Tensors PDF

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Copyright 2006, New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
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NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS
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Visit us at www.newagepublishers.com
ISBN (13) : 978-81-224-2700-4
To
My parents
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It gives me great pleasure to write the foreword to Dr. Nazrul Islams book entitled Tensors and Their
Applications. I know the author as a research scholar who has worked with me for several years. This
book is a humble step of efforts made by him to prove him to be a dedicated and striving teacher who
has worked relentlessly in this field.
This book fills the gap as methodology has been explained in a simple manner to enable students
to understand easily. This book will prove to be a complete book for the students in this field.
Ram Nivas
Professor,
Department of Mathematics and Astronomy,
Lucknow University,
Lucknow
FOREWORD
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Tensors were introduced by Professor Gregorio Ricci of University of Padua (Italy) in 1887
primarily as extension of vectors. A quantity having magnitude only is called Scalar and a quantity with
magnitude and direction both, called Vector. But certain quantities are associated with two or more
directions, such a quantity is called Tensor. The stress at a point of an elastic solid is an example of a
Tensor which depends on two directions one normal to the area and other that of the force on it.
Tensors have their applications to Riemannian Geometry, Mechanics, Elasticity, Theory of Relativity,
Electromagnetic Theory and many other disciplines of Science and Engineering.
This book has been presented in such a clear and easy way that the students will have no difficulty
in understanding it. The definitions, proofs of theorems, notes have been given in details.
The subject is taught at graduate/postgraduate level in almost all universities.
In the end, I wish to thank the publisher and the printer for their full co-operation in bringing out
the book in the present nice form.
Suggestions for further improvement of the book will be gratefully acknowledged.
Dr. Nazrul Islam
PREFACE
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CONTENTS
Foreword ............................................................................................................. vii
Preface ................................................................................................................ ix
Chapter1 Preliminaries........................................................................................... 1-5
1.1. n-dimensional Space ............................................................................................... 1
1.2. Superscript and Subscript ....................................................................................... 1
1.3. The Einstein's Summation Convention ...................................................................... 1
1.4. Dummy Index ....................................................................................................... 1
1.5. Free Index............................................................................................................. 2
1.6. Krnecker Delta ..................................................................................................... 2
Exercises ............................................................................................................... 5
Chapter2 Tensor Algebra ..................................................................................... 6-30
2.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 6
2.2. Transformation of Coordinates ................................................................................ 6
2.3. Covariant and Contravariant Vectors ......................................................................... 7
2.4. Contravariant Tensor of Rank Two .......................................................................... 9
2.5. Covariant Tensor of Rank Two................................................................................ 9
2.6. Mixed Tensor of Rank Two..................................................................................... 9
2.7. Tensor of Higher Order ......................................................................................... 14
2.8. Scalar or Invariant ................................................................................................ 15
2.9. Addition and Subtraction of Tensors ....................................................................... 15
2.10. Multiplication of Tensors (Outer Product of Tensors) ............................................... 16
2.11. Contraction of a Tensor ........................................................................................ 18
2.12. Inner Product of Two Tensors .............................................................................. 18
2.13. Symmetric Tensors .............................................................................................. 20
2.14. Skew-symmetric Tensor ....................................................................................... 20
2.15. Quotient Law....................................................................................................... 24
xii Tensors and Their Applications
2.16. Conjugate (or Reciprocal) Symmetric Tensor .......................................................... 25
2.17. Relative Tensor .................................................................................................... 26
Examples ............................................................................................................ 26
Exercises ............................................................................................................. 29
Chapter3 Metric Tensor and Riemannian Metric ............................................ 31-54
3.1. The Metric Tensor ............................................................................................... 31
3.2. Conjugate Metric Tensor (Contravariant Tensor) ...................................................... 34
3.3. Length of a Curve ................................................................................................ 42
3.4. Associated Tensor ................................................................................................ 43
3.5. Magnitude of Vector ............................................................................................. 43
3.6. Scalar Product of Two Vectors .............................................................................. 44
3.7. Angle Between Two Vectors .................................................................................. 45
3.8. Angle Between Two Coordinate Curves .................................................................. 47
3.9. Hypersurface ....................................................................................................... 48
3.10. Angle Between Two Coordinate Hyper surface ........................................................ 48
3.11. n-Ply Orthogonal System of Hypersurfaces ............................................................. 49
3.12. Congruence of Curves .......................................................................................... 49
3.13. Orthogonal Ennuple .............................................................................................. 49
Examples ............................................................................................................ 52
Exercises ............................................................................................................. 54
Chapter4 Christoffels Symbols and Covariant Differentiation ................................ 55-84
4.1. Christoffels Symbol............................................................................................. 55
4.2. Transformtion of Christoffels Symbols .................................................................. 64
4.3. Covariant Differentiation of a Covariant Vector ........................................................ 67
4.4. Covariant Differentiation of a Contravariant Vector ................................................... 68
4.5. Covariant Differentiation of Tensors ....................................................................... 69
4.6. Riccis Theorem .................................................................................................. 71
4.7. Gradient, Divergence and Curl ............................................................................... 75
4.8. The Laplacian Operator ......................................................................................... 80
Exercises ............................................................................................................. 83
Chapter5 Riemann-Christoffel Tensor ............................................................ 85-110
5.1. Riemann-Christoffel Tensor ................................................................................... 85
5.2. Ricci Tensor ........................................................................................................ 88
5.3. Covariant Riemann-Christoffel Tensor .................................................................... 89
5.4. Properties of Riemann-Christoffel Tensors of First Kind
l k j i
R ................................... 91
5.5. Bianchi Identity .................................................................................................... 94
5.6. Einstein Tensor .................................................................................................... 95
5.7. Riemannian Curvature of V
n
.................................................................................. 96
Contents xiii
5.8. Formula For Riemannian Curvature in Terms of Covariant
Curvature Tensor of V
n
......................................................................................... 98
5.9. Schurs Theorem............................................................................................... 100
5.10. Mean Curvature ................................................................................................. 101
5.11. Ricci Principal Directions .................................................................................... 102
5.12. Einstein Space ................................................................................................... 103
5.13. Weyl Tensor or Projective Curvature Tensor ......................................................... 104
