International Journal of Electronics, Communication & Instrumentation Engineering Research and Development (IJECIERD) ISSN 2249-684X Vol.

3, Issue 2, Jun 2013, 25-36 TJPRC Pvt. Ltd.

A SURVEY OF GREEN WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS

SONALI A WAJE1 & SANDIP B RAHANE2
1

Student, Department of Electronics Engineering, Amrutvahini College of Engineering, Sangamner, Maharashtra, India
2

Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics Engineering, Amrutvahini College of Engineering, Sangamner, Maharashtra, India

ABSTRACT
This paper presents a survey of the recent proposals for green wireless communications, with a view to understanding the most relevant sources of inefficient energy consumption and how these are tackled by current solutions. Even for the case of battery powered devices, where energy conservation is a key design goal, approaches have been proposed, based on a better understanding of the cost-performance trade-offs introduced by energy efficient operation, while increasingly focusing on emerging communication technologies. In this paper, We conduct a comprehensive analysis of the proposals for green wireless networking, with the goal of understanding the benefits and shortcomings of existing mechanisms. A green wireless technology must ensure low energy consumption and low radio pollution to others than the intended user.As such it is an ideal paradigm for the development of green wireless systems. The growing awareness towards energy efficient cellular networks has paved way for new technologies in designing green cellular networks.

KEYWORDS: Green Wireless Communications, Energy Efficiency, Low Radio Pollution, Green Cellular Networks INTRODUCTION
Traditional design of mobile wireless networks mainly focuses on ubiquitous access and large capacity. However, as energy saving and environmental protection become a global demand and inevitable trend, wireless researchers and engineers need to shift their focus to energy-efficiency oriented design.[1]. Therefore, energy-efficient communications have been paid increasing attention under the background of limited energy resource and environmental-friendly transmission behaviors. Because of ubiquity of wireless applications, such an increasing energy consumption not only results in a high operational cost and an urgent demand for battery/energy capacity to wireless communications operators, but also causes a more severe electromagnetic (EM) pollution to the global environment. Therefore, an emerging concept of Green Communications has received considerable attention in hope of finding novel solutions to improve energy efficiency, relieve/reduce radio pollution to unintended users, and maintain/ improve performance metrics. This presents a survey of the recent proposals for green wireless communications, with a view to understanding the most relevant sources of inefficient energy consumption and how these are tackled by current solutions. We introduce a classification of the existing mechanisms based on their operational time-scale, discuss the most important techniques employed to date from this perspective, analyze the employed evaluation methodologies and undertake a quantitative comparison of their performance gains. Following this analysis, we identify the key challenges yet to be addressed by the research community, as well as several possible future directions towards greener communications.[2]

26

Sonali A Waje & Sandip B Rahane

Figure 1: ICT Use Phase: Worldwide Today Given the rapid and heterogeneous development of wireless technologies, the mechanisms proposed for reducing energy consumption target different scenarios, from cellular network topologies to personal area networks, while the limitations of the existing architectures have been tackled at different layers of the protocol stacks running on wireless devices. Due to the vast number of research papers on this topic, recent reviews attempt to classify the existing proposals in order to identify their advantages, limitations and potential improvements within specific technologies. For the case of WMANs we restrict to works that target 3G or WiMAX cellular networks, as well as homogeneous multi-hop 802.11 WiFi deployments; for the case of WLANs we stick to 802.11-based enhancements, while for the case of PANs we select a few representative sensor and body area deployments.[2] In this paper, we argue and show that the time-reversal (TR) signal transmission is an ideal paradigm for green wireless communications because of its inherent nature to fully harvest energy from the surrounding environment by exploiting the multi-path propagation, as shown in Figure 2, to re-collect all the signal energy that would have otherwise been lost in most existing communication paradigms. To qualify as a green wireless technology, one must meet two basic requirements: one is low energy consumption (environmental concerns) and the other is low radio pollution to others (health concerns) besides the intended transmitter and receiver. We will illustrate in this paper that the time-reversal paradigm not only meets the above two criteria but also exhibits a very high multi-path diversity gain, as well as preserving high bandwidth efficiency due to high channel correlation in practice. TR wireless communication has been known for some time; however, its applications have been mainly considered as a specialty use for extreme multi-path environment. Therefore, not much development and interest can be seen beyond defense applications. The history of applying TR to communication systems dates back to early 1990s. In TR communications, when transceiver A wants to transmit information to transceiver B, transceiver B first has to send a delta-like pilot pulse that propagates through a scattering and multi-path environment and the signals are received by transceiver A; then, transceiver A simply transmits the time-reversed signals back through the same channel to transceiver B. By utilizing channel reciprocity, TR essentially leverages the multi-path channel as a matched filter, i.e., treats the environment as a facilitating matched filter computing machine, and focuses the wave at the receiver in both space and time domains. As such one can readily see the low-complexity nature of TR communications. Since TR can make full use of multi-path propagation and also requires no complicated channel measurements and estimation, it has been also studied in wireless communication systems.

