Electricity can be made using a very simple generator as shown in this video.

If we spin a magnet around within a coil of wire, electricity is made in the wire. If we connect a light bulb to the wires that come out of the generator this electricity will light it up.

To make electricity for everyone, we need to use very large generators. We make these generators turn in different ways.

In an oil, coil or gas fired fi d power station, we burn fuel to make water turn to steam.

This steam is then used to turn a big set of wheels called a steam turbine. This then turns the generator.

In a hydro electric power station, lots of water is dropped through a big wheel making it turn. This is connected to the generator.

 Nuclear power station use radioactive fuel called Uranium. Uranium atoms release small particles called neutrons which hit other uranium atoms and split them into two creating heat, radiation and more neutrons. The heat is used to make the steam which runs a steam turbine generating electricity.

In a biomass power station biomass fuel from trees, shrubs and animal poo is burned in a boiler to produce high pressure steam.

The steam rotates the turbines which turn the generator to produce electricity.

Geothermal energy uses the steam from hot water reservoirs deep beneath the earth. Engineers drill down to these reservoirs. As the water rises to the surface it begins to boil.

The steam is used to spin turbines which turn the generator and produce electricity.

 The energy of sunlight can be used generate electricity using special solar panels called photovoltaic cells.

These panels usually contain silicon produce electricity when sunlight falls on them.

Wind turbines use a very big blade attached to a generator.

The blades of the wind turbine catch the wind, causing it to turn, generating electricity.

The electricity from the generator travels along underground power lines to a substation. Inside the substation, a transformer changes the electricity to a higher voltage. This makes it easier and more efficient to move along long distances of overhead power lines and underground cables. Overhead lines allow electricity to be transported at high voltage over long distances. Another transformer turns the high voltage electricity into a lower voltage, making it safe to be used in the house. In a city, the electricity is sent to your house from the substation along an underground cable that you cant see.

 The symbol used to represent flux is ( ). Magnetic lines of flux do not flow it is assumed they are in a direction north ( N ) to south ( S ).

Magnetic field of a magnet bar

Direction of Magnetic field

Flux lines can be seen by placing a piece of cardboard on a magnet and sprinkling iron filings on the cardboard. Magnetic lines of repel each other and never cross. The filings will align themselves in a pattern as show as figure below.

Flux lines of a single magnet bar

Flux lines of two magnets bar

A basic law of physics state that whenever an electric current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field is formed around the conductor. Electromagnets depend on electric current flow to produce a magnetic fields.

Straight Wire and Current

Magnetic field of a Single Wire

Direction of the magnetic fields can be determine by using right hand rule. ( by assumed that the current flow from +ve to ve source )

Direction of current flow and magnetic fields

If the conductor is wound into a coil as shown below, the magnetic lines of flux add to produce a stronger magnetic field. A coil with ten turns of wire will produce the times as strong as the magnetic fields around a single conductor.

Coiled Wire, Current and Magnetic Field

Coiled Wire around Iron Core

 Another factor that effects the strength of an electromagnetic field is the amount of current flowing through the wire..

= Magnetic Flux = Current

So that the two factors that determine the number of flux lines produced by an electromagnet are: i. Number turns of wire. ii. The amount of current flow through the wire.

Movement of Magnetic field in a coil

Relation of Direction between Current and Magnetic field in a coil

Faradays law of electromagnetic induction, it revealed a fundamental relationship between the voltage and flux. Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic

flux, an induced in that conductor.

 Faraday found no evidence when the current was steady, but did see a current induced when the switch was turned on or off.

The phenomenon whereby an emf and hence current is induced in any conductor which is cut across or is cut by magnetic flux is as know as .

Faradays Second Law state that:

The closed loop is

Mathematically,

of induced electromotive force ( emf ) in a

. [ 1 loop ] . [ N loop ] Where: ( volt ) ( Weber Wb ) The sign indicates

: The was introduced the direction of emf induced.

When the magnet is moving up toward coil, the induced voltage will cause electrons flow in the direction indicated by the arrows. If the magnet is moving downward from coil, the polarity of induced voltage will be reversed and the current will flow opposite direction . But when no movement of magnet meaning there are no magnetic field cuts through a conductor, there are no voltage induce.

an induced electromotive force generates a current that induces a counter magnetic field that opposes the magnetic field generating the current

The polarity of the induced voltage is determined by the polarity of the magnetic field in relation to the direction of movement. So that, reversing the polarity of the magnetic field will reverses th polarity the l t of f th the voltage lt induce. d

From that mathematically equation, there are three factors determine the amount of voltage induced in a conductor:

i. ii. iii.

