govern certaln thlrd-
party uses of the work.
Thcsc iights vaiy liom countiy to countiy, although thcic is substantial intci-
national haimonization. Thcy can typically bc dividcd into cconomic iights and
so-callcd moial" iights.
With icspcct to thc cconomic iights, thcy csscntially icpicscnt a tcmpoiaiy
monopoly ovci thc cicativc woik in qucstion. In thcoiy, this monopoly contiol is
supposcd to inccntivizc and icwaid thc cicatoi, convincing thcm to cicatc moic.
Howcvci, whcn thc tcim ol copyiight cnds, thc woik bclongs to thc public. Thc
public's gains liom thc cication ol ncw woiks is thought to compcnsatc loi thc
incmcicncics that a monopoly icpicscnts. Economic iights aic tiuly piopcity" in
that thcy can bc sold, assigncd, inhciitcd, dividcd up, and moic.
With icspcct to moial" iights, thcsc bclong to thc authoi at thc momcnt ol
cication, and cannot usually bc tianslciicd to anyonc clsc.
SLL ALSO Rights
C0UN7RFl7lN0
Counterfeltlng ls the practlce of maklng lllegal coples of somethlng and then
attemptlng to pass the coples on as the real thlng.
Almost anything can bc copicd, whcthci cuiicncy, matciial goods, oi intcllcctual
piopcity. A countcilcitci hopcs to takc advantagc ol any positivc icputation that
thc oiiginal cnjoys without having to invcst timc and icsouiccs in cicating it.
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Countcilcits damagc thc oiiginal by compcting with it in thc maikctplacc and
by huiting thc oiiginal's icputation.
C0URS PACK
A collectlon of documents put together by a teacher as a resource for students ln
a partlcular course or class.
Oltcn, tcachcis with a spccilc cuiiiculum in mind will wish to asscmblc thcii
own matciials iathci than tcach liom a paiticulai tcxtbook. As a coiollaiy to this,
a tcachci cicating a cuiiiculum diawing on a widc iangc ol icsouiccs may wish
simply to piovidc hci studcnts with only thc matciials thcy nccd, iathci than
icquiiing thcm to puichasc many books, oltcn at gicat cost, cach ol which will
contain only a small piccc ol thc cuiiiculum, and thc majoiity ol thc contcnts
ol which will bc supciuous.
Ol couisc, cicating such a couisc pack" ncccssitatcs thc copying ol thc iclcvant
woiks, implicating copyiight law. Such copying may oi may not lall undci laii usc,
laii dcaling, oi othci cxccptions to copyiight, dcpcnding on thc ciicumstanccs
and thc juiisdiction. Thcic havc bccn two scminal cascs in thc Unitcd Statcs
dcaling with couisc packs and copyiight, both ol which wcic icsolvcd against thc
univcisitics in qucstion. It is notcwoithy, though, that cach ol thosc cascs involvcd
a loi-piolt copying scivicc.
CRA7lV C0MM0NS
"Creatlve Commons ls a nonprot corporatlon dedlcated to maklng lt easler for
people to share and bulld upon the work of others, conslstent wlth the rules of
copyrlght."
Thc abovc dclnition comcs liom thc Cicativc Commons wcbsitc. Thc oiganization
was loundcd in zoo by, among othcis, Haivaid piolcssoi Lawicncc Lcssig. Its
goal was to piovidc simplc, casy to undcistand and usc copyiight liccnscs that
would allow cicatois to shaic thcii woik with thc woild undci tcims thcy wcic
comloitablc with, so pcoplc can shaic, icmix, and/oi usc thcm commcicially,
iathci than thc dclault tcims ofcicd by statutc. Cuiicntly, Cicativc Commons
ofcis six difcicnt liccnscs (in ,o countiics and counting), whosc lcatuics vaiy
accoiding to thc uscs thcy allow. Thc cxistcncc and tcims ol thcsc spccial liccnscs
aic communicatcd to uscis by cmploying both thc Cicativc Commons namc and
a sciics ol icons that suggcst thc spccilc tcims ol thc liccnsc.
A zoo8 US casc, }acobsen v. Iatzer, conccining latci usagc ol soltwaic liccnscd
undci a liccnsc similai in stylc and intcnt to thosc ofcicd by Cicativc Commons
hcld that thc liccnsc was a valid onc, and that violating its tcims constitutcd
copyiight inliingcmcnt. Thc iuling gicatly sticngthcncd thc cnloiccability ol
such agiccmcnts, hclping thcii usc to bc pciccivcd as moic mainsticam and
lcgitimatc.
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0AMA0S
The money glven to a copyrlght holder to compensate hlm or her for the harm
caused by lnfrlngement.
Whcncvci thc copyiight in a woik is inliingcd, thcic is at lcast thc thcoictical
possibility that thc lcgal holdci ol thc copyiight has bccn haimcd in somc way.
Il thc iights-holdci sucs thc inliingci and wins, a couit may awaid damagcs to
thc iights-holdci as a way ol compcnsating thcm loi any damagc that has bccn
donc. A iights-holdci may scck actual oi statutoiy monctaiy damagcs, dcpcnding
on which shc thinks aic moic valuablc, oi casici to dctciminc, oi an injunction
compclling thc dclcndant to ccasc thc inliinging activitics.
ACTUAL DAMAGLS
Actual damages represent the true cost of the harm sunered as a result of the
lnfrlngement.
Foi cxamplc, il it wcic possiblc to dctciminc cxactly how many salcs had bccn lost
as a icsult ol an act oi acts ol inliingcmcnt, it would bc possiblc to calculatc actual
damagcs. Onc thousand salcs lost, at a piolt ol co a salc = co,ooo damagcs.
In piacticc, it can bc vciy dimcult to calculatc actual damagcs accuiatcly. Whcn
this is tiuc, statutoiy damagc piovisions will licqucntly bc uscd instcad.
STATUTOP DAMAGLS
Statutory damages are damages where the amount of money a rlghts-holder may
collect as damages ls set by statute.
Many lcgal icgimcs contain piovisions loi statutoiy damagcs. Foi cxamplc, in US
law, ; USCA ,o(c) statcs that Exccpt as piovidcd by clausc (z) ol this subscction,
thc copyiight ownci may clcct, at any timc bcloic lnal judgmcnt is icndcicd, to
iccovci, instcad ol actual damagcs and piolts, an awaid ol statutoiy damagcs
loi all inliingcmcnts involvcd in thc action, with icspcct to any onc woik, loi
which any onc inliingci is liablc individually, oi loi which any two oi moic
inliingcis aic liablc jointly and scvcially, in a sum ol not lcss than s;,o oi moic
than s,o,ooo as thc couit considcis just." Foi willlul inliingcmcnt, thc amount
can go up to s,o,ooo!
0A7AAS
A database ls a collectlon of data on a partlcular toplc or toplcs, usually searchable,
aggregated lnto one place.
Databascs havc an unusual iclationship with copyiight. Thc cicatoi ol a databasc
can hold copyiight in thc databasc, but only in ccitain aspccts ol it, bccausc thc
contcnts ol a databasc aic cithci lacts, in which casc thcy aicn't copyiightablc at
all, oi thcy aic non-lactual, but thcicloic alicady undci copyiight, and contiollcd
by difcicnt iights-holdcis. Howcvci, a lot ol woik can go into cicating a databasc,
and somc juiisdictions iccognizc and piotcct that laboi.
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Foi cxamplc, in thc US, thc copyiight in databascs is colloquially known as
thin" (as opposcd to thick") and is only in thc sclcction and aiiangcmcnt ol thc
matciials. On thc othci hand, in thc Euiopcan Union, databascs icccivc , ycais
ol piotcction to piotcct thc invcstmcnt ol timc, moncy, and icsouiccs on thc pait
ol thc databasc cicatoi.
SLL ALSO CompiIation
0A7AMlNlN0
The practlce of slftlng through large quantltles of data, often ln a database, to
ldentlfy and make use of the patterns and detalls that emerge.
Foi cxamplc, consumci goods coipoiations minc thc data gcnciatcd by licqucnt
shoppci caids in oidci to bcttci taigct advcitiscmcnts. Thc company Googlc mincs
thc data gcnciatcd by thc scaichcs it pciloims to pciloim subscqucnt scaichcs
moic accuiatcly and to taigct cfcctivcly thc advcitiscmcnts that aic alongsidc.
Scicntists minc thc data gcnciatcd by laigc-scalc suivcys ol natuial phcnomcna,
whcthci astionomical obscivations oi gcnctic codcs.
Dcpcnding on thc soit ol data bcing mincd, piivacy issucs can bccomc a vciy
ical and impoitant conccin.
0RlVA7lV W0RK
A derlvatlve work ls one that adapts or modles an exlstlng work, drawlng on that
work for lts substance and general materlal.
A llm bascd on a novcl is a dciivativc woik ol that novcl. An action lguic bascd
on a chaiactci liom an oiiginal llm is a dciivativc woik ol thc llm.
A dciivativc woik may oi may not bc copyiightablc on its own, dcpcnding on how
much oiiginal matciial it contains, and whcthci pcimissions wcic giantcd loi thc
copicd matciial. Thc US Copyiight Omcc says: To bc copyiightablc, a dciivativc
woik must bc difcicnt cnough liom thc oiiginal to bc icgaidcd as a ncw woik oi
must contain a substantial amount ol ncw matciial."
Foi cxamplc, Allicd Bcstci's novcl Tne Stars M, Destination is inspiicd by and
modclcd altci Dumas's Tne Count oj Monte Cristo. It is aiguably a dciivativc woik
ol that oldci novcl. Howcvci, Bcstci's book clcaily has sumcicnt oiiginal matciial
to qualily loi copyiight piotcction on its own, and, luithci, is oiiginal cnough that
it would not inliingc copyiight in Dumas's book, wcic that book still piotcctcd
by copyiight. On thc othci hand, an indcpcndcnt sciccnwiitci's ncw sciccnplay
lcatuiing thc Rocky" chaiactci madc lamous by Sylvcstci Stallonc was lound to
bc clcaily a dciivativc woik, in which no copyiight could bc had.
SLL ALSO Fair use, Right of adaptation, Idea/expression dichotomy
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0MCA
The DMCA ls the short name for the Dlgltal Mlllennlum Copyrlght Act.
Thc DMCA is copyiight lcgislation that was passcd in thc Unitcd Statcs in jj8. Its
intcndcd puiposcs wcic to biing US copyiight law moic into haimony with intci-
national noims and to addicss many ol thc ncw conccins that digital tcchnology
and llc-shaiing iaiscd. Thc DMCA contains thc now-notoiious anti-ciicumvcntion
piovisions, which madc it illcgal, cvcn loi a lcgitimatc usci, to avoid, bicak oi
disablc any tcchnological mcasuics piotccting contcnt. It also cicatcd what aic
known as salc haibois," dcsciiptions ol bchavioi whcic Intcinct scivicc piovidcis
could bc ccitain thcy would not bc lcgally liablc loi thc actions ol thcii uscis.