Examples .......................................................................................................... 106
Exercises ........................................................................................................... 109
Chapter6 The e-systems and the Generalized Krnecker Deltas ................ 111-115
6.1. Completely Symmetric ......................................................................................... 111
6.2. Completely Skew-symmetric ................................................................................ 111
6.3. e-system ........................................................................................................... 112
6.4. Generalized Krnecker Delta................................................................................ 112
6.5. Contraction of
jk i
............................................................................................ 114
Exercises ........................................................................................................... 115
Chapter7 Geometry ........................................................................................ 116-141
7.1. Length of Arc .................................................................................................... 116
7.2. Curvilinear Coordinates in
3
E .............................................................................. 120
7.3. Reciprocal Base System Covariant and Contravariant Vectors .................................. 122
7.4. On The Meaning of Covariant Derivatives ............................................................. 127
7.5. Intrinsic Differentiation ....................................................................................... 131
7.6. Parallel Vector Fields ........................................................................................... 134
7.7. Geometry of Space Curves ................................................................................. 134
7.8. Serret-Frenet Formulae ....................................................................................... 138
7.9. Equations of A Straight Line ................................................................................ 140
Exercises ........................................................................................................... 141
Chapter8 Analytical Mechanics ..................................................................... 142-169
8.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 142
8.2. Newtonian Laws ................................................................................................ 142
8.3. Equations of Motion of Particle ............................................................................ 143
8.4. Conservative Force Field ..................................................................................... 144
8.5. Lagrangean Equation of Motion ........................................................................... 146
8.6. Applications of Lagrangean Equations ................................................................... 152
8.7. Hamiltons Principle ............................................................................................ 153
8.8. Integral Energy .................................................................................................. 155
8.9. Principle of Least Action ..................................................................................... 156
xiv Tensors and Their Applications
8.10. Generalized Coordinates ...................................................................................... 157
8.11. Lagrangean Equation of Generalized Coordinates ................................................... 158
8.12. Divergence Theorem, Greens Theorem, Laplacian Operator and Stokes
Theorem in Tensor Notation ................................................................................ 161
8.13. Gausss Theorem............................................................................................... 164
8.14. Poissons Equation ............................................................................................. 166
8.15. Solution of Poissons Equation............................................................................. 167
Exercises ........................................................................................................... 169
Chapter9 Curvature of a Curve, Geodesic.................................................... 170-187
9.1. Curvature of Curve, Principal Normal................................................................... 170
9.2. Geodesics ......................................................................................................... 171
9.3. Eulers Condition ............................................................................................... 171
9.4. Differential Equations of Geodesics ...................................................................... 173
9.5. Geodesic Coordinates ......................................................................................... 175
9.6. Riemannian Coordinates ...................................................................................... 177
9.7. Geodesic Form of a Line Element ........................................................................ 178
9.8. Geodesics in Euclidean Space .............................................................................. 181
Examples .......................................................................................................... 182
Exercises ........................................................................................................... 186
Chapter10 Parallelism of Vectors ................................................................. 188-204
10.1. Parallelism of a Vector of Constant Magnitude (Levi-Civitas Concept) ..................... 188
10.2. Parallelism of a Vector of Variable Magnitude ......................................................... 191
10.3. Subspace of Riemannian Manifold ........................................................................ 193
10.4. Parallelism in a Subspace .................................................................................... 196
10.5. Fundamental Theorem of Riemannian Geometry Statement ..................................... 199
Examples .......................................................................................................... 200
Exercises ........................................................................................................... 203
Chapter11 Riccis Coefficients of Rotation and Congruence ....................... 205-217
11.1. Riccis Coefficient of Rotation ............................................................................. 205
11.2. Reason for the Name Coefficients of Rotation .................................................... 206
11.3. Curvature of Congruence .................................................................................... 207
11.4. Geodesic Congruence ......................................................................................... 208
11.5. Normal Congruence ........................................................................................... 209
11.6. Curl of Congruence ............................................................................................ 211
11.7. Canonical Congruence ........................................................................................ 213
Examples .......................................................................................................... 215
Exercises ........................................................................................................... 217
Contents xv
Chapter12 Hypersurfaces .............................................................................. 218-242
12.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 218
12.2. Generalized Covariant Differentiation .................................................................... 219
12.3. Laws of Tensor Differentiation ............................................................................ 220
12.4. Gausss Formula ................................................................................................ 222
12.5. Curvature of a Curve in a Hypersurface and Normal Curvature, Meuniers Theorem,
Dupins Theorem ............................................................................................... 224
12.6. Definitions ......................................................................................................... 227
12.7. Eulers Theorem ................................................................................................ 228
12.8. Conjugate Directions and Asymptotic Directions in a Hypersurface.......................... 229
12.9. Tensor Derivative of Unit Normal......................................................................... 230
12.10. The Equation of Gauss and Codazzi ..................................................................... 233
12.11. Hypersurfaces with Indeterminate Lines of Curvature ............................................ 234
12.12. Central Quadratic Hypersurfaces .......................................................................... 235
12.13. Polar Hyperplane ................................................................................................ 236
12.14. Evolute of a Hypersurface in an Euclidean Space ................................................... 237
12.15. Hypersphere ......................................................................................................238
Exercises ........................................................................................................... 241
Index .................................................................................................................... 243-245
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1.1 n-DIMENSIONAL SPACE
In three dimensional rectangular space, the coordinates of a point are (x, y, z). It is convenient to write
(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) for (x, y, z). The coordinates of a point in four dimensional space are given by (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
).
In general, the coordinates of a point in n-dimensional space are given by (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
,...., x
n
) such n-
dimensional space is denoted by V
n
.
1.2 SUPERSCRIPT AND SUBSCRIPT
In the symbol
ij
kl
A , the indices i, j written in the upper position are called superscripts and k, l written
in the lower position are called subscripts.
1.3 THE EINSTEIN'S SUMMATION CONVENTION
Consider the sum of the series
n
n
x a x a x a S + + + ...
2
2
1
1
= .
1
i
i
n
i
x a
By using summation convention,