The number turns of wire, The strength of the magnetic field (flux density), and The speed of the cutting action (velocity).

 In order to induce 1V in a conductor, the conductor must cut 100,000,000 lines of magnetic flux in 1s. In measurement, 100,000,000 lines of magnetic flux are equal to one Weber (Wb). f f a conductor d t cuts t magnetic t l f fl t a rate t of f Th Therefore, if lines of flux at 1Wb/s, a voltage 1 volt will be induced. When conductors are wound into a loop of 20 turns, the voltage induced into each conductor will add. The total induced voltage will be 20 volt.

The second factor is the strength of the magnetic field. Flux density ( B ), is a measure of the strength of a magnetic field. If the number of turns of wire in the armature remain constant and the speed remain constant, the output voltage can be controlled by the number of flux lines produced by the field poles. poles Increasing the lines of flux will increase the number of flux lines cut per second. Therefore, the voltage output will increase so. The magnetic field strength can be increased until the iron of the pole pieces reaches saturation.

Induced voltage is proportional to the number of flux lines cut per second. If the strength of the magnetic field have reach saturated value and the number of turns of wire in the armature is hard to increase, the output p voltage g can also be determined by y the speed p at which the conductors cut the flux lines. Increasing the speed of the armature will increase the speed of the cutting action, which will increase the output voltage. And it work in otherwise direction.

use to determine the relationship between the motion direction of the conductor, direction of the magnetic field and to the direction the induced current.

To use the , place the thumb, forefinger, and center finger at right angles to each other as shown in figure. figure The direction of each finger represent the direction of each parameter involve in the generator, which are: i. ii. iii. direction from north to south of the direction of the motion or direction of voltage induced or , and .

i. ii. iii. direction from north to south of the direction of the motion or direction of voltage induced or , and .

F For the th is use for the , that will discuss in the next chapter.

An electrical device, which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. AC generator produces alternating current.

Figure ( a ) construction of an elementary / basic AC Generator and ( b ) Voltage induced in the AC Generator as a function of the angle of rotation.

An electrical device, which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. DC generator produces direct current.

Figure ( a ) construction of an elementary / basic DC Generator with a mechanical rectifier called a commutator. Figure ( b ) The elementary DC Generator produces a pulsating DC Voltage. V lt

The main different of construction between and Generator is at the end of wire terminal connection. Refer figure below.

 In figure shown, The

leg of the loop is connected to the leg to the , so that no electrical

of the commutor, and the of the commutator. The two segments are contact is possible. The two the SPLIT RING, mounted in such a manner that each are

on opposite SIDES of

The loop in

is moving in a

, parallel to the flux. Hence, no emf is generated. Notice that the is just coming in contact with the with the In , and the .

, the flux is being cut at a . The is and the . And the .

contacting the the

needle is deflected to the

 At the emf is the the . In

, the loop has completed Again, no flux is being cut, so . The is and . At the same instant, is leaving g the , and going on to the off the

, commutator action in the external

circuit, and the second half cycle.

A graph for But at

of a d.c. generator is shown in figure . The is the the brushes, in moving from one

generation of the emf for commutator segment to the other,

rather than becoming negative. It starts at zero, zero rises to maximum, and falls back to zero . To produce a d.c., for

 The main different of construction between AC and DC Generator is at the end of wire terminal connection. Refer figure below.

 A construction of DC generator has

1. Bearing 2. End shield 4. Armature winding 5. Brush holder

10

9. Mounting

 The outer frame / yoke is the stationary part of machine. Stator is made by Cast Iron (small machine) or Cast Steel (large machine). machine) Functions of the stator is to : i. Provides mechanical support (mounting) for the poles and acts as a protecting cover for whole machine. ii. It carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles.

Produced the magnetic field (flux) in the machine. Consist of permanent magnet (small machine) or turns of wire also know as field coil (large machine) Field coils, mounted on the poles, carry the DC exciting current.

Main parts of DC Generator in Cutaway view

Armature is a rotating parts of the DC Generator. It consists of a commutator, an iron core, and a several coil of wire wound on an armature and also know as armature coil or armature windings. The armature conductors carry the load current delivered by the generator.