SLL ALSO Cease-and-desist Ietter, Circumvention, DRM, 7PM, WIP0
0RM
DPM, or "dlgltal rlghts management", ls a catch-all term for any technologlcal
measures, usually but not always software-based, that are put ln place to protect
copyrlghted content.
DRM usually woiks by icstiicting acccss to thc contcnt in somc way. DRM applics
to all would-bc uscis ol thc contcnt, cvcn thosc who havc puichascd it, oi thc
iight to acccss it, lcgally. Most DRM tcchniqucs aic also casily ciicumvcntcd by
a tcchnically adcpt and/oi dctcimincd usci. Thcicloic DRM has thc nct cfcct
ol inconvcnicncing lcgitimatc uscis, somctimcs sciiously, and bcing a minoi
inconvcnicncc at bcst loi piolcssional ciiminal uscis. Additionally, ccitain loims
ol DRM can iaisc sciious piivacy conccins, as wcll as call into qucstion thc vciy
idca ol ownciship" ol digital inloimation.
Foi thcsc icasons, DRM has bccn hcavily ciiticizcd, and thcic may bc a ticnd in
thc contcnt industiy away liom its usc. Foi cxamplc, altci many complaints liom
uscis, iTuncs and Amazon now ofci DRM-licc music downloads, and most ol thc
majoi iccoid labcls havc givcn up on DRM loi digital music. Howcvci, thc Rccoiding
Industiy ol Amciica and thc Motion Pictuic Industiy ol Amciica havc both said
that thcy scc DRM bcing pait ol thcii busincss modcls loi thc loicsccablc lutuic.
0U 0lLl0NC
Due dlllgence refers to the level of enort someone must make ln order to have
fullled thelr legal dutles ln a partlcular sltuatlon.
It is thc standaid ol caic that pcison must cxcicisc. In thc copyiight contcxt, thc
tcim is most oltcn cncountcicd with icspcct to thc ncccssaiy cfoits a would-bc
usci ol contcnt must makc to locatc thc holdci ol thc iights in a paiticulai
piccc ol contcnt. This has bccomc an impoitant conccpt icccntly with icspcct to
so-callcd oiphan woiks" and thc Googlc Book Scaich piojcct.
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C0N0MlC Rl0H7S
The rlghts assoclated wlth copyrlght that allow the rlghts-holder to exerclse
control over use of the work for economlc benet.
Economic iights includc, among othcis, thc iight to makc and scll copics, to
pciloim thc woik publicly, and to picpaic dciivativc woiks.
lFL
A nonprot organlzatlon that advocates for access to llbrary resources across the
world.
EIFL is an intcinational not-loi-piolt oiganization bascd in Euiopc with a global
nctwoik ol paitncis. EIFL woiks with libiaiics aiound thc woild to cnablc sus-
tainablc acccss to high-quality digital inloimation loi pcoplc in dcvcloping and
tiansition countiics. Foundcd in jjj, EIFL bcgan by advocating loi afoidablc
acccss to commcicial c-jouinals loi acadcmic and icscaich libiaiics in Ccntial and
Eastcin Euiopc. Today, EIFL paitncis with libiaiics and libiaiy consoitia in moic
than , dcvcloping and tiansition countiics in Aliica, Asia and Euiopc. Oui woik
has also cxpandcd to includc piogiammcs dcsigncd to cnablc acccss to knowlcdgc
loi cducation, lcaining, icscaich and sustainablc community dcvclopmcnt. Lcain
moic at www.ci.nct.
XCP7l0NS AN0 LlMl7A7l0NS
The exceptlons and llmltatlons to the otherwlse excluslve rlghts of a copyrlght
holder.
Whilc copyiight is usually conccptualizcd as thc gianting ol a monopoly loi
a limitcd pciiod ol timc, thcic aic ncaily always cxccptions and limitations to
thc othciwisc cxclusivc iights ol a copyiight holdci. Thcsc can bc statutoiy oi
customaiy and icpicscnt uscs loi which a usci nccd not gct pcimission, oi loi
which lccs aic picsct, oi somcthing clsc that placcs limits on thc monopoly ol
thc copyiight holdci. Thcsc cxccptions and limitations aic oltcn diivcn by public
policy conccins.
Faii usc" in US law and laii dcaling" in somc othci paits ol thc woild aic classic
cxamplcs ol doctiincs that placc a limitation on thc copyiight holdci's monopoly.
Any loim ol compulsoiy liccnsing would bc anothci. Somc cxccptions aic diicctcd
at paiticulai classcs ol usci, such as thc cxccptions pcitaining to making copics
loi thc disablcd.
PULL8ASLD
Rulc-bascd cxccptions aic thosc whosc qualitics aic dcsciibcd in spccilc dctail,
so that a paiticulai usc cithci docs oi docs not qualily as an cxccption.
Thc Chalcc Amcndmcnt in US copyiight law that cxcmpts thc making ol copics
loi thc disablcd is an cxamplc ol a iulc-bascd cxccption.
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GU|DLL|NL8ASLD
A guidclinc-bascd cxccption oi limitation is onc that scts loith onc oi moic lactois
to considci whcn dctcimining whcthci a paiticulai usc is laii, iathci than haid
and last biight-linc iulcs.
Any paiticulai usc must bc cvaluatcd on an individual basis to dctciminc il it
qualilcs loi thc cxccption. Foi cxamplc, thc laii usc" doctiinc in US law, which
lists loui non-cxhaustivc lactois and a paitial list ol suggcstcd laii uscs, is a
guidclinc-bascd cxccption.
L|8PAP LXCLPT|ONS
Libiaiics aic oltcn ticatcd as a spccial subclass ol uscis ol copyiightcd matciial
bccausc ol thc public natuic ol thcii mission and thc stiong public policy aigu-
mcnts in thcii lavoi. As such, thcy cnjoy a uniquc sct ol cxccptions and limits on
copyiight law in many countiics. Whilc thc copyiight law conccining libiaiics
vaiics liom countiy to countiy, thcic aic somc ncai-univcisal gcncial cxccptions
loi libiaiics.
PPLSLPvAT|ON
Libiaiics aic licqucntly pcimittcd to makc copics ol woiks in oidci to picscivc
thcm, oi loi aichival puiposcs, without violating thc copyiight in thosc woiks.
This is in linc with thc tiaditional iolc ol libiaiics as icpositoiics ol
knowlcdgc.
LOAN|NG
Undci ccitain ciicumstanccs, libiaiics aic pcimittcd to makc copics ol copyiightcd
woiks loi thc puiposc ol loaning thcm to pations oi to othci libiaiics without
violating thc copyiight in thosc woiks.
PLSLAPCH
Libiaiics aic oltcn pcimittcd to makc copics ol copyiightcd woiks loi icscaich
puiposcs (whcthci thcii own oi that ol thcii pations) without violating thc
copyiight in thosc woiks.
FAlR 0ALlN0
The term used ln the Unlted Klngdom and other Commonwealth natlons to
descrlbe the clrcumstances under whlch one can use copyrlghted works wlthout
payments or permlsslon.
Somcwhat similai to thc conccpt ol laii usc" in thc Unitcd Statcs, laii dcaling" is
lound in many common law juiisdictions, such as Canada, Austialia, Ncw Zcaland
and othcis. Unlikc laii usc, which is a sct ol guidclincs, laii dcaling in most countiics
is limitcd to spccilc catcgoiics ol usc. Il a paiticulai usc lalls into onc ol thcsc
catcgoiics, a couit will asccitain whcthci, on balancc, it should bc considcicd laii."
It is usually considcicd somcwhat moic picdictablc but also somcwhat lcss cxiblc
than thc conccpt ol laii usc" cmploycd in thc Unitcd Statcs.
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FAlR US
A tenet of US copyrlght law that descrlbes the clrcumstances under whlch one can
sometlmes make use of protected works wlthout rst gettlng permlsslon or paylng
the rlghts holder.
Faii usc is a tcnct ol US copyiight law, lound in ; U.S.C. scction o;. It is oltcn
iclciicd to as a salcty valvc" loi licc spccch and is onc ol thc two aspccts ol US
copyiight law that hclp to picvcnt copyiight's monopoly liom intcilciing with
liccdom ol spccch, anothci impoitant US iight cnshiincd in thc US Constitution.
(Thc othci aspcct ol US copyiight law that sccks to balancc thc copyiight monopoly
against thc public's intcicst in licc spccch is thc idca/cxpicssion dichotomy.)
Faii usc is a sct ol guidclincs, iathci than a iulc, and is cvaluatcd on a casc-by-
casc basis accoiding to loui non-cxclusivc lactois. Thcsc aic:
- Thc puiposc and chaiactci ol thc usc, including whcthci such usc is ol a
commcicial natuic oi is loi nonpiolt cducational puiposcs.
- Thc natuic ol thc copyiightcd woik.
- Thc amount and substantiality ol thc poition uscd in iclation to thc copyiightcd
woik as a wholc.
- Thc cfcct ol thc usc upon thc potcntial maikct loi, oi valuc ol, thc copyiightcd
woik.
Bccausc ol its status as a salcty valvc" loi spccch, laii usc is oltcn callcd upon
oi iclicd on by contcnt uscis attcmpting to asscit thcii iights undci copyiight law.
Howcvci, bccausc laii usc is not clcaily dclncd and can bc haid to intcipict, and
bccausc a copyiight lawsuit can bc cxticmcly cxpcnsivc, many uscis aic scaicd oi
icluctant to icly on laii usc whcn thcy usc copyiightcd woiks. This, in tuin, has
lcd to an cfoit by somc gioups to icclaim laii usc" loi thc public, and picvcnt
what authoi Lcwis Hydc has callcd thc thiid cnclosuic" ol thc commons, that ol
thc mind.
FlRS7 SAL 00C7RlN
The ldea that once the rst legltlmate sale of a physlcal embodyment of a
copyrlghted work has taken place, the copyrlght holder has no clalm to control
further sales or many uses of the partlcular copy.
Thc list salc doctiinc is a conccpt lound in US copyiight law, and in somc loim
in somc othci juiisdictions, whcic it may bc known as "cxhaustion ol iights." Foi
cxamplc, il a pcison buys a book (a physical papci copy), that pcison can icscll
thc book without thc pcimission ol thc iights-holdci.
Thc list salc doctiinc has bccomc moic impoitant with thc advcnt ol non-
iivalious digital goods, goods that can bc copicd and shaicd without tianslcis ol
posscssion. Thc qucstion ol what it mcans to own" somcthing is now moic dimcult
to answci. Many soltwaic companics and othci puivcyois ol digital goods havc
attcmptcd to handlc this by saying that uscis aic actually puichasing a liccnsc to
usc, iathci than buying, an actual thing." This distinction is oltcn lost on uscis,
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though, who aic licqucntly bamcd and liustiatcd whcn thcy cannot do things thcy
assumcd thcy could with somcthing that, in thcii minds, thcy own.
