Multimedia

Use on News Websites: A Look at Photo Slideshows and Videos Through the Uses and Gratifications Theory

Dr. Jin Yang, Rachelle Pavelko and Dr. Sandra Utt The University of Memphis

Running head: MULTIMEDIA USE ON NEWS WEBSITES

Multimedia Use on News Websites: A Look at Photo Slideshows and Videos Through the Uses and Gratifications Theory

Abstract
Undergraduate students were surveyed about their motivations to view photo slideshows and videos and to identify which variables might predict the use of them. Employing the uses and gratifications theory, salient motivations identified were the multimedia elements realistic content features and the physical and mental relaxation functions. Demographic variables didnt predict multimedia use, but the frequency of visits to news websites and perception of innovativeness had the greatest impact on predicting use.

Running head: MULTIMEDIA USE ON NEWS WEBSITES

Introduction
The field of journalism, once at a crossroads with its traditional and new age platforms, remains an ever-evolving discipline that strives to create more applicable, user-friendly content on the web. To cater to the unique features available online, organizations have adapted their conventional forms of newsgathering and news-dissemination processes to make better use of the Internets capabilities.1 The convergence of media on the web has also allowed the audience to experience the news through multiple channels as well as to escalate interactivity.2 Two such examples are photo slideshows and videos on news websites. A photo slideshow is a series of still images that is capable of presenting a compelling story without the use of text. According to Matlins study published on the Columbia Journalism Reviews website, photo slideshows have become an integral part of news websites and are largely responsible for driving page views and revenue.3 Similarly, videos posted on news websites have allowed the audience to view a broadcast regardless of time, date or location. The simplicity in which photo slideshows and videos can be shared, downloaded and archived, coupled with their innate characteristic of interactivity, makes these two multimedia modalities key features on news websites. Although multimedia components of news websites are now commonplace, the motivation behind people viewing these components is still unclear. This study will address this void by examining the questions raised by the introduction of photo slideshows and videos on news websites. The focus of

Running head: MULTIMEDIA USE ON NEWS WEBSITES this study is to explore the relationships among photo slideshow and video use and user motivations and behaviors by applying the uses and gratifications theory. Specifically, surveying undergraduate college students will permit us to define the motivations for viewing both photo slideshows and videos as well as

to identify which variables might predict the use of these two modalities on news websites.

Literature Review
Foundations of Uses and Gratifications Theory Interest in uses and gratifications theory, more specifically, the gratifications that the media provide to their audiences, can be traced back to the very beginning of empirical mass communication research.4 Prior to the seminal article on uses and gratifications authored by Katz, Haas and Gurevitch, the majority of mass communication research centered on the passive audience and its vulnerability to the effects of the mass media. Uses and gratifications theory, however, sparked a revolution by introducing the notion of people as active, deliberate consumers of media.5 Theory experts discovered that viewing media through the uses and gratifications approach allows individuals not only to ask how the media gratify and influence them but also how and why they are differentially incorporated into social institutions.6 Katz, Blumler and Gurevitch described uses and gratifications theory as being concerned with (1) the social and psychological origins of (2) needs, which generate (3) expectations of (4) the mass media or other sources, which lead to (5) differential patterns of media exposure (or engagement in other activities),

Running head: MULTIMEDIA USE ON NEWS WEBSITES resulting in (6) need gratifications and (7) other consequences, perhaps mostly unintended ones.7

In other words, the uses and gratifications theory argues that people bend media to meet their individual needs more than the media perceivably overpower them.8 Therefore, the main objectives of the uses and gratifications approach are to explain why people use media and why those psychological needs motivate them to engage in certain media use behaviors.9