 The armature is keyed to a shaft and revolves between the field poles. Armature is a cylinder of laminated iron mounted on an axle. In other word, it is a houses of the armature conductor or coils and causes them to rotate and hence cut the magnetic flux of the field magnets. For that reason, voltage produced in the armature.. The voltage produced in all rotating armatures is alternating voltage.

ROTOR / ARMATURE The axle is carried in bearings mounted in the external structure of the generator. Torque is applied to the axle to make the rotor spin.

Since direct current generators must produce DC current instead of AC current, some device must be used to change the alternating voltage produced in the armature windings into direct voltage, this job is performed by the commutator. In other word, the commutator acts as a mechanical rectifier, which is convert alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC)

 Commutator mounted on the shaft of the machine, meaning that it is a moving part. The commutator is constructed from copper ring spilt into a segments with insulating material such as mica sheets between the segments.

The different connection between AC and DC Generator i. Commutator / Split Ring for DC Generator while, ii. Slip Ring for AC Generator

and

of DC Generator with of commutator

 The number of segments id depending to the number of armature coils.

and

of DC Generator with of commutator

The number of commutator segments is increased in direct proportion to the number of loops; that is, there are two segments for one loop, four segments for two loops, and eight segments for four loops.

Output waveform and diagram of DC Generator with 3 coil and 6 segments of commutator

As the number of loops is increased, the variation between maximum and minimum values of voltage is reduced and the output voltage of the generator approaches a steady dc value and the output voltage pulsates but never falls to zero.

 Figure (a) and (b) below show the different of output waveform if the commutator segments is increases.

Figure show a numbers of commutator which are electrically insulated from one to another with mica sheets insulation.

To carry the induced current from the loop to the outside circuit. A two-pole generator has two brushes fixed diametrically opposite to each other. They slide on the commutator and ensure good electrical contact between the revolving armature and the stationary external load.

The brushes are made of carbon because it has good electrical conductivity and its softness does not score the commutator.

 The brush pressure is set by means of adjustable springs. If the pressure is to great, the friction produces excessive heating of the commutator and brushes if it is too weak the brushes, imperfect contact may produce sparking

 We have learn from previous lesson that one of the factor to increase the voltage induces in generator is increase the turns of wire in the armature. The windings of armatures are connected in different ways depending on the requirements of the machine. The of armature windings are the , and

The difference is merely due to the different arrangement of the end connection at the front or commutator end of armature.

 Before we discuss further about these three basic types of armature winding, let see what is a coil. Turn of a single wire two conductors connected each other as shown in figure ( a ). While a coil is several turns of conductor refer figure ( b ). Figure ( c ) show that several coil connected together in series connection. t

This windings are used in machines designed for low voltage and high current. The windings are connected in parallel. This permit the current capacity of each winding to be added and provides a higher operating current. These armatures are generally constructed with large wire because of high current.

A good example of where lap wound armature are used is in the stator motor of almost all automobiles.

Commutator bar

 If this types of windings are use, they will have as many pairs of brushes as there are pairs of poles. no. of parallel paths, a = No. of poles, p,= no. of brushes

Figure shown a polar windings diagram of a 4 pole, 12 coil, lap wound DC machine.

Figure (a) shown a polar windings diagram of a 4 pole, 8 coil, lap wound DC machine. Figure (b) shown a developed diagram of a 4 pole, 8 coil, lap wound DC machine.

(a)

(b)

 This type of windings are used in machines designed for high voltage and low current. This windings are connected in series. When the windings are connected in series, the voltage of each winding adds adds, but the current capacity remain the same same. A good example of where wave wound armatures are used is in the small generator in hand-cranked megaohmeters.

Wave wound armatures never contain more than two parallel paths for current flow regardless of the number of pole piece, and they never contain more than one set of brushes.

number of parallel paths, a=2 number of brushes positions = 2 or more number of brushes is increased in large machines to minimize the current density in brushes.

 This type of windings are probably the most used. These armatures are used in machines designed for use with moderate current and moderate voltage. The windings of frog leg are connected in series-parallel. M tl h d armature. t Most large machines use f frog l leg wound For this type of winding, we are not going to discuss further In this chapter.

1) Number of parallel paths equals the number of poles. 2) The number of brush positions on the commutator equals the number of p poles. 3) The two ends of an armature coil are connected to the two adjacent commutator segments. 4) The winding forms a continuous closed circuit. 5) The lap wound generators are used for supplying low voltage, high current loads.