FlXA7l0N
Peductlon of a work of authorshlp lnto some tanglble form, whlch ls requlred for
copyrlght protectlon ln many countrles.
Fixation is onc ol thc lundamcntal tcncts ol US copyiight law. Such lxation
might includc wiiting somcthing down, iccoiding it, placing it on llm, oi making
it. Foi lcgal systcms with a lxation icquiicmcnt, it is thc lxing that changcs an
idca into a copyiightablc woik.
Thc lxation icquiicmcnt can lcad to somc intcicsting icsults loi cicativc ait
loims that do not noimally iccoid oi othciwisc lx thcii cxpicssion, such as
choicogiaphy, stand-up comcdy, iccipcs, oi thc pciloimancc ol livc music. US law
has a spccilc statutoiy piovision mandating that pciloimcis ol livc music still
hold iights in it cvcn il thcy aic not iccoiding it, and that othcis cannot iccoid thc
pciloimancc without thcii pcimission.
Most juiisdictions do not havc a lxation icquiicmcnt, choosing instcad to vcst
copyiight in a woik using othci ciitciia. Foi cxamplc, Swiss law icquiics only that
a woik havc individual chaiactci."
F0RMALl7lS lL0AL)
The rltual or formulalc observances that must take place ln certaln [urlsdlctlons
before a work can quallfy for copyrlght protectlons, or before sult can be led.
Foi cxamplc, although thc US omcially abandoncd loimalitics with its j;6
Copyiight Act, it is still thc casc that a woik acquiics copyiight at thc momcnt
ol cication, but thc woik must bc omcially icgistcicd with thc Copyiight Omcc
bcloic suit can bc llcd loi inliingcmcnt. At othci timcs in copyiight's histoiy,
copyiight was conlciicd at cication, loi a pciiod ol ycais, and could thcn bc
cxplicitly icncwcd loi a sccond pciiod whcn thc list onc cxpiicd.
Thc Bcinc Convcntion cxplicitly loibids loimalitics. Aiticlc ,, Scction z icads:
Thc cnjoymcnt and thc cxcicisc ol thcsc iights shall not bc subjcct to any
loimality, such cnjoymcnt and such cxcicisc shall bc indcpcndcnt ol thc cxis-
tcncc ol piotcction in thc countiy ol oiigin ol thc woik. Conscqucntly, apait
liom thc piovisions ol this Convcntion, thc cxtcnt ol piotcction, as wcll as thc
mcans ol icdicss afoidcd to thc authoi to piotcct his iights, shall bc govcincd
cxclusivcly by thc laws ol thc countiy whcic piotcction is claimcd.
Howcvci, somc copyiight scholais and activists bclicvc that copyiight is actually
too casy to acquiic and sustain, icsulting in, among othci things, thc oiphan woiks
pioblcm. Thcsc pcoplc advocatc loi at lcast somc loimalitics loi copyiight, most
oltcn having to do with icncwal, so that a woik whosc iights-holdci lailcd to icncw
copyiight would lall into thc public domain.
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FR 7RA0 A0RMN7
A free trade agreement (or PTA) ls a treaty between two or more countrles that
establlshes trade guldellnes so that trade between partlclpatlng countrles ls
theoretlcally unrestrlcted by tarlns.
Oltcn, such agiccmcnts includc copyiight-iclatcd clauscs.
0NU-0PL LlCNS
The GNU-GPL llcense ls an open source software llcense.
Onc ol thc most wcll known symbols ol thc licc soltwaic movcmcnt, which is
somctimcs callcd FOSS, loi Ficc opcn souicc soltwaic." GNU is an opcn souicc
opciating systcm, upwaidly compatiblc with Unix.
Richaid Stallman staitcd woiking on GNU at MIT in j8, and loundcd thc Ficc
Soltwaic Foundation in j8, to hclp his cfoits. Whcn GNU was incoipoiatcd with
thc Linux kcincl, thc combination bccamc thc GNU/Linux systcm, now lound in
vaiious difcicnt soltwaic distiibutions.
GPL stands loi Gcncial Public Liccnsc." GPL liccnscs must contain what aic
iclciicd to as thc "loui liccdoms," which aic:
- Thc liccdom to iun thc piogiam, loi any puiposc (liccdom o).
- Thc liccdom to study how thc piogiam woiks, and changc it to makc it do what
you wish (liccdom ). Acccss to thc souicc codc is a piccondition loi this.
- Thc liccdom to icdistiibutc copics so you can hclp youi ncighboi (liccdom z).
- Thc liccdom to impiovc thc piogiam, and iclcasc youi impiovcmcnts (and
modilcd vcisions in gcncial) to thc public, so that thc wholc community bcnclts
(liccdom ,). Acccss to thc souicc codc is a piccondition loi this.
A piogiam is licc soltwaic il uscis havc all ol thcsc liccdoms.
HA00Pl
A slang term for recent Prench leglslatlon (zoo8-op) deslgned to regulate |nternet
usage ln accordance wlth exlstlng Prench copyrlght law.
HADOPI" is an acionym iclciiing to thc namc ol thc Ficnch govcinmcnt agcncy
that would bc cicatcd by thc bill, thc High Authoiity loi Copyiight Piotcction
and Disscmination ol Woiks on thc Intcinct.
Thc HADOPI law was thc subjcct ol intcnsc lobbying, both loi and against it, and
bccamc notoiious loi its so-callcd thicc stiikcs piovision" and loi thc lact that, in
its oiiginal loim, it piovidcd that an Intcinct usci could bc sanctioncd altci having
only bccn accused ol copyiight inliingcmcnt. Although thc law cvcntually passcd,
thc Ficnch High Couit latci stuck down this pait ol thc bill as unconstitutional.
Soon altciwaids, tcchophilc cnthusiasts dcmonstiatcd that it would bc tcchnologi-
cally lcasiblc to disguisc intcinct usagc in a way that would call thc law's basic
cfcctivcncss into qucstion.
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l0A/XPRSSl0N 0lCH070MY
The concept that ldeas cannot be copyrlghted, but thelr partlcular expresslon can.
Thc idca/cxpicssion dichotomy is lundamcntal in copyiight law. Foi cxamplc, thc
paiticulai tcxt ol Stcphcnic Mcyci's Twi|iqnt sciics ol vampiic novcls is piotcctcd
by copyiight, but thc idca ol a giil lalling in lovc with a vampiic cannot bc
piotcctcd.
Whilc this may sccm obvious oi scll-cvidcnt, thc linc bctwccn thc two is not
always so casy to lnd, and aggicssivc iights-holdcis continuc to tiy to push thc
limits ol what thcy can claim copyiight on. Foi cxamplc, in thc US casc Metro-
Go|dw,n-Ma,er, Inc. v. American Honda Motor Co., Inc., thc holdci ol thc iights to
thc intcllcctual piopcity making up thc }amcs Bond chaiactci succcsslully sucd
an automobilc company loi an advcitiscmcnt thcy had aiicd. MGM claimcd that
thc ad's contcnt was sumcicntly similai to, oi cvocativc ol, }amcs Bond, that it had
inliingcd, although no actual copying took placc.
In US law, idca/cxpicssion is usually hcld up, along with laii usc, as a salcty
valvc" that picvcnts thc monopolics giantcd by copyiight liom intcilciing with
public policy, liccdom ol spccch, and moic.
Undci ccitain ciicumstanccs, couits havc hcld that thcic aic a limitcd numbci
ol ways in which to cxpicss a paiticulai idca (such as thc iulcs loi lottciics oi
swccpstakcs) and that, thcicloic, no copyiight can bc hcld in thosc matciials. This
is known as thc mcigci" doctiinc.
lFLA
|nternatlonal Pederatlon of Llbrary Assoclatlons and |nstltutlons.
Thc Intcinational Fcdciation ol Libiaiy Associations and Institutions (IFLA)
is thc lcading intcinational body icpicscnting thc intcicsts ol libiaiy and
inloimation sciviccs and thcii uscis. It is thc global voicc ol thc libiaiy and
inloimation piolcssion. (IFLA wcbsitc)
lFRR0
The |nternatlonal Pederatlon of Peproductlon Plghts Organlsatlons.
Thc Intcinational Fcdciation ol Rcpioduction Rights Oiganisations (IFRRO)
is an indcpcndcnt oiganisation cstablishcd on thc basis ol thc lundamcntal
intcinational copyiight piinciplcs cmbodicd in thc Bcinc and Univcisal
Copyiight Convcntions. Its puiposc is to lacilitatc, on an intcinational basis,
thc collcctivc managcmcnt ol icpioduction and othci iights iclcvant to
copyiightcd woiks thiough thc co-opciation ol national Rcpioduction Rights
Oiganisations (RROs). Collcctivc oi ccntialiscd iights managcmcnt is piclci-
ablc whcic individual cxcicisc ol iights is impiactical.
Thiough its mcmbcis IFRRO suppoits cicatois and publishcis alikc and
piovidcs intcinationally a common platloim loi thcm to lostci thc cstablish-
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mcnt ol appiopiiatc lcgal liamcwoiks loi thc piotcction and usc ol thcii
woiks.
IFRRO woiks to incicasc on an intcinational basis thc lawlul usc ol tcxt
and imagc bascd copyiight woiks and to climinatc unauthoiiscd copying
by piomoting cmcicnt Collcctivc Managcmcnt ol iights thiough RROs to
complcmcnt cicatois' and publishcis' own activitics. (IFRRO wcbsitc)
lNCN7lVS
The aspects of copyrlght law deslgned to motlvate creators to create.
Copyiight law giants to thc iights-holdci, loi a limitcd timc, a monopoly ovci
uscs ol thc copyiightcd woik. Sincc monopolics aic usually considcicd incmcicnt,
thc justilcation loi doing this is usually dcsciibcd as pioviding thc ncccssaiy
inccntivcs to cicatois to gct thcm to cicatc. That is, without thc inccntivc ol
bcing ablc to bcnclt cconomically by cxploiting contiol ol thc woik, why would
an aitist cicatc? This is oltcn callcd thc cconomic thcoiy ol cicatoi inccntivcs,
oi somcthing similai. Thc assumption is that thcic is a nct gain loi socicty. Foi
cxamplc, thc Copyiight clausc ol thc US Constitution icads: To piomotc thc
Piogicss ol Scicncc and usclul Aits, by sccuiing loi limitcd Timcs to Authois and
Invcntois thc cxclusivc Right to thcii icspcctivc Wiitings and Discovciics."
Thc inccntivc-diivcn vicw ol copyiight and cication has comc undci somc ciiti-
cism loi lailing to takc into account thc many difcicnt motivations aitists havc
loi cicating thcii woik, somc ol which aic not lnancial at all. Othci ciitics point
out that cvcn il inccntivc thcoiy is accuiatc, cxticmcly long copyiight tcims do
not incicasc thc cconomic oi monctaiy valuc ol copyiight, aiguing against tcim
cxtcnsions.
lNFRlN0MN7
vlolatlon wlthout [ustlcatlon or excuse of one or more of the excluslve rlghts ln a
work granted by copyrlght law.