A Survey of Green Wireless Communications

27

Figure 2: Illustration of a Typical Urban Multi-Path Environment Leveraging from the spatial and temporal focusing effect, in this paper, we show that the TR technique is indeed an ideal green wireless communication paradigm which can efficiently harvest energy from the environment. We first derive the theoretical transmission power reduction and interference alleviation of the TR-based transmission compared to direct transmission with a Rake receiver. Our theoretical analysis and simulations show that a potential of over an order of magnitude of power reduction and interference alleviation can be achieved. We also investigate the multi-path diversity gain of the TR-based transmission, in which we demonstrate a very high multi-path diversity gain exhibiting in a TR system. In essence, TR transmission treats each multi-path as a virtual antenna and makes full use of all the multi-paths. Experimental results obtained from measurements in real RF multi-path environment are shown to demonstrate the great potential of TR-based transmission as an energy-efficient green wireless communication paradigm. It is found that in a typical indoor multi-path environment, in order to achieve the same receiver performance, TR-based transmission only costs as low as 20% of the transmission power needed in direct transmission; moreover, the average interference can be up to 6 dB lower than that ca/used by direct transmission when the interfered receiver is only 1m away from the intended receiver. It is also shown from channel measurements in different time epochs that, a static indoor multi-path environment is strongly time-correlated; therefore, there is no need for the receiver to keep sending pilot pulses to the transmitter, and the spectral efficiency can be much higher than typically achieved value of 50%. We also performed extensive numerical simulation to validate the theoretical derivation. This paper also studies the power consumption by a typical base station in a cellular network and attempts to review possible energy efficient solutions towards green base station for a green cellular network. According to technical analysts, the base stations are the most energy intensive part of a typical cellular network. Saving power in base stations is therefore the primary focus in green cellular networks. The main goal of designing green base stations is for saving energy and reducing power consumption while guaranteeing service and coverage for users and ensuring the capability of base station for evolution. This can be achieved by minimizing the base station energy consumption.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND OVERVIEW

Green Wireless Networking Identifying the Causes of Inefficient Energy Consumption

Figure 3: Contribution of Different Device Types to the Network Energy Consumption in Year 2002[25]

28

Sonali A Waje & Sandip B Rahane

Despite the different energy demands of current wireless devices, we identify a set of key sources that determine inefficient power usage and which are encountered to certain extent in all types of network entities. In what follows, we discuss the underlying factors that cause these inefficiencies for the different network scopes considered. First of all, several papers in the literature argue that network infrastructure is often unnecessarily powered on, especially when the number of users and their traffic load are low [13 16]. This common practice guarantees high degrees of coverage and service availability, but is responsible for a large amount of energy consumption, which could be tackled by intelligent sleep policies. Similar considerations apply at the client side, where cellular phones could go into sleep mode by switching their transceivers off during inactive periods [17]. Likewise, though at different time-scales, sleep mode operation could be enabled for WLAN personal devices engaged in lightweight communications [18], or wireless sensors that will be only requested to propagate information upon certain triggering events [19]. Mechanisms for Improving Energy Efficiency The mechanisms in this category modify the transmission parameters on a per-frame basis, which is also known as transmission strategy diversity. The most common parameters that can be tuned are the transmission power. The amount of energy savings introduced by these mechanisms is bounded by the power consumption of the interface, relative to the total power consumption of the devices.It is clear from figure 3 ,that the larger the relative consumption of the interface, the higher the motivation to maximize the efficiency when performing wireless-related operations. Furthermore, even if the energy savings are not very high, for devices running on batteries almost any gain is worth the effort of implementing an extension. Therefore, new mechanisms extending the standard functionality are quite common in PANs, and also in WLANs, but are not very frequent in the case of WMANs. TR Signal Transmission In this paper, we consider a slow fading wireless channel with a large delay spread. The channel impulse response (CIR) at time k between the transmitter and the receiver in discrete time domain is modeled as =
=