Uses and Gratifications and the Internet The uses and gratifications approach has been considered an appropriate theoretical framework because its core principles are generally applicable to various mediated communication situations.10 Similarly, previous research discusses how the uses and gratifications approach is important for exploring communication via the Internet because of its comprehensive ability to examine the multiple uses to which various technologies might simultaneously be put.11 Ruggerio writes, The uses and gratifications theory has always provided a cutting-edge theoretical approach in the initial stages of each new mass communications mediumnewspapers, radio and television and now the Internet.12 In this case, considering the importance placed on interactivity on the Internet, it is expected that communication researchers would want to examine how and why people are using the Internet to meet their individual needs. Previous research further explains that communication on the Internet leaves an easily traceable trail, meaning that the content can be effortlessly recorded, copied or simply observed.13 Ruggerio, therefore, concludes, If the Internet is a

Running head: MULTIMEDIA USE ON NEWS WEBSITES new dominion of human activity, it is also a new dominion for uses and gratifications researchers.14 As a matter of fact, the applicability of uses and gratifications has been greatly expanded due to the Internets high level of interactivity.15 The term of Web 2.0 is illustrative of the key aspect of interactivity or user participation.16 While the majority of activity on the Internet is exploratory in nature,19 audience

members are afforded the luxury of contacting and interacting with thousands of sources, as well as finding information presented in a wide range of formats from simple text to live video.20 Therefore, a variety of needs including the need to interact should be and can be explored with the uses and gratification theoretical tradition.21

Uses and Gratifications Approach to Online News and New Media The notion of interactivity via the Internet has, according to Chung, challenged the one-way directional flow of the traditional news model by giving a voice to the audience, and, therefore, creating a new, two-way model of communication.22 Interactivity has the potential to transform the nature of traditional journalism practice through online news.23 Internet users have the capability not only to hand-select the stories they want to read but also to engage in back-and-forth conversation with newsroom personal, creating opportunities for personalized journalism.24 The two-way flow of communication that serves as the foundation for online news sites gives way to innovative features for our daily news that were unattainable from traditional formats. The adoption of interactivity onto news websites continues to change how news is presented, delivered and perceived.25

Running head: MULTIMEDIA USE ON NEWS WEBSITES Dube might be one of the first to describe a complete repertory of forms of online news narratives used by the main media websites on the Internet.26 The

following three examples of keynote features on news websites are a sampling of his comprehensive list, including: Animated stories, useful for bringing life to printed infographics, cartoons and caricatures; Slideshows, which are an ensemble of photographs placed in a determinate order that can be combined with text to produce a powerful narrative; Audio stories, which are, of course, stories based on sound and also may include video or a visual component.27 Ureta concluded that new media on the Internet are not putting an end to traditional news culture or detracting from its importance, but rather reinventing its shape.28

Uses and Gratifications Applicability to Modality Retention Research tells us that certain media simply provide more gratification to users than do other media. Greenberg best illustrated this concept when he asked participants to list their individual motivations for watching television. He found seven motivation clusters for television useto pass time, to forget, to learn, for arousal, for relaxation, for companionship and lastly, out of habit.29 A study of four radio typesterritorial radio, MP3 players, Internet radio and satellite radiosuggests that relaxation and choice were ranked as the highest gratifications associated with MP3 players.30 Chang studied the salient motivations of podcast uses and identified five clusters:

Running head: MULTIMEDIA USE ON NEWS WEBSITES voyeurism/social/interaction/companionship, entertainment/relaxation/arousal, education/information, pastime/escape, habit and convenience.31 While there appeared to be common motivations such as relaxation, escape and pastime associated with each medium, each one, however, has its own unique motivations that drive its use. And certain media provided more gratification than other media.32

Sundar found that the retention of the information by the user is related to the modalities in which it is presented.33 In other words, each modality, whether it is text, photograph, audio, etc., contains unique characteristics that are scrutinized and processed differently by each user.34 Although multimedia elements such as photo slideshows and videos are added to news websites for the purpose of attracting news traffic, the actual use of them and their gratifications fall short of investigating and studying. This study, therefore, was created and executed to find answers to the following research questions.

Research Questions
RQ#1: What are the salient motivations for viewing photo slideshows on a news website? RQ#2: What are the salient motivations for viewing videos on a news website? RQ#3: What variables predict the use of photo slideshows on a news website? RQ#4: What variables predict the use of videos on a news website?