drop the sigma sign and write convention as
i
i
n
i
x a
1
=
i
i
x a
This convention is called Einsteins Summation Convention and stated as
If a suffix occurs twice in a term, once in the lower position and once in the upper position then
that suffix implies sum over defined range.
If the range is not given, then assume that the range is from 1 to n.
1.4 DUMMY INDEX
Any index which is repeated in a given term is called a dummy index or dummy suffix. This is also called
Umbral or Dextral Index.
e.g. Consider the expression a
i
x
i
where i is dummy index; then
a
i
x
i
=
n
n
x a x a x a + + +
2
2
1
1
PRELIMINARIES
CHAPTER 1
2 Tensors and Their Applications
and a
j
x
j
=
n
n
x a x a x a + + +
2
2
1
1
These two equations prove that
a
i
x
i
= a
j
x
j
So, any dummy index can be replaced by any other index ranging the same numbers.
1.5 FREE INDEX
Any index occurring only once in a given term is called a Free Index.
e.g. Consider the expression
i j
i
x a where j is free index.
1.6 KRNECKER DELTA
The symbol
i
j
, called Krnecker Delta (a German mathematician Leopold Krnecker, 1823-91 A.D.)
is defined by
i
j
=
'
j i
j i
if 0
if 1
Similarly
ij
and
ij
are defined as
ij
'
j i
j i
if 0
if 1
and
ij
=
'
j i
j i
if 0
if 1
Properties
1. If x
1
, x
2
, ... x
n
are independent coordinates, then
j
i
x
x
= 0 if i j
j
i
x
x
= 1 if i = j
This implies that
j
i
x
x
=
i
j
It is also written as
j
k
k
i
x
x
x
x
=
i
j
.
2.
n
n
i
i
+ + + +
3
3
2
2
1
1
(by summation convention)
1 1 1 1 + + + +
i
i
i
i
= n
3.
ik j
k
ij
a a
Since
j j
a
2
3
=
n n
a a a a
2
3 3
2
33 2
2
32 1
2
31
+ + + + (as j is dummy index)
Preliminaries 3
= a
32
) 1 and 0 as (
2
2 2
3
2
1
2