Foi cxamplc, il a copy ol a book, song, oi computci piogiam is madc, oi a song oi
play pciloimcd without pcimission, thc copyiight in that woik has bccn inliingcd.
What soit ol inliingcmcnt has takcn placc dcpcnds on thc lcvcl ol knowlcdgc
and involvcmcnt ol thc inliingci.
D|PLCT
Dlrect lnfrlngement takes place when a person who ls not the rlghts-holder
performs or engages ln one of the actlvltles that the copyrlght holder has the
excluslve rlght to perform.
Diicct inliingcmcnt is thc most common kind ol inliingcmcnt and takcs placc
whcncvci a usci violatcs any ol thc iights giantcd to a copyiight holdci.
A plaintif must mcct two icquiicmcnts to cstablish a piima lacic casc ol
copyiight inliingcmcnt: () ownciship ol thc allcgcdly inliingcd matciial and
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(z) violation by thc allcgcd inliingci ol at lcast onc ol thc cxclusivc iights
giantcd to copyiight holdcis. (IGS Arcnitects, Inc. v. Concordia Homes oj êv.,
, F.,d ,o, ,6 (jth Cii. jj6))
Foi cxamplc, il a copy has bccn madc without pcimission, that is diicct
inliingcmcnt.
|ND|PLCT/SLCONDAP
Thcsc aic two typcs ol ol inliingcmcnt that takc placc in conjunction with diicct
inliingcmcnt. Notc: Thcic can bc no indiicct oi sccondaiy inliingcmcnt without
a concuiicnt act ol diicct inliingcmcnt. An act qualilcs as a paiticulai typc ol
inliingcmcnt accoiding to thc knowlcdgc, intcnt, and abilitics ol thc inliingci.
CONTP|8UTOP
A contrlbutory lnfrlnger has knowledge of the related dlrect lnfrlngement and
makes a materlal contrlbutlon to lt ln some way.
Examplcs ol contiibutoiy inliingcmcnt would bc a CD lactoiy ownci who knows
that his machincs aic bcing uscd to makc illcgal copics ol piotcctcd woiks, oi
somconc who piovidcs soltwaic tools loi ciacking cnciyption icgimcs.
v|CAP|OUS
A vlcarlous lnfrlnger ls one who, whlle not dellberately encouraglng or materlally
contrlbutlng to the dlrect lnfrlngement, has the rlght and ablllty to control or
prevent lnfrlngement, and benets from lt, even lf he or she does not reallze the
lnfrlngement ls taklng place.
Vicaiious inliingmcnt is ioughly akin to you should havc known inliingcmcnt
was taking placc, and donc somcthing about it."
A club ownci who hiics pciloimcis who thcn play piotcctcd woiks without
pcimission to do so, and without thc ownci's knowlcdgc, is vicaiiously inliing-
ing. Thc ownci hciscll is not inliinging, oi hclping thc pciloimci to do so, but
shc could makc suic ol thc pciloimcis' liccnsing, and shc is indiicctly piolting
liom thc inliingcmcnt bccausc ol thc icvcnucs liom pations ol thc club. Anothci
cxamplc would bc somconc who iuns an outdooi maikct, icnting stalls to vcndois.
Il a paiticulai vcndoi is sclling inliinging goods, thc maikct ownci is vicaiiously
inliinging. (Foi a classic cxamplc in US law, scc Ionovisa Inc. v. Cnerr, Auction, Inc.,
8; F.Supp. jz (E.D. Cal. jj).
|NDUCLMLNT
The ldea that someone mlght not only make the means of lnfrlngement posslble,
but mlght encourage others to lnfrlnge, even lf the lnducer ls not protlng, elther
dlrectly or lndlrectly.
Induccmcnt was pcihaps madc most lamous by thc US casc M.G.M. v. Grokster.
Thc couit lound Giokstci liablc loi indiicct inliingcmcnt, bccausc it had activcly
induccd othcis to diicctly inliingcd, icgaidlcss ol any substantial non-inliinging
usc ol thc Giokstci tcchnology. This was in contiast to thc Sony Bctamax dccision
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in thc j8os which lound vidco iccoidcis non-inliinging bccausc thcy could bc
uscd in non-inliinging ways, and bccausc Sony had not cncouiagcd inliinging
uscs.
lN7LLC7UAL FF0R7
Llterally, an enort of the mlnd, as opposed to a physlcal enort. The phrase ls often
synonymous wlth "creatlvlty."
In copyiight law, this conccpt is impoitant bccausc not cvciything qualilcs loi
copyiight piotcction. Most impoitantly, simply having spcnt a lot ol timc and
cncigy on somcthing is not usually cnough to qualily loi copyiight. Howcvci,
in icccnt lcgislation, databascs ol lacts havc icccivcd piotcction solcly by viituc
ol thc cfoit that wcnt into thcm.
Each juiisdiction has a difcicnt sct ol ciitciia as to what may icccivc copyiight.
Thc US icquiics that thc woik bc thc icsult ol cicativc input, but has a vciy low
thicshold loi cicativity. Thc US also icquiics that thc woik bc lxcd in a tangiblc
loim. Italian law, loi cxamplc, statcs things a littlc difcicntly: a woik must involvc
an intcllcctual cfoit and posscss cicativc chaiactci.
SLL ALSO Sweat of the brow
LX L0Cl 0LlC7l
Llterally, "the law of the place of the wrongdolng." (The full term ls lex loc| Jel|ct|
comm|ss|.)
This conccpt comcs up whcn discussing a toit oi ciimc that takcs placc in multiplc
lcgal juiisdictions. In such a sccnaiio, a couit will havc to dccidc which juiisdiction's
laws apply. Iex |oci de|icti iclcis to thc laws that apply in thc placc whcic thc ciimc
- copyiight inliingmcnt loi oui puiposcs - was actually committcd, iathci than
whcic thc iights-holdci livcs, oi whcic thc iights to thc woik wcic list icccivcd.
SLL ALSO Choice of Iaws
LlCNS
A llcense ls a form of contract whereby a rlghts-holder grants permlsslon to a
person or entlty to make use of a copyrlghted work ln some way.
Liccnscs can bc quitc spccilc, gianting pcimission loi only onc paiticulai kind
ol usc, and loi a limitcd timc, oi thcy can bc compichcnsivc. Thcy may bc opcn
souicc oi icstiictivc. Thcy may oi may not bc tianslciablc to othcis. Liccnscs havc
always bccn pait ol copyiight law, but havc comc to gicatci piomincncc icccntly
with thcii cxtcnsivc usc in conjunction with computci soltwaic.
MODLL L|CLNSL
A liccnsc that docs not iclci to any paiticulai copyiightcd woik, oi to spccilc
paitics, but is instcad picscntcd as an cxamplc ol thc liccnsc in gcncial.
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Thc modcl liccnsc can thcn bc modilcd accoiding to ciicumstanccs. Foi cxamplc,
Cicativc Commons, which ofcis six difcicnt typcs ol liccnsc, makcs modcl vcisions
ol cach availablc.
8LANKLT L|CLNSL see Ianket Iicense
COMPULSOP L|CLNSL see CompuIsory Iicense
|NST|TUT|ONAL L|CLNSL
A llcense granted to an lnstltutlon, such as a llbrary or school, rather than an
lndlvldual.
An institutional liccnsc's tcims aic picdicatcd on thc idca that thc institution
will bc sciving many difcicnt uscis, undci a widc vaiicty ol ciicumstanccs,
and that, liom a tiansaction costs pcispcctivc, it is lai moic cmcicnt loi all
conccincd to ncgotiatc tcims only oncc. Foi cxamplc, most, il not all, univcisitics
havc institutional liccnsing agiccmcnts with thc vaiious collcctivc managcmcnt
agcncics loi thc pciloimancc ol musical woiks. Many libiaiics, whcthci public oi
acadcmic, havc institutional subsciiptions to commcicial oi acadcmic databascs,
undci which any pation ol thc libiaiy may acccss thc databasc without having
to ncgotiatc pcisonal acccss.
|ND|v|DUAL L|CLNSL
An lndlvldual llcense ls a llcense granted to a slngle person.
Individual liccnscs can bc ncgotiatcd loi any soit ol copyiightcd woik, but aic
piobably most oltcn sccn in thc soltwaic contcxt, whcic bcloic using puichascd
soltwaic a usci must agicc to thc liccnsing tcims.
LXCLUS|vL/NONLXCLUS|vL L|CLNSL
An excluslve llcense ls one granted to the holder only.
Il a liccnsc is cxclusivc, it mcans that no othci similai liccnsc will bc giantcd.
Foi cxamplc, a iights-holdci in thc Unitcd Statcs might giant an cxclusivc liccnsc
to somconc in Gcimany to bc thc solc distiibutoi ol thc copyiightcd woik in
Gcimany, oi vicc vcisa. A non-cxclusivc liccnsc is just thc oppositc. A pcison
with such a liccnsc knows that many othcis may havc bccn giantcd thc cxact
samc iights. Foi cxamplc, whcn a pcison puichascs soltwaic, hc knows that hc
is not thc only onc who has bccn giantcd pcimission to usc that soltwaic.
MA7RlAL RACH
A vlolatlon of a contract serlous enough that the person harmed may compel
performance and collect damages, and/or termlnate the contract.
A contiact is lundamcntally a list ol tcims to which thc paitics havc agiccd
- things cach paity has agiccd to do oi not do. Howcvci, no contiact, no mattci
how complcx oi caiclully wiittcn, can loicscc cvciy possiblc cvcntuality. Thcicloic
it will somctimcs happcn that a paity to a contiact will violatc onc oi moic ol thc
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contiact's tcims. Somctimcs thc bicach will bc dclibciatc, somctimcs accidcntal,
somctimcs diivcn by ciicumstancc. Thc qucstion that aiiscs, in thc casc ol a
bicach, is what will bc donc about thc violation.
Typically, minoi violations ol a contiact mcan only that thc pcison haimcd by
thc violation can collcct only actual damagcs. Il thc bicach is sumcicntly immatciial
thcsc damagcs may wcll bc zcio.
Howcvci, substantial violations, which aic also known as matciial bicachcs,
aic a difcicnt stoiy. Thcy aic matciial bicachcs bccausc thc bicachcd clauscs
lundamcntally mattci to thc contiact. Such bicachcs typically mcan that thc injuicd
paity can lcgally compcl pciloimancc ol thc contiact in addition to collccting
damagcs. Ol couisc, a paiticulai contiact may contain spccilc piovisions loi what
will happcn in thc casc ol a matciial bicach.
M0N0P0LY
A monopoly ls excluslve control over a partlcular resource.
A copyiight in a paiticulai woik can usclully bc conccivcd ol as a monopoly ovci
that woik and its uscs, albcit loi a limitcd timc.
Economic thcoiy typically sccs most monopolics as incmcicnt uscs ol icsouiccs.