1) Number of parallel paths are always two. 2) A minimum of two brush position are required. 3) The two ends of an armature coil are connected to the two commutator segments.. 4) The winding forms a continuous closed circuit. 5) The wave wound generators are used for supplying high voltage, low current loads.

In such windings, there are several sets of completely closed and independent windings. If there is only one set of close winding, it is called simplex wave winding. If there are two such windings on the same armature, it is called duplex winding and so on. The multiplicity affects a number of parallel paths in the armature. If the multiplicity increases, the number of parallel paths in the armature increases. Plex of the winding is label by m. Simplex, m = 1 Duplex, m = 2 Triplex, m = 3

 The can be expressed as:

EG =
,

NZ p x (volt ) 60 a

= number of coil in the armature = number turns of wire

Generated voltage Speed (rpm) Total number of conductor Flux per pole (Weber Wb) Number of pole number of current path

i. For ii. For iii. For

windings: windings windings: plex of the windings number of poles on the armature

 We already discuss the basic windings in the armature Now we going to learn the basic connection of the windings to produced the magnetic field. Instead of using permanent magnets to create the magnetic field, pairs of electromagnets called field poles are employed.

Magnetic field produced by Permanent magnet

Magnetic field produced by Electromagnetic conductor

When a dc voltage is applied to the field windings of a dc generator, current flows through the windings and sets up a steady magnetic field. This is called

Figure ( a ) Magnetic field around a coil and ( b ) the direction of magnetic field

 This excitation voltage can be produced by the generator itself or it can be supplied by an outside source, such as a battery. Therefore excitations in DC Generator can be divided into two major types which are and generator. generator has three basic types such as , and that we will discuss later.

When the DC field current in such a generator is source (such as a battery storage) the generator is said to be In other word, a generator whose field current is ..
IX a x EO y b

DC Generator is a

There are three basic types of generator such as , and generator. For now, we will focus a shunt generator an example of the generator. The shunt field coil is connected in with the armature terminals, So that the generator can be self excited as shown in Figure

 In other word, a self-excited generator is a generator that by having its field connected directly across the terminals of the machine. When the generator starts rotating, the weak residual g causes a small voltage g to be g generated in the magnetism armature. This small voltage applied to the field coils causes a small field current. Although small, this field current strengthens the magnetic field and allows the armature to generate a higher voltage. The higher voltage increases the field strength, and so on. This process continues until the output voltage reaches the rated output of the generator.

IX

a x EO y b

Your group will be given 10 minutes to discuss among your group members the questions below and I will call a name of your group to presents it. Sketch and describe the Lap winding. - Sketch and describe the Wave winding State two method of field excitation and how to differentiate between them? Sketch the equivalent circuit for the two method of field excitation and describe it.
State the all formula related to calculate the internal generated voltage in DC Generator and list down all parameter involved.

Before we discuss further the types of generator, let discuss first two types of field windings are common used which are and windings. windings are made with relatively and have a very .

The terminal leads of the series field f ld are l labeled b l d and d While winding are made by , it has a much than the series winding. The terminals leads of the shunt field are labeled and .

 From previous discussion, we know that generator are usually classified according to the way in which their fields are excited. Generators may be divided into separately-excited and selfexcited. i. Separately-excited generator is a generator whose field current is

ii. Self-excited generator is a generator that by having its field connected directly across the terminals of the machine.

IX

a x EO y b

There are three types of selfexcited generators named according to the manner in which their field coils (or windings) are connected to the armature. which are , generator. and

 The field windings are connected in series with the armature The external circuit connected to the generator is called the load circuit. When the field winding is connected in series the armature current, load and field current are the same.

The field windings are connected in parallel with the armature.

Shunt generator can be either self-excited or separately excited as we discuss before.

1) Number of turns of the field winding is large and varies from 300 to 1000 turns.. 2) Resistance of the field winding is high and varies from 200 to 400 . 3) The shunt field current is usually less than 2A, and therefore the cross-sectional area of the field winding used is small.

1) Number of turns of the field winding is small, and varies between 2 and 10 turns. 2) Resistance of the field winding is very small, generally less than 0.10 . 3) The series field winding carries the same current as the armature and therefore the size of the conductor used is very large.

 Contain

Most large DC generator are compound wound. The series and shunt field can be connected in two ways. One is called which is shunt field as shown in the figure.

The second connection is call as shown in the figure. The short shunt connection has the shunt field connected in parallel with the armature. And the series field is connected in series with the armature.