(1)

where hl is the complex amplitude of l-th tap of the CIR, and L is the number of channel taps. Since we assume that the channel is slow fading, the channel taps will not vary during the observation time. To gain some insight into the TR system while keeping the model analytically tractable, the CIRs associated with different receivers at different locations are assumed to be independent, e.g., when the receivers are very far apart. Furthermore, we assume independence among the taps of each CIR, i.e., the paths of each CIR are uncorrelated. Each h[l] is a circular symmetric complex Gaussian (CSCG) random variable with zero mean and [|[]| ] = / (2)

where Ts is the sampling period of this system such that 1 /Ts equals the system bandwidth B, and T is the delay spread of the channel. A TR-based communication system is very simple. For example, a base station tries to transmit some information to an end user. Prior to the transmission, the end user has to send out a delta-like pilot pulse which propagates to the base station through a multi-path channel, where the base station keeps a record of the received waveform. Then, the base station time reverses the received waveform, and use the normalized time reversed conjugate signals as a basic waveform, i.e.,

A Survey of Green Wireless Communications

29

= /

= |

| , = , , . . ,

(3)

In the above equation, we ignore the noise term to simplify derivation1. Thanks to the channel reciprocity, the multi-path channel forms a natural matched filter to the basic waveform g[k], k = 0, 1, . . ., L 1, and hence a peak is expected at the receiver. The base station loads the data stream on the basic waveform, and transmits the signal into the wireless channel. Usually the baud rate is much lower than the sampling rate, and the ratio of the sampling rate to the baud rate is also known as the rate back-off factor D. Mathematically, if a sequence of information symbols are denoted by {X[k]} and assumed to be i.i.d. complex random variables with zero mean

Figure 4: The Block Diagram of a TR-Based Communication System and a variance of P, the transmitted signal into the wireless channels can be expressed as = ([] ) , where X[D][k] is an up-sampled sequence of X[k], = ,

(4)

= , .

The signal received at the receiver is the convolution of {S[k]} and {h[k]}, plus additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) {ni[k]} with zero-mean and variance 2. The receiver simply performs a one-tap gain adjustment to the received signal, i.e., multiplying a coefficient a, and then down-samples it with the same factor D. The signal before down-sampling can be represented as [] = + [] (5)

Accordingly, the down-sampled signal Y [k] is as follows (for simplicity, L 1 is assumed to be a multiple of D) =
()/ =

+ ,

(6)

The block diagram of a TR-based communication system is summarized in Figure 4, and we can see that both the transmitter and receiver are of very low complexity. Green Cellular Networks Green communication is an innovative research area to find radio networking solutions that can greatly improve energy-efficiency as well as resource-efficiency without compromising the quality of service (QoS) for users. Green Communications not only benefits the global environment but also makes commercial sense for telecommunication operators supporting sustainable and profitable business. The European Commission has started some projects under seventh Framework Programme (FP7) like Energy Aware Radio and NeTwork TecHnologies (EARTH) [5], Towards Real Energy-efficient Network Design (TREND) [6] and Cognitive Radio and Cooperative strategies for Power saving in multi-standard wireless devices (C2POWER) [7] to address the energy efficiency of mobile communication systems.

30

Sonali A Waje & Sandip B Rahane

These are highly ambitious and unique IP projects, investigating the energy efficiency of mobile communication systems by applying a number of paradigm-shifting technical approaches and committed to the development of a new generation of energy efficient equipment, network architecture & protocols, energy-efficient wireless transmission techniques for reduced transmission power & reduced radiation, cross-layer optimization methods, network management solutions and opportunistic spectrum sharing without causing harmful interference pollution The aim of Green cellular networks is to represent the trend of Next-Generation Networking - a network that transports all information and services like voice, data, and all sorts of media such as video and to cater people's demand for health and energy savings. A cellular network is a radio network distributed over land areas called cells, each served by at least one fixed location transceiver known as a cell site or base station. When joined together these cells provide radio coverage over a wide geographic area. This enables a large number of portable transceivers (e.g., mobile phones etc.) to communicate with each other and with fixed transceivers and telephones anywhere in the network, via base stations, even if some of the transceivers are moving through more than one cell during transmission. A typical cellular network consists of three main elements; A core network that takes care of switching; base stations providing radio frequency interface; and the mobile terminals in order to make voice or data connections. The power consumption is distributed across the different functionalities of the network like mobile switching, core transmission, data center etc. [8]. But the base stations are the most energy intensive part of the cellular network. A typical 3G base station which uses 500W of input power to produce 40W of output RF power will consume more than 50GWh a year in a network with 12,000 base stations. This causes a large amount of CO2 emission as well as contributes to the network's operating costs.Thus base station power consumption is the biggest power issue concerning cellular networks. Saving power in base stations is therefore the primary focus in green cellular network development.