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Method
Sample A convenience sample of 418 undergraduate students enrolled in several general education courses at a Mid-South, four-year university was recruited for participation in the survey. After receiving IRB approval, six instructors were contacted to ask for permission; all agreed to the survey being distributed to their students during a 15-minute period of class time. Two graduate assistants distributed the questionnaires with the cover letter to the students. The cover letter was signed by the researchers and provided an opportunity for students to opt out if they chose not to participate. Undergraduate students were sampled for two reasons. First, they are more likely to use the Internet than is the general population,35 and second, they are more likely to perceive the Internet as a useful and positive learning tool than is the general population.36

Measurements Uses and Gratifications In this survey, 15 motivational items were asked of respondents about their photo slideshow and video use experience, all of which were adapted from earlier studies on uses and gratifications with wording modifications.37 Three new motivational items on realism38 and three on interactivity39 were added to the motivational list for a total of 21 motivational items. Realism and interactivity items were added because photo slideshows and videos as multimedia elements on news websites are uniquely associated with these characteristics. All of the

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motivational items included a six-point Likert scale response, ranging from one (strongly disagree) to six (strongly agree). [See Table 1]

Usage of News Websites and Multimedia A yes/no question was asked of respondents about whether they had ever viewed a photo slideshow or video on a news website. A second, more indepth question asked respondents to clarify the frequency of their news website visits: How often do you visit news websites (examples include: MSNBC, The New York Times, NPR, ESPN, The Commercial Appeal, E! News, CNN, TMZ, etc). The response scale included never, monthly, weekly, daily, more than once a day and hourly.

Demographic and Profiling Variables Standard demographic variables such as gender, age, household income and race were included in the survey. Because respondents were all undergraduate college students, their school classifications were freshmen, sophomore, junior, senior and fifth or more-year senior. A question on socialpolitical view was asked: How would you describe your social political views? and a scale ranging from one (watch Fox news and consider yourself pro-life) to seven (watch MSNBC and consider yourself pro-choice) was provided. We also asked one question regarding innovation: I like to learn about things even if they may never be of any use to me. The response scale was again a six-point Likert scale ranging from one (strongly disagree) to six (strongly agree).

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Findings
Characteristics of the Sample A total of 418 undergraduate students took the survey. However, because two questionnaires were dropped from the analysis because of their many missing values (missing 52 of 70 variables), only 416 valid questionnaires were analyzed. Respondents were 73 percent females and 27 percent males. The average age of the sample was 22 with a minimum of 18 and maximum of 52 years. In terms of race, 49 percent were white, 43 percent were African Americans and 3 percent were Asians, Hispanics and other. For household incomes, 17 percent made less than $20,000; 15 percent between $20,000 and $35,000; 12 percent between $35,001 and $45,000; 14 percent between $45,001 and $60,000; 13 percent between $60,001 and $75,000; 15 percent between $75,001 and $100,000; and 14 percent made more than $100,000. In terms of classification, 33 percent were freshmen; 20 percent were sophomores; 12 percent were juniors; 26 percent were seniors; and 9 percent were fifth-year seniors. The samples social political view: 31 percent neutral; 17 percent pro-life and watched Fox news; 10 percent pro-choice and watched MSNBC; 21 percent slightly more toward prolife; and 20 percent slightly more toward pro-choice.

News Websites and Multimedia Use Their use of news websites: 11 percent said they viewed a news website more than once a day; 18 percent said daily; 34 percent said weekly; 31 percent said monthly; and 5 percent said they had never viewed a news website. For photo slideshows, 73 percent said that they had viewed photo slideshows on

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news websites, while 27 percent said they had never viewed photo slideshows. When asked whether they agree that they would take advantage of the opportunity to view photo slideshows on news websites, 55 percent agreed to the statement, while 45 percent disagreed. For video use, 87 percent said they had viewed videos posted on news websites, while 13 percent responded that they had never viewed. Also, 53 percent agreed with the statement that they would take advantage of the opportunity to view photo videos posted on the news websites, while 47 percent disagreed with the statement. [See Table 2]