VT = EG - IARA

VT = EG - IA ( RA + RS )

VT = EG - IARA

VT = EG - IA ( RA + RS )

VT = EG - IARA - ISRS

VA

VS

Generated Voltage Terminal Voltage = VL

Load Current Armature Resistance Voltage V lt D Drop across th the armature resistance Armature Current Series Field Resistance

Voltage Drop across the series winding Series Current

VT = EG - IA ( RA + RS )

VA
Generated Voltage Terminal Voltage = VL Load Current Armature Resistance

Voltage Drop across the Shunt winding Shunt Current

Voltage V lt D Drop across th the armature resistance Armature Current Shunt Field Resistance

VT = EG - IARA

VA
Generated Voltage Terminal Voltage = VL Load Current Armature Resistance

VF

V lt D Voltage Drop across th the armature resistance Armature Current Shunt Field Resistance Voltage Drop across the Shunt winding Shunt Current

VT = EG - IARA

VA

VS

Generated Voltage Terminal Voltage = VL

Load Current Armature Resistance Voltage Drop across the armature resistance Armature Current

VF

VT = EG - IA ( RA + RS )

Series Field Resistance Voltage Drop across the series winding Series Current Shunt Field Resistance Voltage Drop across the Shunt winding Shunt Current

VA

VS

Generated Voltage Terminal Voltage = VL

Load Current Armature Resistance Voltage Drop across the armature resistance Armature Current

VF

VT = EG - IA ( RA + RS )

Series Field Resistance Voltage Drop across the series winding Series Current Shunt Field Resistance Voltage Drop across the Shunt winding Shunt Current

1/13/2012

The losses taking place in the motor are the major losses in , which are:

. There are

When an electric current, I ( ampere ) flows in a resistance, R ( ohms ), heat is lost at the rate of , and the loss is . Motors and generators have one or more field circuits and an armature circuit in which such losses occur. All resistance losses of kind are classed as copper pp loss. where RA = resistance of armature. This loss is about 30 to 40% of total full-load losses. this losses cause by field winding, for shunt field winding this losses equals , while for series field winding equals . This loss is about 30% of total full-load losses. The loss due to resistance of brush contact. The voltage drop at the brush is almost independent of For carbon brush the voltage drop around 1 volt per brush. The power loss due to brushes contact resistance is , where is the voltage drop at one brush.

are a function of both flux and speed.

Iron losses

the watt loss in form of heat that occurs in the iron of a magnetic fields are constantly reversed. current that are produced in the iron of a magnetic circuit. The current flow within the iron as it is cut by magnetic field. field There is friction loss in the machine bearings, at the surface of the commutator due to the rubbing of the brushed. These losses depend on the speed but are independent of the load on the machine.

at bearings and commutator. of rotating armature

1) Friction loss (bearings and commutator) 2) Air friction loss

1) Hysteresis y loss. 2) Eddy current loss

1) Armature copper loss (IA2 RA) 2) Field copper pp loss (PCU = IS2 RS and PCU = IF2 RF ) 3) The loss due to brush contact resistance..

known as constant , rotational or stray losses.

known as variable losses cause it varies with the load current

1) Friction loss (bearings and commutator) 2) Air friction loss

1) Hysteresis y loss. 2) Eddy current loss

1) Armature copper loss (IA2 RA) 2) Field copper pp loss (PCU = IS2 RS and PCU = IF2 RF ) 3) The loss due to brush contact resistance..

 By voltage regulation of a generator is meant the change in its terminal voltage with the change load current when it is running at a constant speed. If the change in voltage between no-load and full-load is small, then the generator is said to have good regulation and the way the generator has poor regulation. The voltage regulation of a DC Generator is the change in voltage

when the load is reduced from rated value to aero, expressed as percentage of the rated load voltage..
= ( no load Voltage - full load Voltage ) full load Voltage

Voltage Regulation,

x 100%

1) Friction loss (bearings and commutator) 2) Air friction loss

1) Hysteresis y loss. 2) Eddy current loss

1) Armature copper loss (IA2 RA) 2) Field copper pp loss (PCU = IS2 RS and PCU = IF2 RF ) 3) The loss due to brush contact resistance..

 By the term torque is meant the turning or twisting moment of a force about an axis. It is measured by the product of the force and the radius at which this force acts. Power developed, P =
2 N 60

xT

The torque which is available for doing useful work is known as shaft torque, . It is so called because it is available at the shaft. The equation of shaft torque, Shaft Torque, Where is in = . as shown below N-m

Output in watts 2 N / 60