Thcsc incmcicncics aic haim to thc public good. This haim is justilcd in copyiight
law by claiming that thc inccntivcs a monopoly piovidcs to would-bc cicatois
balancc it out. Howcvci, this vicw ol things is bcing challcngcd moic and moic in
icccnt ycais by ciitics who lccl that copyiight tcims aic too long, oi that cicatois
havc motivations othci than monctaiy icwaid.
SLL ALSO Incentives, Commons
M0RAL Rl0H7S
8roadly speaklng, the set of rlghts ln a work that glve control over the exlstence or
fate of a work, rather than over lts economlc exploltatlon.
Moial iights (a tianslation ol thc Ficnch conccpt droit mora|) in a cicativc woik
aic thc coiollaiy to cconomic iights. Thcy icpicscnt thc iights in a woik that aic
inhcicnt in its status as a cicativc woik and in its iclationship with its cicatoi.
Whilc thcy aic statutoiily icinloiccd, thcy typically aic thought ol as cxisting on
thcii own. That is, thcy aic much closci to bcing natuial" iights. Pcihaps bccausc
ol thc natuic ol thc iights, thcy aic moic oltcn associatcd with visual woiks, such
as painting oi sculptuic, than with inloimational" woiks, such as tcxts.
Thc Bcinc Convcntion cxplicitly iccognizcs moial iights, but US law docs not
omcially iccognizc moial iights, which is an ongoing souicc ol tcnsion bctwccn
US law and that ol othci Bcinc Convcntion mcmbcis. Thc US maintains that its
laws havc sumcicnt piovisions in placc, such as thc Visual Aitists Rights Act, to
accommodatc moial iights.
Aiticlc 6bis () ol thc Bcinc convcntion icads:
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() Indcpcndcntly ol thc authoi's cconomic iights, and cvcn altci thc tianslci
ol thc said iights, thc authoi shall havc thc iight to claim authoiship ol thc
woik and to objcct to any distoition, mutilation oi othci modilcation ol, oi
othci dciogatoiy action in iclation to, thc said woik, which would bc picjudi-
cial to his honoi oi icputation.
Thc cnumciation ol moial iights vaiics liom countiy to countiy, but thcy aic
most oltcn listcd as:
- Thc iight ol patcinity - to claim authoiship (oi disclaim it, in thc cvcnt ol
unauthoiizcd changc).
- Thc iight ol intcgiity - to appiovc ol oi objcct to any modilcation, distoition
oi changc to thc woik.
- Thc iight ol withdiawal - to icmovc a woik liom thc public sphcic at will.
- Thc iight ol iclcasc - thc iight to contiol whcn a woik is sccn by thc public.
M0R7NS0N CN7R
The Mortenson Center for |nternatlonal Llbrary Programs.
Thc Ccntci was loundcd in jj at thc Univcisity ol Illinois at Uibana-
Champagnc.
Accoiding to its wcbsitc, Thc Moitcnson Ccntci and thc Moitcnson Distin-
guishcd Piolcssoiship scck to sticngthcn intcinational tics among libiaiics and
libiaiians, icgaidlcss ol gcogiaphic location oi acccss to tcchnology."
Individuals at thc Moitcnson Ccntci paiticipatcd in thc initial tcsting ol this
cuiiiculum.
Nl0H0RlN0 Rl0H7S
The rlghts of people who have partlclpated ln the creatlon of a copyrlghted work,
but who dld not "wrlte" lt, and for a varlety of reasons do not normally quallfy for
tradltlonal forms of copyrlght.
Ncighboiing iights aic copyiights that cxist adjaccnt to moic tiaditional authoi's
copyiights and aic giantcd to a lcw spccilc catcgoiics ol pcison. Examplcs might
includc thc sound cnginccis at a iccoiding studio, thc pciloimcis ol a musical
composition, oi a bioadcast oiganization.
Ncighboiing iights as such do not cxist in all copyiight law systcms. Somc
juiisdictions subsumc thcm within copyiight" in gcncial without ticating thcm
as any difcicnt.
As just onc cxamplc, thc Romc Convcntion cxplicitly addicsscs thc iights ol
pciloimcis and pioduccis ol sound iccoidings.
SLL ALSO Rome Convention
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N07lC AN0 7AK00WN
"Notlce and takedown" refers to the partlcular sort of cease-and-deslst letter
assoclated wlth the US Dlgltal Mlllennlum Copyrlght Act.
An intcinct cntity (such as YouTubc), upon iccciving noticc that it is hosting oi
othciwisc making availablc a copyiightcd woik, can avoid liability loi inliingcmcnt
by immcdiatcly taking down thc copy ol thc woik in qucstion.
Thcsc noticcs aic oltcn ciiticizcd bccausc thcii pioccss stiongly lavois iights-
holdcis, who can cfcctivcly shut down any and all uscs ol thcii woik, whcthci laii,
pcimissiblc oi not, sincc most postcis will not bothci to challcngc a takcdown
noticc with a countcinoticc.
COUNTLPNOT|CL
The response to a DMCA takedown notlce.
A countcinoticc is thc action takcn by thc pcison who oiiginally postcd thc woik
that was takcn down undci a DMCA Scction ,z noticc and takcdown." Il thc
postci bclicvcs that thc woik was uscd lcgitimatcly, hc oi shc can inloim thc
host, who is thcn icquiicd to put it back up and notily thc allcgcd iights-holdci
that thc copyiight has bccn challcngcd.
Thc pioccss loi challcnging takcdowns with a countcinoticc is much moic timc-
consuming than that loi a takcdown itscll, lcading somc to ciiticizc thc systcm as
unlaiily lavoiing allcgcd iights-holdcis, cicating a lcgal avcnuc loi piivatc ccnsoiship
ol spccch, and conlionting Intcinct hosting sitcs with skcwcd inccntivcs.
PUT8ACK
when a webslte that took content down ln response to a DMCA takedown notlce
puts lt back up after recelvlng a counternotlce.
Putback" iclcis to whcn an Intcinct contcnt host, such as YouTubc, having icccivcd
a noticc and takcdown" and thcn a countcinoticc," puts thc possibly inliinging
contcnt back onlinc, pcnding a icvicw ol its copyiight status.
0PN ACCSS
Open access ls a term descrlblng an lnformatlon resource that ls open to all.
It also iclcis to a movcmcnt within thc acadcmic community dcdicatcd to making
scholaily icscaich moic acccssiblc, iathci than hiddcn bchind a piicc oi pcimission
baiiicis.
Opcn acccss" jouinals aic not ncccssaiily licc, sincc thcy may chaigc a lcc loi
maintcnancc costs, oi to compcnsatc authois, but typically an opcn acccss icsouicc
is licc to all to icad and usc. }ouinals that ask loi somc paymcnt aic somctimcs
callcd hybiid" acccss jouinals.
Haivaid Univcisity icccntly adoptcd a policy whcic all ol its laculty aic pcimittcd
and cncouiagcd to makc thcii icscaich availablc as opcn acccss. Thc US National
Institutcs ol Hcalth havc an opcn acccss policy icquiiing all icscaich conductcd
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with public lunding to makc its icsults opcn acccss, at lcast altci a shoit intcival
ol cxclusivity.
0P7lN
when a person must choose to do somethlng, rather than lt happenlng
automatlcally.
Opt-in dcsciibcs thc dclault statc any situation in which a usci oi paiticipant
has a choicc ol whcthci to do somcthing oi not, and whcic thc dclault statc is
not." That is, a pcison must cxplicitly and consciously choosc to takc pait. Il no
action is takcn, thc pcison will paiticipatc, agicc to tcims, ctc.
0P70U7
when a person must choose to not do somethlng, otherwlse lt wlll happen
automatlcally.
Opt-out dcsciibcs thc dclault statc in any situation in which a usci oi paiticipant
has a choicc ol whcthci to do somcthing oi not, and thc dclault statc piioi to
any usci involvcmcnt oi activc dccision is doing it."
That is, unlcss thc usci consciously and dclibciatcly dccidcs not to agicc, oi not
to paiticipatc, and chooscs no," thc assumption going loiwaid is that hc oi shc
agiccs to thc conditions pioposcd.
0Rl0lNAL XPRSSl0N
Orlglnal expresslon refers to a creator's orlglnal, copyrlghtable, creatlve work.
This is in contiast to any latci dciivativc woiks, othci latci woik that in somc
way incoipoiatcs thc oiiginal woik, oi woik that isn't oiiginal at all. Expicssion
that is not oiiginal cannot qualily loi copyiight.
0RPHAN W0RKS
Orphan works are creatlve works that are stlll under copyrlght protectlon, but
for whlch lt ls elther lmposslble or prohlbltlvely dlmcult to ldentlfy the copyrlght
holder.
This is most oltcn a pioblcm with photogiaphs on thc Intcinct, but aiiscs with
othci typcs ol woiks as wcll. Sincc thc woiks aic undci copyiight, pcimission is
nccdcd to usc thcm, but sincc thc iights-holdci cannot bc lound no pcimission
can bc obtaincd. This puts thcsc woiks into a soit ol limbo. Pcoplc want to makc
usc ol thcm, but usually won't loi lcai ol liability, and thc woiks cannot pass into
thc public domain until thc tcim ol thcii copyiight cxpiics.
Thc scttlcmcnt with thc Authoi's Guild in thc Googlc Book Scaich lawsuit
contains contiovcisial piovisions loi oiphan woiks, although it docs not iclci to
thcm by that tcim. Thcsc tcims aic thc subjcct ol much dcbatc and opposition
woildwidc.
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Oiphan woiks lcgislation has also bccn pioposcd at scvcial difcicnt timcs in
thc US Congicss.
PRF0RM
Maklng lt posslble for others to experlence slmultaneously a copyrlghted work.
Thc iight to pciloim a woik publicly is onc ol thc basic iights giantcd to a
copyiight holdci. Public pciloimancc covcis a widc iangc ol activity, and thc law
addicssing this tcnds to bc quitc complcx and lact-spccilc. Putting on a play,
icading a book aloud to an audicncc, oi playing a music iccoiding at a club aic
all public pciloimanccs.
Thc limits ol thc ability oi iight ol a iights-holdci to contiol public pciloimanccs
camc undci sciutiny in zooj whcn, among othci incidcnts, a icpicscntativc ol
ASCAP, thc Amciican Socicty loi Composcis, Aitists and Pciloimcis, asscitcd his
bclicl that ASCAP should bc ablc to chaigc liccnsing lccs loi ccllphonc iingtoncs,
sincc whcncvci thc phonc iang it was a public pciloimancc" ol thc undcilying
musical woik. Ciitics accuscd ASCAP ol mcicly tiying to gct a piccc ol thc luciativc
iingtonc maikct.
In anothci contiovcisial cpisodc, thc Authois Guild ol Amciica asscitcd that thc
tcxt-to-spccch lunction ol thc Amazon Kindlc cbook icadci constitutcd a public
pciloimancc whcn it was activatcd, sincc thc book was icad" aloud. Although
Amazon asscitcd that thc tcxt-to-spccch lunction was complctcly lcgal, it ncvcithc-
lcss acquicsccd to authois' dcmands by making thc lunction woik on a titlc-by-titlc
basis. Somc publishcis immcdiatcly chosc to disablc that lunction loi thcii cbooks.