n
In general,
j
k
ij
a =
n
k
in k
k
ik
k
i
k
i
k
i
a a a a a + + + + + +
3 3 2 2 1 1
j
k
ij
a =
ik
a
) 1 and 0 s a (
2 1

k
k
n
k k k
4.
j
k
i
j
=
i
k
j
k
i
j
=
n
k
i
n
i
k
i
i k
i
k
i
k
i
+ + + + + +
3
3
2
2
1
1
=
i
k
) 1 and 0 as (
3 2 1

i
i
i
n
i i i
EXAMPLE 1
Write
dt
d
=
dt
dx
x dt
dx
x dt
dx
x
n
n
+ +

2
2
1
1
using summation convention.
Solution
dt
d
=
dt
dx
x dt
dx
x dt
dx
x
n
n
+ +

2
2
1
1
dt
d
=
dt
dx
x
i
i

EXAMPLE 2
Expand: (i) a
ij
x
i
x
j
; (ii) g
lm
g
mp
Solution
(i)
j i
ij
x x a =
j n
nj
j
j
j
j
x x a x x a x x a + + +
2
2
1
1
=
n n
nn
x x a x x a x x a + + +
2 2
22
1 1
11
j i
ij
x x a =
2 2 2
22
2 1
11
) ( ) ( ) (
n
nn
x a x a x a + + +
(as i and j are dummy indices)
(ii) mp lm
g g
= np ln p l p l
g g g g g g + + +
2 2 1 1 , as m is dummy index.
EXAMPLE 3
If a
ij
are constant and a
ij
= a
ji
, calculate:
(i)
) (
j i ij
k
x x a
x
(ii)
) (
j i ij
l k
x x a
x x
Solution
(i)
) (
j i ij
k
x x a
x
=
) (
j i
k
ij
x x
x
a

=
k
i
j ij
k
j
i ij
x
x
x a
x
x
x a
= jk
k
j
ik j ij jk i ij
x
x
x a x a
+ as ,
=
j ik ij i jk ij
x a x a ) ( ) ( +
= a
ik
x
i
+ a
kj
x
j
as a
ij
jk
= a
ik
=a
ik
x
i
+ a
ki
x
i
as j is dummy index
k
x
j i ij
x x a
) (
= 2a
ik
x
i
as given a
ik
= a
ki
(ii)
k
j i ij
x
x x a
) (
= 2a
ik
x
i
Differentiating it w.r.t. x
l
:
l k
j i ij
x x
x x a

) (
2
=
l
i
ik
x
x
a
2
=
i
l ik
a 2
l k
j i ij
x x
x x a

) (
2
= 2a
lk
as
i
l ik
a = a
lk
.
EXAMPLE 4
If a
ij
x
i
x
j
= 0
where a
ij
are constant then show that
a
ij
+ a
ji
= 0
Solution
Given
a
ij
x
i
x
j
= 0
a
lm
x
l
x
m
= 0 since i and j are dummy indices
i
partially,
) (
m l
lm
i
x x a
x
= 0
) (
m l
i
lm
x x
x
a
= 0
l
i
m
lm
m
i
l
lm
x
x
x
a x
x
x
a
= 0
Since
i
l
x
x
=
l
i
and
m
i
i
m
x
x

Preliminaries 5
l m
i lm
m l
i lm
x a x a + = 0
l
li
m
im
x a x a + = 0
as
im
l
i lm
a a and .
li
m
i lm
a a
j
partially
j
l
li
j
m
im
x
x
a
x
x
a
= 0
l
j li
m
j im
a a + = 0
a
ij
+ a
ji
= 0 Proved.
EXERCISES
1. Write the following using the summation convention.
(i) (x
1
)
2
+ (x
2
)
2
+ (x
3
)
2
+
. . .
+ (x
n
)
2
(ii) ds
2
= g
11
(dx
1
)
2
+ g
22
(dx
2
)
2
+
. . .
+ g
nn
(dx
n
)
2
(iii) a
1
x
1
x
3
+ a
2
x
2
x
3
+
. . .
+ a
n
x
n
x
3
2. Expand the following:
(i) a
ij
x
j
(ii)
) (
i
i
a g
x
(iii)
i k
i
B A
3. Evaluate:
(i)
i
j
j
x (ii)
k
l
j
k
i
j
(iii)
j
i
i
j