SOME BROADER PERSPECTIVES

Green Wireless Networking Distribution of Research Efforts The main sources of energy consumption for the PAN family of protocols resides at the radio, research has been focused on the short and medium time-scale. Conversely, the primary source of expenditure on WMAN technologies is related to the power consumption of the base stations, hence, the research in this area has been mainly focused on techniques to reduce the number of active base stations (long term optimizations). Open Challenges and Future Directions Specifically, envisioning an increasing interest in: (i) standardizing benchmarks to provide an homogeneous performance evaluation framework; (ii) studying ways to gain the most out of the combination of different green networking proposals; (iii) employing novel agile radios to efficiently use the spectrum; (iv) providing low-cost platforms to enable the diffusion of academic experimentation in the WMAN field; and, finally (v) designing low consumption networks and protocols, which permit the utilization of off-the-grid Standardizing Benchmarks The concern on the energy consumption of IT equipment has triggered a lot of attention from the research community. Given the variety of methodologies, devices and network scopes, this has resulted in a notable heterogeneity of power consumption models and performance evaluation figures. Therefore one key challenge to address is the lack of a common vision with respect to these two main variables, namely, the power consumption of the equipment and the

A Survey of Green Wireless Communications

31

improvements introduced by the proposed mechanisms. Emergence of Agile Radios Recent advances in software defined radio technologies have opened new avenues towards improved spectrum utilization, new medium access paradigms, more robust communications, as well as advanced dynamic power control techniques and faster channel/interface switching times. From the energy expenditure perspective, among the immediate benefits of employing such agile hardware we identify improved interference mitigation, lower channel access times, resilience to channel errors, etc. Consequently, increasing research efforts are likely to be focused on developing energy efficient solutions that exploit the advantages of cognitive networking, smart antenna systems and cooperative techniques, such as, e.g., the work currently carried out within the ICT C2POWER8 and ICT SACRA research projects. Solutions Based on Renewable Sources Power efficiency is particular appealing not only because it allows to save energy and money, but also because it enables the development of green devices, generating a sustainable CO2 footprint. In turn, installing power-efficient devices makes it possible to operate wideband wireless systems by means of renewable energy generators, which are scarcely reliable in terms of guaranteed power generation, and necessitate massive deployments for generating large amount of power. As pointed out in [3], wind or solar based power generators, or a combination of the two, are now suitable to supply base station systems with limited capital expenditures. Indeed, it is possible to run a trisectorial 3G base station covering several square kilometers, by placing solar panels on a small surface (a few square meters). Note that, the enhancements in both the efficiency of renewable power generators and in the power utilization at the wireless devices, promise to make realistic the wireless data coverage of entire cities at zero CO2 impact. TR Signal Transmission Due to its special features and focusing effect, the TR-based communications will spark a series of unique wireless applications, in addition to the low-power low-interference green communications. In this section, we briefly introduce two prospective applications based on the TR communication technology. Time-Reversal Division Multiplexing In a multi-user system, different users have to find a way to share the wireless media. Traditional approaches include time division multiplexing (TDM), frequency division multiplexing (FDM), and code division multiplexing (CDM). The recent advance in multi-input multi-output (MIMO) has brought in a new multiplexing scheme named spatial division multiplexing (SDM), where different users can be distinguished by their channel response vectors due to the equipment of multiple antennas. In a rich scattering environment, since different users have different unique multi-path profiles which depend on their physical locations and TR transmission treats each path like a virtual antenna, it is possible to utilize multi-path profiles as a way to distinguish different users, which may facilitate the multiplexing. Therefore, a new TR-based multiplexing scheme, time-reversal division multiplexing (TRDM),for a multiuser downlink system can be developed. The TRDM exploits the nature of the multi-path environment, utilizes the location-specific signatures between the base station and multiple users to separate intended signals, and thus achieves satisfying performance. Furthermore, the TRDM approach will make possible numerous applications that require accurately locating the receiver, e.g., automatic inventory management in a warehouse, and wireless mailbox where a server could deliver information to a specific office in a building.