Salient Motivations RQ#1: What are the salient motivations for viewing photo slideshows on a news website? To answer this question, a factor analysis was conducted on the 21 motivational items first. Using the varimax rotation method, the initial factor solution was produced. However, the initial solution was hindered by two variables whose communalities were less than 0.5gain insight into others and photo slideshows are free and easy to access. With these two variables deleted from the analysis, the second solution was obtained with only one variable loading on one factorconnection with others. Therefore, that variable had to be deleted from the analysis. The third solution ended with four factors, but with one variable cross-loading on factors two and fourviewing allows me to scrutinize information. With this variable deleted, the final solution was obtained. This solution produced four factors with eigenvalues higher than one. These factors combined explained 64.71 percent of the total variance. The first

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factor showed an eigenvalue of 4.17 and explained 24.54 percent of the variance. The items loading on factor one pointed to relaxing and entertaining; therefore, factor one was labeled relaxation and enjoyment. The second factor with an eigenvalue of 2.62 accounted for 15.43 percent of the common variance. The items pointed to the realism of photo slideshows; therefore, factor two was labeled realism. Factor three explained 14.95 percent of the common variance with an eigenvalue of 2.54. The three items pointed to the learning characteristic of photo slideshows; therefore, factor three was labeled learning. Factor four with an eigenvalue of 1.66 accounted for 9.79 percent of the common variance. The two items from the added motivational questions pointed to the interactivity feature; therefore, factor four was labeled interactivity. To answer RQ#1 on salient motivations of using photo slideshows, motivational items on each factor were summed and averaged. The realism factor had the highest mean score (3.78), followed by relaxation (3.66), interactivity (3.36) and learning (2.96). Therefore, the top salient motivations for viewing photo slideshows on news websites are their realistic features and relaxing functions. Interactivity is also an appeal, and lastly, the learning function. [See Table 3]

RQ#2: What are the salient motivations for viewing videos on a news website? The same factor analysis process was conducted on the 21 motivations for viewing videos on news websites. Using the varimax rotation method, the initial factor solution was hindered by four cross-loadings on five factorsrelaxing on factors one and three; what happened to me on factors three and five, free

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and easy access on factors four and five, and viewing allows me to scrutinize information on factor 4 and factor 5. With these four variables deleted, the final solution allowed a clearer interpretation. This solution produced five factors with eigenvalues higher than one, which explained 71.39 percent of the total variance. Factor one had all the five relaxation items. Factor two was connection with others/realism; factor three was learning; factor four was escape; and factor five was interactivity. To answer RQ#2 on salient motivations of using videos, motivational items on each factor were summed and averaged. The connection with other/realism factor had the highest mean score (3.89), followed by relaxation (3.61), interactivity (3.40), escape (3.28) and learning (2.72). Therefore, the top motivations for viewing videos on news websites were the connection with others/realism feature and relaxation functions. Interactive functions and escape were also strong motivations. Learning was the weakest motivation. [See Table 4]

RQ#3: What variables predict the use of photo slideshows on a news website? To answer this research question, a binary logistic regression analysis to predict the use of photo slideshows on news websites was run. The independent variables that entered into the regression included gender, race, school years, income, social political views, frequency of visiting news websites and innovativeness. A test of the full model against a constant-only model was statistically significant, indicating that the predictors as a set reliably distinguished between users and non-users of photo slideshows on news websites (Chi-square = 77.711, p < .000 with df =18).