Both Amazon's actions and thosc ol thc publishcis dicw hcavy ciiticism liom
disablcd pcisons' iights gioups.
PlRACY
8roadly, any lnfrlngement of copyrlght by copylng, or copyrlght-related theft.
Dcspitc thc imagcs it may cvokc ol occan-going bcaidcd villains with swoids,
whcn it comcs to copyiight law, piiacy is a catch-all tcim, uscd to dcsciibc many
difcicnt soits ol copyiight inliingcmcnt and all typcs ol illcgal copying.
Somc analysts havc pointcd to and ciiticizcd a scmantic ticnd, liom using thc
tcim piiacy" to dcsciibc only laigc-scalc copying loi commcicial gain to using it
to dcsciibc any unauthoiizcd copying.
But thc lact icmains that in common usagc thc tcim piiacy" dcsciibcs not
only oiganizations making hundicds ol thousands ol countcilcit DVDs, but also
pcci-to-pcci llc shaiing and at-homc, individual pcisonal copying, which may oi
may not bc laii usc, dcpcnding on who is doing thc analysis.
Thc contcnt industiy sccs illcgal copying as a vciy sciious thicat, which may
account loi thcii ioutinc usc ol such a loadcd woid, pcihaps in an attcmpt to imputc
thc tiaits ol thc vciy woist soits ol copying to all ol it.
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PLA0lARlSM
Thc usc ol anothci's woik without citation oi accicditation, with thc intcnt ol
passing it of as onc's own.
Plagiaiism is a typc ol copying, but is not ncccssaiily copyiight inliingcmcnt.
Thcicloic, it would bc possiblc to havc a situation in which usc ol somconc clsc's
woik was not a copyiight inliingcmcnt (thc usc was laii, thc woik was in thc public
domain, thc usci had pcimission) but was still plagiaiism, bccausc thc usci did not
acknowlcdgc thc tiuc authoi ol thc woik in qucstion. Although such a usc would
bc lcgal, it would bc uncthical.
Copying and giving appiopiiatc cicdit is not plagiaiism, but could still bc
copyiight inliingcmcnt.
PULlC 00MAlN
The great mass of creatlve work to whlch no one holds copyrlght. The world's
common cultural resources and herltage.
In copyiight law, thc public domain can bc thought ol as thosc cicativc woiks to
which cvciyonc has acccss, and ovci which no onc has cxclusivc contiol. Somc
woiks in thc public domain wcic cicatcd piioi to any loimal lcgal systcm ol
copyiight. Somc woiks in thc public domain wcic oncc undci copyiight, but thc
tcim ol thosc copyiights has cxpiicd, allowing thc woik to pass into thc public
domain. Thc lcngth ol timc bcloic a woik passcs into thc public domain dcpcnds
on whcn a woik was cicatcd, and thc copyiight icgimc in placc at thc timc.
Thc public domain has bccn an issuc in scvcial icccnt copyiight contiovcisics,
including thc Googlc Book Scaich scttlcmcnt and thc casc ol a Gciman man who
was uploading photogiaphs ol public domain aitwoiks to Wikipcdia
DLD|CAT|ON TO
A cicatoi can, il hc oi shc wants to, choosc to waivc thc copyiight in his oi hci
woik by dclibciatcly dcdicating it to thc public domain. Oncc this is donc, thc
cicatoi can no longci claim thc piivilcgcs conlciicd by copyiight, and any mcmbci
ol thc public may makc usc ol thc woik.
PULlC PRF0RMANC 0R 0lSPLAY
A copyrlghted work ls publlcly dlsplayed lf the publlc has access to lt.
Thc iight to display oi pciloim a cicativc woik publicly is onc ol thc lundamcntal
iights giantcd to a copyiight holdci. A woik is publicly displaycd oi pciloimcd il
thc public can vicw it. Whcthci thc public has to pay is not an issuc.
US Copyiight Act, Scction o statcs:
To pciloim oi display a woik publicly" mcans () to pciloim oi display it at a
placc opcn to thc public oi at any placc whcic a substantial numbci ol pcisons
outsidc ol a noimal ciiclc ol a lamily and its social acquaintanccs is gathcicd,
oi (z) to tiansmit oi othciwisc communicatc a pciloimancc oi display ol thc
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woik to a placc spccilcd by clausc () oi to thc public, by mcans ol any dcvicc
oi pioccss, whcthci thc mcmbcis ol thc public capablc ol iccciving thc pciloi-
mancc oi display icccivc it in thc samc placc oi in scpaiatc placcs and at thc
samc timc oi at difcicnt timcs.
So, a painting on thc wall ol somconc's homc is not publicly displaycd, but a
painting on thc wall ol City Hall is. Whcn thc woik in qucstion is an outdooi
aitwoik, oi a building, things can bccomc dimcult to dctciminc. Thcic is also
thc qucstion ol whcthci a scaich cnginc is publicly displaying woiks whcn it
shows thumbnail imagcs.
R0lS7RA7l0N
Pormally obtalnlng copyrlght protectlons for a creatlve work by notlfylng the
Copyrlght Omce that lt exlsts.
In US copyiight law, although a cicativc woik icccivcs copyiight at thc momcnt it
is lxcd in a tangiblc loim, a copyiight holdci cannot llc suit against an allcgcd
inliingci without omcially icgistciing thc woik with thc Copyiight Omcc.
Thc Bcinc Convcntion docs not icquiic icgistiation, oi any othci omcial
loimalitics.
SLL ALSO FormaIities
RLlF
what a court grants a rlghts-holder who has won an lnfrlngement lawsult.
Whcn a copyiight lawsuit is icsolvcd in lavoi ol thc iights-holdci, a couit will
thcn giant thcm iclicl - iclicl liom thc haim thcy havc sufcicd as a icsult ol
thc inliingcmcnt.
|N1UNCT|vL
|n[unctlve rellef occurs when a court lssues an ln[unctlon or a restralnlng order
agalnst an lnfrlnger.
Thc injunction might oidci that inliinging contcnt bc icmovcd liom display, oi
that cxtant illcgal copics bc collcctcd and dcstioycd, oi whatcvci mcasuics thc
couit lnds appiopiiatc.
STATUTOP
Statutory rellef ls rellef accordlng to whatever provlslons for rellef exlst expllcltly ln
statute.
Thcsc could includc damagc awaids, ciiminal punishmcnt, oi moic.
RLl0l0US L0AL SYS7M
A rellglous legal system ls one where the law ls based on the tenets of a partlcular
rellglon.
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Somc icligious lcgal systcms cxist on thcii own, whilc somc cxist in conjunction
with anothci lcgal systcm. Shaiia, thc systcm ol icligiously inspiicd Islamic law, is
an cxamplc ol a icligious lcgal systcm, as aic Hindu law and Halakha oi }cwish
law.
SLL ALSO Common Iaw, CiviI Iaw
Rl0H7S
The rlghts a creator, copyrlght holder, the publlc or member of the publlc has as a
result of copyrlght.
Copyiight giants its holdci vaiious cxclusivc iights as pait ol its limitcd timc
monopoly. Thcsc iights can bc usclully dividcd into cconomic iights and moial
iights. In addition, as pait ol thc copyiight baigain" thc public gains ccitain iights
in a copyiightcd woik as wcll. A list ol thcsc iights lollows.
P|GHT OP |NTLGP|T
Thc iight to picvcnt thc dcstiuction oi dclaccmcnt ol a cicativc woik, oi to objcct
to any changcs madc to a cicativc woik
Most oltcn sccn in thc contcxt ol a painting oi sculptuic. Foi cxamplc, thc iights
to a piccc ol ait on display.
P|GHT OP ATTP|8UT|ON
Thc iight to bc known as thc cicatoi ol a paiticulai cicativc woik, to bc givcn
appiopiiatc cicdit loi onc's cications, and not to bc blamcd loi things onc did
not cicatc.
P|GHT OP D|SCLOSUPL
Thc iight to dctciminc whcn and il a woik shall bc madc public.
P|GHT OP PLPPODUCT|ON
Thc iight to makc copics ol a woik.
P|GHT OP ADAPTAT|ON
Thc iight to makc dciivativc woiks.
P|GHT OP D|STP|8UT|ON
Thc iight to scll, cxpoit, oi impoit a woik oi copics ol a woik.
P|GHT OP PU8L|C PLPPOPMANCL AND D|SPLA
Thc iight to pciloim oi display a woik in public.
P|GHT OP w|THDPAwAL
Thc iight to withdiaw a woik liom thc public sphcic.
Most commonly sccn with aitwoiks ol which only a singlc copy cxists, but also
somctimcs sccn as a iight to puichasc cxtant copics ol a cicativc woik at a icduccd
iatc. Foi cxamplc, a book a wiitci no longci wants on thc maikct.
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P|GHT OP ACCLSS
Thc iight ol thc public to havc acccss to a publishcd copyiightcd woik.
This paiticulai iight is actually not a iight ol thc copyiight holdci, but iathci
ol thc public. In ictuin loi gianting thc cicatoi thc vaiious copyiights, aiguably
at thc cxpcnsc ol thc public, thc public gains acccss to thc woik.
R0M C0NVN7l0N
The Pome Conventlon for the Protectlon of Performers, Producers of Phonograms
and 8roadcastlng Organlsatlons.
Thc Romc Convcntion is an intcinational copyiight agiccmcnt spccilcally addicss-
ing thc iights ol thicc gioups. Thcsc gioups aic: pciloimcis, thc pioduccis ol
sound iccoidings, and thc bioadcastcis ol bioadcasts, all ol whom icccivc piotcction
loi thcii cfoits, cspccially against acts to which thcy havc not conscntcd, likc
bcing iccoidcd. Fiist diawn up in j6, thc Convcntion attcmpts to ofci spccilc
piotcction loi cicativc woik that might othciwisc not qualily loi copyiight, usually
bccausc ol its tiansitoiy natuic.
SLL ALSO Neighboring rights
SAF HAR0RS
A clearly dened set of clrcumstances or actlons wlth respect to a partlcular law
that shleld the actor from llablllty.
A law with salc haibois says Thcsc things will makc you liablc, but il you do
'this,' thcn you aic guaiantccd to bc salc." Salc haibois play an impoitant iolc in
aicas ol thc law that aic piimaiily govcincd by guidclincs (which ultimatcly nccd
to bc intcipictcd by a couit), iathci than iulcs. Sincc many pcoplc may lack thc
icsouiccs oi lcgal sophistication to know oi lnd out il thcii bchavioi is lcgal, a
salc haiboi piovidcs ccitainty.