32

Sonali A Waje & Sandip B Rahane

Time-Reversal Based Security Secret communications have been of critical interest for quite a long time. Because of the fast technology

evolution, a malicious attacker may easily find some low-cost radio equipments or easily modify the existing equipments to enable a potential intrusion. Moreover, wireless networks are extremely vulnerable to malicious attacks due to the broadcasting nature of wireless transmission and often a distributed network structure. As a result, traditional security measures may become insufficient to protect wireless networks. Therefore, TR-based communications can be exploited to enhance system security based on the unique location-specific multi-path profile. In a rich scattering wireless environment, multiple paths are formed by numerous surrounding reflectors. For receivers at different locations, the received waveforms undergo different reflecting paths and delays, and hence the multi-path profile can be viewed as a unique location-specific signature. As this information is only available to the transmitter and the intended receiver, it is very difficult for other unauthorized users to infer or forge such a signature. It has been shown in that even when the eavesdroppers are close to the target receiver, the received signal strength is much lower at the eavesdroppers than at the target receiver in an indoor application, because the received signals are added incoherently at the eavesdroppers. The security based on multi-path profiles is two-fold: first, the multi-path profile can be used to derive a symmetric key for the transmitter-receiver pair, which protects the secret information from malicious users; second, the transmitter can employ the TR-based transmission to hide the information from eavesdroppers, thanks to the spatial focusing effect. The scheme is somehow like the direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) based secret communications. In DSSS communications, the energy of an original data stream is spread to a much wide spectrum band by using a pseudorandom sequence, and the signal is hidden below the noise floor. It is only those who know the pseudo-random sequence that could recover the original sequence from the noise-like signals. However, if the pseudo-random sequence has been leaked to a malicious user, that user is also capable of decoding the secret message. Nevertheless, for our proposed TR-based security, this would no longer be a problem, because the underlying spreading sequence is not a fixed choice but instead a location-specific signature. For the intended receiver, the multi-path channel automatically serves as a decipher that recovers the original data sent by the transmitter; and for all other ineligible users at different locations, the signal that propagates to their receivers would be noise-like and probably is hidden below the noise floor. Therefore, malicious users are unable to recover the secret message, because the security is inherent in the physical layer. Green Cellular Networks How to Reduce Base Station Power Consumption? Energy efficiency with respect to base stations can be considered in all stages of cellular networks. There are several solutions towards green base stations such as improving base station hardware design, employing energy aware techniques, additional software and system features for network planning to balance between energy consumption and performance etc [19]. In this paper we have attempted to review few solutions among them. A. Base station hardware design. A number of efforts have focused on hardware improvements. For instance, next-generation base stations are designed to be substantially more energy efficient. The base station equipment manufacturers have begun to offer a number of eco and cost friendly solutions to reduce power demands of base stations and to support off-grid base stations with renewable energy resources. o The Flexi Base Station (BTS): An industry-leading, cost and energy-efficient multi-radio base station. The Flexi base station acts as a software-defined base station for technologies like Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM)/ Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution(EDGE), Wideband Code Division