Running head: MULTIMEDIA USE ON NEWS WEBSITES Nagelkerkes R2 of .28 indicated a moderate relationship between the photo slideshow use dependent variable and all independent variables combined. The Wald criterion demonstrated that visiting news websites and

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innovativeness made significant contributions to photo slideshow usage. [See Table 5]

RQ#4: What variables predict the use of videos on a news website? To answer this research question, a binary logistic regression analysis to predict the use of video on news websites was run. The independent variables that entered into the regression included gender, race, school years, income, social political views, frequency of visiting news websites and innovativeness. A test of the full model against a constant-only model was statistically significant, indicating that the predictors as a set reliably distinguished between users and non-users of videos on news websites (Chi-square = 32.55, p < .05 with df =18). Nagelkerkes R2 of .17 indicated a relationship among the video user dependent variable and the independent variables combined. The Wald criterion demonstrated that visiting news websites made a significant contribution to video usage. [See Table 6] In summary, the salient motivations for college students to use photo slideshows and videos on news websites are their realistic content features and the physical and mental relaxation functions that accompanied their use. Demographic variables cannot predict the multimedia use, but rather, the frequency of visits to news websites and perception of innovativeness had the greatest impact on predicting use.

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Conclusion and Discussion

This survey of multimedia use by undergraduate college students and its resulting analysis uncovered several important findings. First, the four most salient motivations that directed users to photo slideshows on news websites were their realistic content, relaxation, interactivity and learning, while the two most salient motivations that directed users to videos on news websites were connection with others/realism and relaxation. Interestingly, college students tended to use videos more than they used photo slideshows as 23 percent of the respondents said that they had never viewed photo slideshows, while only 13 percent had never viewed videos. Multimedia production is not only time-consuming but also technology demanding, and while some professionals believe that multimedia elements drive news website traffic, this study suggests that the gratifications of realistic content and relaxation, for example, are the driving force rather than the multimedia elements themselves. Of course, this sample cant represent the general public. Still news website managers must consider both short-term and long-term strategies to maximize their use of high production cost multimedia elements. Moreover, realism and relaxation motivations may provide a meaningful guide for professionals to produce engaging and interesting multimedia elements. Second, demographic variables such as gender, race and income cannot predict the use of photo slideshows and video use on news websites, suggesting all demographic groups have used these two multimedia elements. Instead, the variables that predicted use for only photo slideshows was the perceived innovativeness and for both photo slideshows and videos were the frequency

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of visits to news websites. These results correlate directly with previous research on millennials, their use of the Internet and social media and the importance they place on new technologies or innovativeness. For example, a study by the Pew Research Center on social media and Internet use among teens and young adults found that 62 percent of online teens get their news about current events and politics from online new sites.40 Similarly, of the 18 to 29-year-old age group, 81 percent are wireless Internet users, and 66 percent own a laptop computer instead of a desktop.41 Millennials significantly prefer social media to socialize but also use the Internet as their media outlet to seek information. It, therefore, comes as little surprise that innovation and the resulting frequency of news website visits predict undergraduate college students multimedia use. The photo slideshows and videos used on news websites, though now commonplace, continually contain content that is inspiring, engaging and innovative. The very essence of innovation suggests new products, services and ever-evolving ideas. Blogs, widgets, social networks, mobile devices, etc. are reaching consumers when they are on the Internet, simply because active and young audience members want these products.42 It is critical for news websites to create a product that is both engaging and innovative in order to maintain richer content and gain repeat users and in return to create a loyal, participatory audience.43

Limitations of the Present Study

As with certain research projects, this study contains limitations. By only

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surveying a convenience sample of undergraduate students, the study contains no external validity. Limiting the sample to undergraduates also means that a young, well-educated sample was surveyed, and that the feelings of older adults about multimedia elements on news websites are unknown. Another limitation was that the participants, reflecting the demographics of university undergraduates, skew to female. However, the exploratory nature of this survey makes sampling this female population still relevant because the initial information gained regarding the motivations to use photo slideshows and videos is very useful for news websites. The study is also limited because the survey was a self-report study, conducted during class time. The limitations and areas not explored lend themselves nicely to future research.

