Atomic Structure

Periodic Table
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The elements in the universe

Universe No. Elements 1 2 3 4 Hydrogen Helium Oxygen Others Earth crust Quantity 75% 25% No Elements Oxygen Silicon Aluminium Iron Calcium Natrium Kalium Magnesium Quantity 46.6% 27.7% 8.1% 5.0% 3.6% 2.8% 2.6% Magnesi um 2.1% 1.5%

Others

The Elements in the Human Body

1. Oxygen (65%) 2. Carbon (18%) 3. Hydrogen (10%) 4. Nitrogen (3%) 5. Calcium (1.5%) 6. Phosphorus (1.0%) 7. Potassium (0.35%) 8. Sulfur (0.25%) 9. Sodium (0.15%) 10.Magnesium (0.05%) 11.Copper, Zinc, Selenium, Molybdenum, Fluorine, Chlorine, Iodine, Manganese, Cobalt, Iron (0.70%) 12.Lithium, Strontium, Aluminum, Silicon, Lead, Vanadium, Arsenic, Bromine (trace amounts)

Bohrs atomic structure

Electron Radii Nucleus

Electrons were orbiting the nucleus The orbits has a certain radii:
Has a defined energy state Will not radiate energy Will not spiral into the nucleus

The principle quantum number (n) corresponds to the different allowed orbits for the electron

Dual nature of electron

Dual nature of electrons (de Broglie): Wave like Particle like The uncertainty principles (Heisenberg): it is impossible to simultaneously know both the position and momentum of an object as small as an electron. Schrdinger's equation: The probability distribution of an electron () Quantum mechanics

Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Orbitals

The probability distribution (Schrdingers eq.) of an electron in the ground state in a Hydrogen atom

Orbitals and quantum numbers

The Schrdinger model uses three quantum numbers: n, l and ml to describe an orbital: The principle quantum number 'n' Has values of 1, 2, 3, etc. As n increases the electron density is further away from the nucleus The azimuthal (second) quantum number 'l' Has values from 0 to (n-1) 'l' is referred to by a letter ('s'=0, 'p'=1, 'd'=2, 'f'=3) Defines the shape of the orbital The magnetic (third) quantum number 'ml' Has values between 'l' and -'l', including 0 Describes the orientation of the orbital in space

Example: If n=3
n (principle quantum number) l (azimuthal) (defines shape) ml (magnetic) (defines orientatio n)

Subshell Designation

Number of Orbitals in Subshell

0 1 2

3s 3p 3d

0 -1,0,1 -2,-1,0,1,2

1 3 5

The number and relative energies of all hydrogen electron orbitals through n=3

Representations of Orbitals

Orbitals in many-electron atoms

In a many-electron atom, each electron is simultaneously:
attracted to the protons in the nucleus repelled by other electrons (likecharge repulsion)

Electron spin and the Pauli exclusion principle

Electrons have another quantum property called electron spin (Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit, 1925) : A new quantum number for the electron called the electron spin quantum number, or ms ms has a value of +1/2 or -1/2 Electron spin is crucial for understanding the electron structures of atoms: The Pauli exclusion principle (Wolfgang Pauli, 1925) states that no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers (n, l, ml and ms) Only two electrons at most can occupy the same orbital, and they have opposite values for magnetic spin (ms = +1/2, and -1/2)

Electron Configurations
Orbitals are filled in order of increasing energy, with no more than two electrons per orbital Example:
Lithium (3 e-):

1s22s1

Writing electronic configurations

[He]2s1

Writing electronic configurations

[Ne]3s1

3d orbital

Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table

Development of the Periodic Table

Certain elements, such as gold and silver, can be found naturally in their elemental form and were discovered thousands of years ago. Some radioactive elements are quite unstable and their isolation is dependent upon modern technology The majority of elements are stable, but commonly present in compound form with other elements 1800: 31 elements identified 1865: 63 elements identified

1869: Dmitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer: The elements could be ordered according to their atomic weight (i.e. grams/mole for the naturally occuring mixture of isotopic forms) which resulted in periodic characteristics

Electron Shells in Atoms

He Ne Ar 1s2 1s2 2s2 2p6 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

Sizes of atoms
Radii =1.14

Ionization Energy
The ionization energy is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from the ground state of the isolated gaseous atom

Electron Affinities
The electron affinity is the energy change associated with an atom or ion in the gas state gaining an electron

Electron Affinities
Cations and most neutral atoms Anions and some neural atoms exothermic endothermic

Metals, Nonmetals and Metalloids

Metallic Elements Distinguishing luster (shine) Malleable and ductile (flexible) as solids Conduct heat and electricity Metallic oxides are basic, ionic Cations in aqueous solution Nonmetallic elements Non-lustrous, various colors Brittle, hard or soft Poor conductors Nonmetallic oxides are acidic, compounds Anions, oxyanions in aqueous solution

Metals, Nonmetals and Metalloids

Metalloids Properties intermediate between the metals and nonmetals. Silicon for example appears lustrous, but is not malleable or ductile (it is brittle - a characteristic of some nonmetals). It is a much poorer conductor of heat and electricity than the metals. Metalloids are useful in the semiconductor industry.

1A 3 Li 11 Na 19 K 37 Rb 55 Cs 87 Fr

Group 1A: The Alkali Metals

The word "alkali" is derived from an Arabic word meaning "ashes". The alkali metals are very reactive, readily losing 1 electron to form an ion with a 1+ charge:

Group 2A: The Alkaline Earth Metals

2A 4 Be 12 Mg 20 Ca 38 Sr 56 Ba 88 Ra

The alkaline earth metals are less reactive than the alkali metals (Be and Mg are the least reactive of the alkaline earth metal)

Hydrogen
Hydrogen has a 1s1 electron configuration and is placed above the alkali metal group. Hydrogen is a non-metal, which occurs as a gas (H2) under normal conditions. Its ionization energy is considerably higher (due to lack of shielding, and thus higher Zeff) than the metals and is more like the nonmetals Hydrogen generally reacts with other nonmetals to form molecular compounds (typically highly exothermic) Hydrogen reacts with active metals to form metal hydrides which contain the H- hydride ion: 2Na(s) + H2(g) -> 2NaH(s) Hydrogen can also lose an electron to yield the aqueous H+(aq) ion

Group 6A: The Oxygen Family

6A 8 O 16 S 34 Se 52 Te 84 Po

Oxygen is a gas, the rest are solids Oxygen, sulfur and selenium are nonmetals Tellurium is a metalloid with some metal properties Polonium is a metal

Group 6A: The Oxygen Family

Sulfur

Tellurium

Selenium

Polonium

Group 7A: The Halogens

7A
9 F 17 Cl 35 Br 53 I 85 At

"Halogen" is derived from the Greek meaning "salt formers" Astatine is radioactive and rare, and some of its properties are unknown All the halogens are nonmetals Each element consists of diatomic molecules under standard conditions

Group 7A: The Halogens

Group 8A: The Noble Gases

8A 2 He 10 Ne 18 Ar 36 Kr 54 Xe 86 Rn Nonmetals Gases at room temperature monoatomic completely filled 's' and 'p' subshells large first ionization energy, but this decreases somewhat as we move down the group Compounds of noble gases to date: XeF2 XeF4 XeF6 only one compound with Kr has been made KrF2