In thc contcxt ol copyiight law, although it is also uscd as a gcnciic tcim loi thc
limits ol salc" activity," salc haibois aic most oltcn cncountcicd with icspcct to
Scction ,z ol thc US Digital Millcnnium Copyiight Act, Limitations on liability
iclating to matciial onlinc," which dcsciibcs vaiious ways in which Intcinct contcnt
piovidcis can cnsuic that thcy will avoid liability loi thc bchavioi ol thcii uscis and
pations. Thc most impoitant ol thcsc is thc noticc and takcdown" piocccding.
Notc: Salc haiboi" may also iclci to a US-EU agiccmcnt icgaiding thc salcty
and piivacy ol pcisonal data and databascs.
SLL ALSO DMCA, Notice and takedown, Cease-and-desist Ietter
S7A7U7 0F LlMl7A7l0NS
A statute of llmltatlons ls a law that llmlts how long a person can walt to brlng a
legal actlon after a law ls broken.
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Whcn thc timc limit spccilcd by thc statutc ol limitations has iun out, oi tollcd,"
any lutuic lcgal action is said to bc baiicd." Foi cxamplc, il thc statutc ol limita-
tions loi a paiticulai ciimc is tcn ycais, it is gcncially not possiblc to piosccutc
loi that ciimc twclvc ycais altci it took placc.
With icspcct to copyiight law, thc statutc ol limitations will dcsciibc how long
altci an act ol inliingcmcnt a iights-holdci can wait to biing a suit. It will also
limit thc numbci ol inliinging acts loi which thc iights-holdci may scck damagcs.
Thc lcngth ol thc timc limit vaiics bctwccn juiisdictions, and thc cxact natuic ol
thc limits vaiics as wcll.
Foi instancc, in thc Unitcd Statcs, thcic is a thicc-ycai statutc ol limitations loi
copyiight violations, although this is a gcnciic limit, not spccilc to copyiight. This
thicc-ycai clock bcgins on thc datc ol thc most icccnt inliinging act. Howcvci,
somc couits ticat this as a iolling" thicc ycais, mcaning that a iights-holdci can
only scck damagcs loi acts within thc thicc ycais piioi to biinging suit. Othci
couits havc hcld that cvcn il thc inliinging bcgan moic than thicc ycais piioi to
thc suit, il thc inliingcmcnt was ongoing, and at lcast onc act was within thc last
thicc ycais, thc iights holdci may scck damagcs loi all ol thc inliinging acts.
S7A7U70RY XMP7l0N
An exemptlon to copyrlght law protectlons expllcltly wrltten lnto statute.
Whilc a paiticulai bchavioi might bc inliinging undci thc gcncial dcsciiption
ol copyiight, it is spccilcally cxcmptcd, usually loi public policy icasons. Foi
cxamplc, copying books without thc cxpicss pcimission ol thc iights-holdci is
a violation ol copyiight. Howcvci, making copics cxpicssly loi thc puiposc ol
pioviding thc disablcd with acccss to thc book is cxcmptcd by statutc. Thcicloic
such bchavioi is not inliinging.
Othci statutoiy cxcmptions includc copying loi ccitain acadcmic uscs, cspccially
instiuctional activitics, copying loi aichival puiposcs, oi to dcal with biokcn oi
obsolctc tcchnology, distancc cducation, and moic.
Thc Bcinc Convcntion placcs somc limits on what statutoiy cxcmptions a
countiy can havc in its national lcgislation with its thicc-stcp tcst, saying
It shall bc a mattci loi lcgislation in thc countiics ol thc Union to pcimit
thc icpioduction ol such [litciaiy and aitistic woiks in ccitain spccial cascs,
piovidcd that such icpioduction docs not conict with a noimal cxploitation
ol thc woik and docs not unicasonably picjudicc thc lcgitimatc intcicsts ol
thc authoi.
SLL ALSO erne Convention
SWA7 0F 7H R0W
The enort put lnto somethlng, and any value created as a result.
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Il you woik haid at somcthing, you swcat. Somc tianslations ol thc book ol
Gcncsis in thc Chiistian Biblc oi }cwish Pcntatcuch havc God tclling Adam that,
as pait ol Adam's punishmcnt, hc will havc to pioducc his lood by thc swcat
ol his biow."
In copyiight law, thc logic iuns as lollows: somconc who has invcstcd a gicat
dcal ol timc and cncigy in pioducing somcthing nccds to bc piotcctcd, othciwisc
somconc clsc can takc it (by copying) and icap all ol thc bcnclt with nonc ol thc
laboi. This is thc laboi thcoiy" ol piopcity, histoiically associatcd with }ohn Lockc.
Howcvci, most copyiight icgimcs do not giant copyiight in somcthing simply
bccausc it is thc icsult ol haid woik. Thcic is typically an oiiginality icquiicmcnt
as wcll. Thc Unitcd Statcs has cxplicitly icjcctcd thc swcat ol thc biow thcoiy, in
thc casc Ieist Iub|ications v. Rura| Te|epnone, which dcalt with thc paitial copying ol
a tclcphonc diicctoiy.
That bcing said, thc EU giants piotcction in lactual databascs on what is
csscntially a swcat ol thc biow" thcoiy.
SLL ALSO InteIIectuaI eort
7AN0lL M0lUM
The physlcal form that a copyrlghted work may take.
US copyiight law icquiics that a cicativc woik bc lxcd in a tangiblc mcdium"
bcloic it qualilcs loi copyiight, in contiast with thc law ol somc othci countiics,
which conlci copyiight at thc momcnt ol conccption.
Thc tangibility icquiicmcnt has lcd to somc pioblcms with piotcction loi
typcs ol woiks that aic not noimally lxcd," such as dancc, stand-up comcdy, livc
musical pciloimanccs, and moic. It has also bccn thc subjcct ol much discussion
with icspcct to computcis, computci displays, and computci mcmoiy, in tcims ol
whcn a piogiam oi a piogiam's output is lxcd" oi not. Somc ol thcsc issucs havc
bccn addicsscd with taigctcd lcgislation.
SLL ALSO Fixation
7HRS7P 7S7
The 8erne Conventlon's Three-Step Test descrlbes the crlterla by whlch a
partlclpatlng country can have lts own unlque llmlts or statutory exemptlons on
copyrlght law wlthout vlolatlng the terms of the Conventlon.
Thc thicc stcps comc oiiginally liom Aiticlc j(z) ol thc Bcinc Convcntion:
It shall bc a mattci loi lcgislation in thc countiics ol thc Union to pcimit thc
icpioduction ol such woiks in ccitain spccial cascs, piovidcd that such icpio-
duction docs not conict with a noimal cxploitation ol thc woik and docs not
unicasonably picjudicc thc lcgitimatc intcicsts ol thc authoi.
This languagc can bc biokcn down into thc lollowing thicc stcps.
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. Thc cxcmptions must bc loi spccial cascs oi typcs ol cicativc woik only.
z. Thc cxcmptions allowcd must not conict with thc noimal' cxploitation ol
thc woik that copyiight usually makcs possiblc.
,. Thc cxcmptions must not unicasonably picjudicc thc lcgitimatc intcicsts ol
thc authoi.
This languagc has sincc bccn cxpoitcd - with impoitant modilcations - to
a numbci ol othci intcinational copyiight ticatics, including thc TRIPS agicc-
mcnt, scvcial WIPO ticatics, and thc EU Copyiight Diicctivc. Thc widc iangc ol
contcmpoiaiy intcipictations ol thc thicc-stcp tcst is discusscd in Modulc z: Thc
Intcinational Fiamcwoik.
SLL ALSO Statutory exemption
7HRS7RlKS LAWS
A law where the thlrd onense results ln more serlous penaltles.
A thicc-stiikcs" law is a iclcicncc to bascball, whcic it is thicc stiikcs and you
aic out." Such laws havc stiongci pcnaltics lollowing a thiid inliaction. In thc
copyiight contcxt, thicc stiikcs laws aic copyiight cnloiccmcnt statutcs whcic an
Intcinct usci's Intcinct acccss can bc summaiily cut of altci thicc accusations
ol copyiight inliingcmcnt.
Whilc stiongly suppoitcd by thc contcnt industiy and institutional iights-
holdcis, thcsc laws havc comc undci a gicat dcal ol ciiticism liom Intcinct uscis,
advocacy gioups, intcinct scivicc piovidcis, and libiaiics loi hcavily lavoiing
contcnt piovidcis and iights-holdcis ovci thc public. This is bccausc thcsc laws
pcnalizc uscis bascd on accusations (icccivcd complaints about a usci), not piovcn
inliingcmcnt, so thcic is a stiong scnsc ol guilty until piovcn innoccnt." Fuithci,
thc pioccduics loi making an accusation aic highly sticamlincd, whcicas thc
pioccduics loi challcnging thcm aic dimcult. Such laws havc bccn pioposcd oi
passcd in Fiancc, South Koica, Ncw Zcaland, and Canada, among othcis, although
somc havc lailcd to pass oi havc bccn stiuck down.
SLL ALSO DMCA, Notice and takedown
7PM - 7CHN0L00lCAL PR07C7l0N MASURS
Securlty measures added to dlgltal technology and content by content provlders
ln order to restrlct and control access and exert greater control over the uses of
the content they sell.
TPM is a bioadci tcim than DRM," which ically iclcis only to soltwaic-cncodcd
piotcctions. TPM is potcntially both soltwaic- and haidwaic-bascd. Mcasuics
could includc icquiiing passwoids, lltciing soltwaic, ccnsoi chips in computcis,
monitoiing/suivcillancc tcchnology, (scmi-)autonomous soltwaic tools and moic.
Rcgionally codcd DVDs and DVD playcis aic onc cxamplc ol a TPM. Othci
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cxamplcs aic Miciosolt's Tiustcd Computing" and thc lcatuic" ol Applc's iTuncs
that pcimits uscis to tianslci a song to only lvc difcicnt computcis.
Whilc ostcnsibly aimcd only at inliinging uscis, TPM tcchniqucs oltcn havc
ncgativc impact on lcgitimatc uscis, with icspcct to both lcgal uscs and to piivacy
conccins. Howcvci, at lcast undci US law, it is illcgal both to ciicumvcnt any tcch-
nological piotcction mcasuic and to posscss anything that makcs ciicumvcntion
possiblc. Thc potcntially swccping natuic ol TPMs has lcd somc to aiguc that TPMs
makc it possiblc loi a iights-holdci not only to cnloicc thcii copyiight, but to cxcit
contiol ovci a woik that cxcccds thc limits ol what copyiight law pcimits.
SLL ALSO DRM
7RANSFRAlLl7Y l0F Rl0H7S)
The feature of copyrlghts that makes lt posslble for one rlghts-holder to transfer
ownershlp of the rlghts to another person.
Onc ol thc basic chaiactciistics ol piopcity is that it can bc tianslciicd to othcis,
whcthci by salc, gilt, oi somcthing clsc. Copyiights aic no difcicnt. Whilc a
cicatoi initially holds copyiight in his oi hci cicativc woik, thosc iights can bc
tianslciicd to anothci pcison oi cntity, who can thcn tianslci thcm again, and
so on. Foi cxamplc, iccoiding aitists licqucntly tianslci thc copyiight in thcii
songs to a iccoid company. Michacl }ackson lamously owncd thc iights to all ol
thc Bcatlcs' music.