Future Research
Future studies could continue to explore innovation as motivation for young readers use of photo slideshows, videos and other multimedia elements on news websites. Innovation might be explored from different perspectives like expanding the use of technology. Additionally, this study only featured two multimedia elementsphoto slideshows and videos. However, future studies could include animation, graphics, audio and customization. Journalists running news websites who want to attract young readers or millennials must understand how young readers think and what they want. Young readers demand instant gratification and are quickly bored. They use social media continually and view themselves as multitaskers. They have just begun their

Running head: MULTIMEDIA USE ON NEWS WEBSITES lives and are confident, self-expressive, liberal, upbeat and receptive to new ideas and ways of living. Although this study didnt focus on newspapers, its findings have significant implications for the newspaper industry. A newspapers survival must be based on two strategies. First, how many current subscribers can be converted to the digital subscribers of the newspaper, and second, how can

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newspapers sell their mobile news content to new subscribers. The success of the digital product will depend on the digital newspaper coming alive. For example, pictures come alive with photo slideshows and videos, graphics become interactive and text can be personalized. Young readers or millennials must be able to customize the news websites to fit their needs and satisfy their gratifications.

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Table 1 Motivational Items I view the photo slideshows and videos posted on news websites because: I find them enjoyable. They entertain me. They amuse me. I find them thrilling and exciting. I find it relaxes me. They are pleasant. To learn about what could possibly happen to me. To learn how to do something Ive never done before. They help me learn about myself. To gain insight into other peoples lives. They are free and easy to access. To feel like Im not alone. So I can talk with other people about current events. It gives me something to do with my time. So I can get away from what Im doing. I know the content is real and not made up. It provides me with content that is true to life. The experience is real-life. It allows me to sort through information. It allows me to spend more time on things that I want to see. I can avoid viewing things that I dont want to see.

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Table 2 Use of News Websites and Multimedia, by Percent News Websites How Often Visited Hourly More than once a day Daily Weekly Monthly Never Total Photo Slideshow Take Advantage Of Opportunity to View Strongly agree Agree Somewhat agree Disagree Somewhat disagree Strongly disagree Total Video Take Advantage Opportunity to View Strongly agree Agree Somewhat agree Disagree Somewhat disagree Strongly disagree Total 8 18 28 22 12 13 100 7 18 30 19 13 13 100 Have Used Yes No Total 87 13 100 6 9 18 34 31 5 100 Have Used Yes No Total 73 27 100

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Table 3 Factor Analysis of Photo Slideshow Factors 2 3 Realism Learning

Enjoyable Entertaining Amusing Thrilling Relaxing Pleasant Engaging Liberating Content is real Content is true to life Experience is real Learn what might happen to me Learn new things Learn about myself Feel like Im not alone Things I want to see Things I dont want to see Eigenvalue % of variance Cronbach alpha Mean score

1 Relaxation & enjoyment .71 .77 .76 .64 .66 .66 .71 .68

4 Interactivity

.90 .88 .84 .67 .75 .82 .71

.72 .89

4.17 24.54 .87 3.66

2.62 15.43 .88 3.78

2.54 14.95 .76 2.96

1.67 9.79 .73 3.36

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Table 4 Factor Analysis of Video Use Motivations

1 Relaxation Enjoyable Entertaining Amusing Thrilling Pleasant Insight into others lives Connection with others Content is real Content is true to life Experience is real Learn new things Learn about myself Feel like Im not alone Something to do Get away from what Im doing Things I want to see Things I dont want to see Eigenvalue % of variance Cronbach alpha Means of factors 3.59 21.20 .90 3.61 .78 .85 .85 .81 .66

2 Connection /realism

Factors

3 Learning

4 Escape

5 Interactivity

.53 .55 .86 .88 .83 .70 .85 .64 .81 .80 .73 .89 3.15 18.53 .80 3.89 2.11 12.42 .76 2.72 1.70 9.98 .82 3.28 1.59 9.35 .79 3.40