A Survey of Green Wireless Communications

33

Multiple Access(WCDMA)/ Evolved High-Speed Packet Access(HSPA+), and 3rd Generation Partnership Project(3GPP) - Long Term Evolution(LTE) (i.e Frequency division duplex(FDD)/ Time-division duplex(TDD) systems). The benefits of a Flexi base station are as follows: Reduced installation time and materials costs, compact size and reduced weight - only 20% of a conventional cabinet base station, up to 70% reduction in site power consumption, flexible location either indoor or outdoor without the need for air conditioning, shorten antenna feeders. Its upgrading capability enables flexibility for sites to upgrade and adapt to future radio technologies with maximum re-use of legacy site infrastructure. Flexi base station is also ready for using renewable energy such as solar or wind power [21]. o Power Saving Protocols for Sleep Modes Energy Consumption in Base Stations: Sleep mode mechanisms for base station operations is one of the promising approaches to reduce energy consumption. In dynamic way resources are activated/deactivated in real-time as a function of the instantaneous load of the system. In a semi-static way resources are kept unchanged during longer time intervals, in the order of one hour. The authors show that the dynamic one achieves larger energy reductions while the semi-static one has an acceptable performance with low complexity. o Network Self Organizing Techniques: Self-organizing networks (SON) is one of the promising areas of the latest 3rd Generation Partnership Project technology- Long Term Evolution (LTE) for next generation radio access networks that save operational expenditures. The SON can be applied to achieve objectives like self configuration for load balancing, self optimization and self healing, cell outage management, and management of relays and repeaters, etc.The authors in [23] discuss dynamic operations to switch off the redundant base stations during periods of low traffic such as at night to provide significant energy savings. The authors quantitatively estimate the percentage of power savings through a first-order analysis based on real cellular traffic traces and found promising potential savings.Network optimization in terms of energy efficiency can be achieved by providing the following key steps named as efficiency to network dimensioning, efficiency in network processes, efficiency at the access network, efficient electronic equipments and remote monitoring of the network for better management of the equipments (Figure 5).

Figure 5: Main Factors of Energy Efficient Networks Target Innovations: Techniques o Overall Base Station Efficiency Techniques to deliver significant improvements in overall efficiency for base stations, measured as RF power out to total input power Improving the QoS/RF Power Ratio Techniques that will reduce the required RF output power required from the base station whilst still maintaining the required QoS o Optimization of a Limited Energy Budget Given a base station nominal daily energy requirement derived from renewable energy sources to determine how this would be best used for communication

34

Sonali A Waje & Sandip B Rahane

o o o o

Scaling of Energy Needs with Traffic Sleep mechanisms that deliver substantial reduction in power consumption for base stations with no loads and techniques that allow power consumption to scale with load Establishing Baselines To develop a clear understanding of energy consumption in current networks and the network elements, base sites, mobiles, etc for the scenarios defined in the Book of Assumptions Backhaul Options To determine the best backhaul strategy for a given architecture Deployment Scenarios To determine what is the optimum deployment scenario for a wide area network given a clearly defined energy efficiency metric

CONCLUSIONS
Todays wireless technologies play a primary role in the networking market and they are currently facing a re design process, aiming at greening their impact on operational costs and pollution.On the other hand since the overall energy consumption constitutes a large portion of operators, the research has also focused on energy-efficient deployments of broadband wireless networks such as WLANs and WMANs. An accurate analysis of the existing body of work has revealed that green enhancement proposals would affect the network operation at various time-scales, i.e., from a frame level time-scale to a usage pattern time-scale, which covers network reconfiguration and re-deployment. In this paper, we argue and show that TR-based transmission system is an ideal candidate for green wireless communications. By receiving pilot pulses from the receiver and sending back the reversed waveforms, the transmitter can focus energy at the receiver in both spatial and temporal domains with high resolution, and thus harvest energy from the environment and cause less interference to other receivers. The main goal of designing green base stations is for saving energy and reducing power consumption while guaranteeing service and coverage for users and ensuring the capability of base station for evolution. In a wireless network base station power consumption is the biggest issue. With global warming and energy crises becoming the most compelling challenges for the environment, green solutions is a common issue to be handled. Hence the primary focus of the Green cellular network is saving power in base stations to care for planet and operators valet. we reviewed few techniques for saving power consumption and improve energy efficiency in base stations. However, there are still many technical challenges for base station architecture redesign, heterogeneous network deployment, radio resource management etc that need to be addressed for energy efficient base stations.

REFERENCES
1. Yan Chen, Shunqing Zhang, Shugong Xu, and Geoffrey Ye Li "Fundamental Tradeoffs on Green Wireless Networks," arXiv:1101.4343vl [cs.IT] 23 Jan 2011 2. Pablo Serrano, Antonio de la Oliva, Paul Patras, Vincenzo Mancuso, Albert Banchs,"Greening wireless communications: Status and future directions," Computer Communications 35 (2012) 16511661 3. Beibei Wang,Yongle Wu, Feng Han,Yu-Han Yang and K. J. Ray Liu, "Green Wireless Communications: A Time-Reversal Paradigm ," ieee journal , vol. 29, no. 8, september 2011 4. V. Mancuso, S. Alouf, Reducing costs and pollution in cellular networks, IEEE Communications Magazine 49 (2011) 6371. 5. 6. 7. Energy Aware Radio and NeTwork TecHnologies (EARTH) : https://www.ict-earth.eu/ Towards Real Energy-efficient Network Design (TREND) : http://www.fp7-trend.eu/ Cognitive Radio and Cooperative strategies for Power saving in multi-standard wireless devices (C2POWER) : http://www.ict-c2power.eu/ 8. Chethana R Murthy, Dr. C Kavitha, "A Survey of Green Base Stations in Cellular Networks," IRACST