Thc vaiious iights that copyiight" subsumcs can bc tianslciicd as a bloc, but
moic oltcn aic tianslciicd oi sold onc at a timc, somctimcs to difcicnt pcoplc.
7RlPS
The Agreement on Trade-Pelated Aspects of |ntellectual Property Plghts.
TRIPS is an intcinational agiccmcnt on piopcity iights that camc into cfcct in
jj,. Thc Woild Tiadc Oiganization's wcbsitc dcsciibcs TRIPS as to datc, thc most
compichcnsivc multilatcial agiccmcnt on intcllcctual piopcity," and statcs:
Thc aicas ol intcllcctual piopcity that it covcis aic: copyiight and iclatcd
iights (i.c. thc iights ol pciloimcis, pioduccis ol sound iccoidings and
bioadcasting oiganizations), tiadcmaiks including scivicc maiks, gcogiaphical
indications including appcllations ol oiigin, industiial dcsigns, patcnts includ-
ing thc piotcction ol ncw vaiictics ol plants, thc layout-dcsigns ol intcgiatcd
ciicuits, and undiscloscd inloimation including tiadc sccicts and tcst data.
Thc thicc main lcatuics ol TRIPS aic its scctions on standaids, cnloiccmcnt, and
disputc scttlcmcnt. In a way, it is an umbiclla agiccmcnt, sincc it icquiics that its
paiticipants agicc to and uphold thc tcncts ol scvcial othci agiccmcnts, ticatics, and
convcntions. Thcsc aic thc main convcntions ol thc WIPO, thc Paiis Convcntion loi
thc Piotcction ol Industiial Piopcity (Paiis Convcntion), and thc Bcinc Convcntion
loi thc Piotcction ol Litciaiy and Aitistic, in thcii most icccnt vcisions.
SLL ALSO erne Convention, WIP0
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UNSC0
The Unlted Natlons Lducatlonal, Sclentlc and Cultural Organlzatlon.
UNESCO was loundcd in j,. Accoiding to its wcbsitc it lunctions as a laboia-
toiy ol idcas and a standaid-scttci to loigc univcisal agiccmcnts on cmciging
cthical issucs. Thc Univcisal Copyiight Convcntion ol j,z was adoptcd undci
UNESCO's auspiccs."
UNl70 KlN000M'S CHAR7R0 lNS7l7U7 0F LlRARY
AN0 lNF0RMA7l0N PR0FSSl0NALS lClLlP)
Thc lcading piolcssional body loi libiaiians, inloimation spccialists, and knowlcdgc
managcis. Accoiding to its wcbsitc,
CILIP loims a community ol aiound ,6,ooo pcoplc cngagcd in libiaiy and
inloimation woik, ol whom appioximatcly z,ooo aic CILIP mcmbcis and
about ,,ooo aic icgulai customcis ol CILIP Entcipiiscs. CILIP spcaks out
on bchall ol thc piolcssion to thc mcdia, govcinmcnt and dccision makcis.
CILIP piovidcs piactical suppoit loi mcmbcis thioughout thcii cntiic caiccis,
hclping thcm with thcii acadcmic cducation, piolcssional qualilcations, job
hunting and continuing piolcssional dcvclopmcnt.
UNlVRSAL C0PYRl0H7 C0NVN7l0N lUCC)
The UCC, whlch came lnto enect ln :p, represents an alternatlve to the 8erne
Conventlon.
It was dcsigncd by UNESCO to piovidc a loim ol multilatcial copyiight piotcction
loi countiics that wantcd such a thing, but that disagiccd with somc oi all ol thc
Bcinc Convcntion. Thcsc countiics includc thc Unitcd Statcs and Russia, as wcll
as much ol Latin Amciica and thc loimci USSR. Its opcning scction statcs:
Thc Contiacting Statcs, Movcd by thc dcsiic to cnsuic in all countiics
copyiight piotcction ol litciaiy, scicntilc and aitistic woiks, Convinccd that
a systcm ol copyiight piotcction appiopiiatc to all nations ol thc woild and
cxpicsscd in a univcisal convcntion, additional to, and without impaiiing
intcinational systcms alicady in loicc, will cnsuic icspcct loi thc iights ol
thc individual and cncouiagc thc dcvclopmcnt ol litciatuic, thc scicnccs and
thc aits, Pcisuadcd that such a univcisal copyiight systcm will lacilitatc a
widci disscmination ol woiks ol thc human mind and incicasc intcinational
undci-standing, Havc icsolvcd to icvisc thc Univcisal Copyiight Convcn-
tion as signcd at Gcncva on 6 Scptcmbci j,z (hcicinaltci callcd thc j,z
Convcntion")
All Bcinc Convcntion paiticipants aic also UCC mcmbcis. Additionally, thc
UCC's Aiticlc ; cxplicitly statcs that nonc ol its piovisions is intcndcd to conict
with thc Bcinc Convcntion, making thc UCC ol limitcd impoitancc today, sincc
most countiics aic Bcinc mcmbcis.
SLL ALSO UNSC0
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WlP0
w|PO ls the world |ntellectual Property Organlzatlon.
Accoiding to its wcbsitc, WIPO is a spccializcd agcncy ol thc Unitcd Nations.
It is dcdicatcd to dcvcloping a balanccd and acccssiblc intcinational intcllcctual
piopcity (IP) systcm, which icwaids cicativity, stimulatcs innovation and contiib-
utcs to cconomic dcvclopmcnt whilc salcguaiding thc public intcicst." WIPO was
cstablishcd by thc WIPO Convcntion in j6; with a mandatc liom its Mcmbci
Statcs to piomotc thc piotcction ol IP thioughout thc woild thiough coopciation
among statcs and in collaboiation with othci intcinational oiganizations. Its
hcadquaitcis aic in Gcncva, Switzciland. Thc diicctoi gcncial is Fiancis Guiiy.
WIPO administcis z difcicnt ticatics, including thc WIPO Convcntion, thiitccn
ol which aic intcllcctual piopcity ticatics.
WlP0 PRF0RMANCS AN0 PH0N00RAMS 7RA7Y lWPP7)
A w|PO treaty that came lnto enect ln zooz, expllcltly addresslng the rlghts of
performers and producers of sound recordlngs.
WIPO's wcbsitc statcs that
Thc Ticaty dcals with intcllcctual piopcity iights ol two kinds ol bcncl-
ciaiics: (i) pciloimcis (actois, singcis, musicians, ctc.), and (ii) pioduccis ol
phonogiams (thc pcisons oi lcgal cntitics who oi which takc thc initiativc and
havc thc icsponsibility loi thc lxation ol thc sounds).
Thcy aic dcalt with in thc samc instiumcnt bccausc most ol thc iights
giantcd by thc Ticaty to pciloimcis aic iights conncctcd with thcii lxcd,
puicly auial pciloimanccs (which aic thc subjcct mattci ol phonogiams).
As lai as pciloimcis aic conccincd, thc Ticaty giants pciloimcis loui
kinds ol cconomic iights in thcii pciloimanccs lxcd in phonogiams (not in
audiovisual lxations, such as motion pictuics): (i) thc iight ol icpioduction,
(ii) thc iight ol distiibution, (iii) thc iight ol icntal, and (iv) thc iight ol making
availablc.
SLL ALSO Fixation, Rights
W0RK F0R HlR
A creatlve work that the creator has made at someone else's request, usually for
pay.
Woik loi hiic is a conccpt liom US copyiight law and cxists in a lcw othcis as wcll.
Foi cxamplc, il a pcison commissions a sculptuic liom an aitist, and piovidcs vciy
spccilc icquiicmcnts as to matciials and appcaiancc, thc sculptuic will piobably
bc a woik loi hiic, although thc ultimatc dctcimination is lact-spccilc.
Thc conccpt scivcs to clcai up any conlusion that might icsult whcn an cmploycc
cicatcs a copyiightablc woik in thc couisc ol thcii cmploymcnt. Undci thc woiks
madc loi hiic" doctiinc, thc cmployci holds thc copyiight in such a situation.
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It is this doctiinc that cnsuics that, loi cxamplc, thc hundicds ol pcoplc who woik
on thc pioduction ol a motion pictuic do not havc any claim to thc copyiight.
Howcvci, thc natuic ol thc cmployci-cmploycc iclationship can bc complcx
and dimcult to dclnc, cspccially whcn it cxists only loi thc duiation ol thc woik's
cication, oi thc woik is cicatcd in an cducational contcxt.
Fuithci complicating things, sincc thc Bcinc Convcntion scpaiatcly iccognizcs
cconomic and moial iights, cvcn a cicatoi who has madc a woik loi hiic may still
posscss moial iights in that woik.
SLL ALSO Neighboring rights, 7ransferabiIity of rights, Academic exception
W70
The world Trade Organlzatlon ls an organlzatlon devoted to the rules of
lnternatlonal trade.
Accoiding to its wcbsitc, thc WTO's main lunction is to cnsuic that tiadc ows
as smoothly, picdictably and liccly as possiblc."
Thc WTO is icsponsiblc loi, among othci things, thc TRIPS agiccmcnt, which
was thc list timc and placc that copyiight issucs bccamc a locus ol an intcinational
tiadc agiccmcnt.
SLL ALSO 7RIPS
Index
"Cllck wrap" llcenses and the Unlform Commerclal Code :z
Collectlve management ;o
Compulsory llcenses 6:
Copyrlght duratlon (z
Copyrlght law and folklore :6
Copyrlght llcenses :
Creatlve commons 8:
Culture ;
Lconomlc rlghts (8
Lxceptlons and llmltatlons (
Lxtenslons of the scope of copyrlght protectlon (
Palrness (
Pree software llcenses 8o
How lndlvldual natlons deal wlth tradltlonal knowledge :oo
|ndlvldual management 6(
|nternatlonal lnstruments :p
|nternatlonal legal lnstruments ::
Llbrary exceptlons 8
Moral rlghts :
Nelghborlng and su| enet|s rlghts z
Orphan works ;(
Personhood 6
Perspectlves for developlng countrles zp
Physlcal and dlgltal commons ;p
Pollcy arguments :z:
Procedures and penaltles pz
Peglonal codes governlng tradltlonal knowledge :o8
Technologlcal protectlon measures ;
The complex responslbllltles of llbrarlans p6
The llmlts of copyrlght :(
The Open Access movement 8
The ratlonale for the lnternatlonal system :8
The relatlonshlp between copyrlght lnfrlngement and other unauthorlzed
actlvltles (:
The Swedlsh Plrate Party :zp
welfare
what does copyrlght law cover! :z
what does copyrlght law protect! (
what lnfrlnges copyrlght! 8p
what ls an author! 8
what ls copyrlght! :o
what ls the publlc domaln! ::
what ls tradltlonal knowledge! pp
what rlghts come wlth copyrlght! :
who gets a copyrlght! :
who makes copyrlght law! ::
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