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Table 5 Logistic Regression Assessing the Use of Photo Slideshows on News Websites Predictors Gender Race (1) Race (2) Race (3) Race (4) Years of school(1) Years of school(2) Years of school(3) Years of school(4) Income (1) Income (2) Income (3) Income (4) Income (5) Income (6) Visit to news websites Social-political view Innovativeness B. -.10 -.72 -.74 -.08 .13 -.30 .53 -.25 .18 .12 -.01 .34 .13 .29 .17 .90 .04 .27 S. E. .32 1.17 1.36 1.18 1.44 .51 .59 .63 .54 .52 .52 .54 .53 .54 .51 .16 .08 .10 Wald .09 .37 .29 .01 .01 .45 .03 1.18 .16 3.76 5.89 2.18 2.39 2.13 5.89 14.34 3.55 71.22 Odds Ratio .91 .49 .48 .92 1.14 .74 1.69 .78 1.20 1.13 .99 1.40 1.13 1.33 1.18 2.45*** 1.04 1.31**

Chi-square = 77.71*** (df=7); Nagelkerk R2 = .28 Note. *<.05, ** <.01, ***<.001

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Table 6 Logistic Regression Assessing the Use of Video Viewing on News Websites Predictors Gender (1) Race (1) Race (2) Race (3) Race (4) Years of school(1) Years of school(2) Years of school(3) Years of school(4) Income (1) Income (2) Income (3) Income (4) Income (5) Income (6) Social-political view Innovativeness Visit to news websites B. -.21 1.41 1.766 1.40 .13 .43 -.11 .92 .25 1.17 1.57 .90 .93 .91 1.66 -.21 -.15 .72 S. E. .40 .94 1.29 .94 1.44 .63 .66 .85 .63 .60 .65 .61 .60 .63 .68 .11 .13 .19 Wald .28 2.24 1.67 2.21 .01 .45 .039 1.18 .16 3.76 5.89 2.18 2.39 2.13 5.89 3.55 1.22 14.34 Odds Ratio .81 4.08 5.28 4.05 1.14 1.53 .90 2.51 1.29 3.21 4.80 2.45 2.54 2.49 5.25 .81 .86 2.06***

Chi-square = 32.55* (df=18) ; Nagelkerk R2 = .17 Note. *<.05, ** <.01, ***<.001

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Endnotes

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S. Shyam Sundar. Multimedia Effects on Processing and Perception of Online News: A Study of Picture, Audio, and Video Downloads. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly 77, no. 3 (2000): 480-499. 2 Deborah Chung and Chan Yun Yoo, Online User Motivations and Use of Interactive Features on an Online News Site: A Uses and Gratifications Approach. (paper submitted to the International Communication Association Conference, Journalism Studies Division, Dresden, Germany, 2006). 3 Chadwick Matlin. A Faustian Bargain: Slideshows are the Scourge, and the Savior, of Online Journalism, last modified December 2010, http://www.cjr.org/reports/a_faustian_bargain.php?page=all.
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Elihu Katz, Jay G. Blumler and Michael Gurevitch. Uses and Gratifications Research. The Public Opinion Quarterly 37, no. 4 (1974): 509-523. 5 Werner J. Severin and James W. Tankard, Jr., Communication Theories: Origins, Methods, and Uses in the Mass Media 5th Edition (New York: Addison Wisely Longman, 2000). 6 Katz, Blumler and Gurevitch. Uses and Gratifications Research, 509-523. 7 Ibid. 8 Ibid. 9 Carolyn A. Lin. Looking Back: The Contribution of Blumler and Katzs Uses of Mass Communication to Communicatio Research. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 40, no. 4. (1996): 574-581. 10 Chung and Yun Yoo, Online User Motivations and Use of Interactive Features. 11 Sheizaf Rafaeli. The Electronic Bulletin Board: A Computer-Driven Mass Medium. Computers and the Social Sciences, 2 (1986): 123-126. 12 Thomas E. Ruggiero. Uses and Gratifications Theory in the 21st Century. Mass Communication & Society 3, no. 1 (2000): 3-37. 13 Ibid. 14 Ibid. 15 Ruggiero. Uses and Gratifications Theory in the 21st Century, 3-37. 16 C. Courtois, P. Mechant, L. De Marez and G. Verleye. Gratifications and Seeding Behavior of Online Adolescents. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 15 (2009). 109-137. 19 John Eighmey and Lola McCord. Adding Value in the Information Age: Uses and Gratifications of Sites on the World Wide Web. Journal of Business Research 41 (1998): 187-194. 20 Ibid. 21 Ibid. 22 Deborah S. Chung. Interactive Features of Online Newspapers: Identifying Patterns and Predicting Use of Engaged Readers. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 13 (2008): 658679. 23 Ibid. 24 Ibid. 25 Chung and Yun Yoo, Online User Motivations and Use of Interactive Features.
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Ainara Larrondo Ureta. The Challenge of Online Journalistic Language to Narrative Forms: The Special Report Case Study on Spanish Press Websites. (research project funded by the University of the Basque Country, 2007). 27 Ibid. 28 Ibid. 29 Bradley S. Greenberg. Gratifications of Television Viewing and Their Correlates for British Children, In J. G. Blumler & E. Katz (Eds.), The uses of mass communication: Current Perspectives on Gratifications Research (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1974), 71-92. In Kim Chang. It Looks So Cool to Use Podcast!: Exploring Motivations, Gratifications and Attitudes Toward Using Podcasts Among College Students. (A manuscript submitted to the Instructional and Developmental Division of the International Communication Association Annual Conference, 2009). 30 Alan B. Albarran, Tonya Anderson, Ligia Garcia Bejar, Anna L. Bussart, Elizabeth Daggett, Sarah Gibson, Matt Gorman, Danny Greer, Miao Guo, Jennifer L. Horst,Tania Khalaf, John Philip