A Survey of Green Wireless Communications

35

International Journal of Computer Networks and Wireless Communications (IJCNWC), ISSN: 2250-3501 Vol.2, No.2, April 2012 9. A. Jardosh, K. Papagiannaki, E. Belding, K. Almeroth, G. Iannaccone, B. Vinnakota, Green WLANs: on-demand WLAN infrastructures, Springer Mobile Networks and Applications 14 (2009) 798814. 10. N. Mishra, K. Chebrolu, B. Raman, A. Pathak, Wake-on-WLAN, in: Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on World Wide Web, ACM, 2006, pp.761 769. 11. H. Falaki, R. Mahajan, D. Estrin, Systemsens: a tool for monitoring usage in smartphone research deployments, in: Proceedings of the 6th International Workshop on Mobility in the Evolving Internet Architecture, ACM, 2011. 12. J. Yoo, K. Park, A cooperative clustering protocol for energy saving of mobile devices with wlan and bluetooth interfaces, IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing 10 (2011) 491504. 13. B. Rengarajan, G. Rizzo, M. Ajmone Marsan, Bounds on QoS-constrained energy savings in cellular access networks with sleep modes, in: Proceedings of the 23rd International Teletraffic Congress (ITC), IEEE, 2011, pp. 4754 14. J. Louhi, Energy efficiency of modern cellular base stations, in: Proceedings of the 29th International Telecommunications Energy Conference, IEEE, 2007, pp. 475476. 15. M. Ajmone Marsan, L. Chiaraviglio, D. Ciullo, M. Meo, Switch-off transients in cellular access networks with sleep modes, in: Proceedings of the International Conference on Communications Workshops, IEEE, 2011, pp. 1 6. 16. M. Ajmone Marsan, L. Chiaraviglio, D. Ciullo, M. Meo, A simple analytical model for the energy-efficient activation of access points in dense WLANs, in: Proceedings of the first International Conference on EnergyEfficient Computing and Networking, ACM, 2010, pp. 159168. 17. A. Chatzipapas, S. Alouf, V. Mancuso, On the minimization of power consumption in base stations using on/off power amplifiers, in: Proceedings of IEEE Greencom (Online conference), 2011. 18. X. Prez-Costa, D. Camps-Mur, IEEE 802.11e QoS and power saving features overview and analysis of combined performance, IEEE Wireless Communications 17 (2010) 8896. 19. Yuli Song, Dongxiao Li, and Zhansheng Wu, Discussion on smart power saving technology of BTS, Designing Techniques of Posts and Telecommunications, vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 70-73, 2010 20. Multiradio Base Station makes network evolution easier and greener than ever, Press Release Feb 52009, Nokia Siemens Networks. Available at:http://www.nokiasiemensnetworks.com/sites/defaul

t/files/document/NokiaSiemensNetworks 2009 02 05 enFlexiMultiradioBTS.pdf 21. http://www.nokiasiemensnetworks.com/portfolio/products/mobile-broadband/single-ranadvanced/fleximultiradio-base-station 22. Saker, L. Elayoubi, S.-E. Chahed, T, Minimizing Energy Consumption via Sleep Mode in Green Base Station , Wireless Communications and Networking Conference (WCNC), 2010 IEEE 23. Eunsung Oh, Krishnamachari, B, Xin Liu, Zhisheng Niu, Toward Dynamic Energy-Efficient Operation of Cellular Network Infrastructure, Communications Magazine, 2011 IEEE 24. George Koutitas, and Panagiotis Demestichas, A Review of Energy Efficiency in Telecommunication Networks, Telfor Journal, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2010. 25. K. W. Roth, F. Goldstein, and J. Kleinman, Energy Consumption by Office and Telecommunications Equipment in Commercial Buildings Volume I: Energy Consumption Baseline, Tech. Rep. , National Technical Information Service(NTIS),USDepartmentofCommerce,Jan.2002.