Running head: MULTIMEDIA USE ON NEWS WEBSITES

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Lay, Michael McCracken, Bill Mott and Heather Way. What Happened to Our Audiences? Radio and New Technology Uses and Gratifications Among Young Adult Users. Journal of Radio Studies 14, No. 2 (2007): 92-102. 31 Kim Chang. It Looks So Cool to Use Podcast! 32 Ibid. 33 Sundar. A Study of Picture, Audio, and Video Downloads, 480-499. 34 Ibid. 35 S. Jones, C. Joneson-Yale and S. Millermaier. U.S. College Students Internet Use: Race, Gender, and Digital Divides. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 14 (2009): 244-264. 36 D. Matthews and L. Schrumb. High-Speed Internet Use and Academic Gratifications in the College Residence. Internet and Higher Education 6 (2003): 125-144. 37 Greenberg. Gratifications of Television. In Blumler and Katz. The Uses of Mass Communication. A. M. Rubin. Television Use by Children and Adolescents. Human Communication Research 5 (1979): 109-120. A. M. Rubin. A Multivariate Analysis of 60 Minutes Viewing Motivations. Journalism Quarterly 58 (1981): 529-534. A. M. Rubin. Television Uses and Gratifications: The Interaction of Viewing Patterns and Motivations. Journal of Broadcasting 27 (1983): 37-51. Z. Papacharissi and A. M. Rubin. Predictors of Internet Use. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 44 (2000): 175-196. E. M. Perse and A. M. Rubin. Audience Activity and Satisfaction with Favorite Television Soap Opera. Journalism Quarterly 65 (1988): 368-375. Chang. It Looks So Cool to Use Podcast! 38 S. Sundar and A. Limperos. Use & Grats 2.0: Do New Technologies Bring New Gratifications? (A manuscript submitted to the Communication and Technology Division of the International Communication Association Annual Conference, 2010); A. M. Rubin. "Television Uses and Gratifications: The Interaction of Viewing Patterns and Motivations." Journal of Broadcasting, 27 (1983): 37-51. 39 Ibid. 40 Amanda Lenhart, Kristen Purcell, Aaron Smith and Kathryn Zickuhr. Social Media and Mobile Internet Use Among Teens and Young Adults, last modified February 3, 2010, http://web.pewinternet.org/~/media/Files/Reports/2010/PIP_Social_Media_and_Young_Adu lts_Report_Final_with_toplines.pdf 41 Ibid. 42 Paul Grabowicz. The Transition to Digital Journalism, last modified March 18, 2012, http://multimedia.journalism.berkeley.edu/tutorials/digital-transform/websites/. 43 Ibid.