4. Express b
i j
y
i
y
j
in the terms of x variables where y
i
= c
ij
x
j
and b
ij
c
ik
= .
i
k
ANSWERS
1. (i) x
i
x
j
(ii) ds
2
= g
ij
dx
i
dx
j
(iii) a
i
x
i
x
3
.
2. (i) a
i1
x
1
+ a
i2
x
2
+ a
i3
x
3
+
. . .
+ a
in
x
n
(ii)
) ( ) ( ) (
2
2
1
1
n
n
a g
x
a g
x
a g
x
+ +
(iii)
n k
n
k k
B A B A B A + + + ...
2
2
1
1
3. (i) x
i
(ii)
i
l
(iii) n
4. C
ij
x
i
x
j
2.1 INTRODUCTION
A scalar (density, pressure, temperature, etc.) is a quantity whose specification (in any coordinate
system) requires just one number. On the other hand, a vector (displacement, acceleration, force, etc.)
is a quantity whose specification requires three numbers, namely its components with respect to some
basis. Scalers and vectors are both special cases of a more general object called a tensor of order
n whose specification in any coordinate system requires 3
n
numbers, called the components of tensor.
In fact, scalars are tensors of order zero with 3 = 1 component. Vectors are tensors of order one with
3
1
= 3 components.
2.2 TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES
In three dimensional rectangular space, the coordinates of a point are (x, y, z) where x, y, z are real
numbers. It is convenient to write (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) for ) , , ( z y x or simply x
i
where i = 1, 2, 3. Similarly in
n- dimensional space, the coordinate of a point are n-independent variables (x
1
, x
2
,..., x
n
) in X-coordinate
system. Let ) ,..., , (
2 1 n
x x x be coordinate of the same point in Y-coordinate system.
Let
n
x x x , , ,
2 1
be independent single valued function of x
1
, x
2
,...., x
n
, so that,
1
x
= ) ...., , , (
2 1 1 n
x x x x
2
x
= ) ...., , , (
2 1 2 n
x x x x
3
x = ) ...., , , (
2 1 3 n
x x x x
M M
n
x = ) ..., , , (
2 1 n n
x x x x
or
i
x = ) ..., , , (
2 1 n i
x x x x ; i = 1, 2, , n (1)
TENSOR ALGEBRA
CHAPTER 2
Tensor Algebra 7
Solving these equations and expressing x
i
as functions of , ,..., ,
2 1 n
x x x so that
i
x = ); ,..., , (
2 1 n i
x x x x i = 1, 2, ..., n
The equations (1) and (2) are said to be a transformation of the coordinates from one coordinate
system to another
2.3 COVARIANT AND CONTRAVARIANT VECTORS (TENSOR OF RANK ONE)
Let (x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
) or x
i
be coordinates of a point in X-coordinate system and ) ,..., , (
2 1 n
x x x or
i
x be
coordinates of the same point in the Y-coordinate system.
Let A
i
,
i
1, 2, ..., n (or A
1
, A
2
, ..., A
n
) be n functions of coordinates x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
in X-coordinate system. If the quantities A
i
are transformed to
i
A in Y-coordinate system then according
to the law of transformation
i
A =
j
j
i
A
x
x
or
j
A =
i
j
x
x

i
A
Then A
i
are called components of contravariant vector.
Let ,
i
A
i
1, 2,..., n (or A
1
, A
2
, , A
n
) be n functions of the coordinates x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
in X-coordinate system. If the quantities
i
A are transformed to
i
A in Y-coordinate system then
according to the law of transformation
i
A =
j
i
j
A
x
x
or
j
A =
i
j
i
A
x
x
Then A
i
are called components of covariant vector.
The contravariant (or covariant) vector is also called a contravariant (or covariant) tensor of rank
one.
Note: A superscript is always used to indicate contravariant component and a subscript is always used to indicate
covariant component.
EXAMPLE 1
If x
i
be the coordinate of a point in n-dimensional space show that dx
i
are component of a
contravariant vector.
Solution
Let x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
or x
i
are coordinates in X-coordinate system and
n
x x x ,..., ,
2 1
or
i
x are
coordinates in Y-coordinate system.
If
i
x = ) ,..., , (
2 1 n i
x x x x
i
x d
=
n
n
i i i
dx
x
x
dx
x
x
dx
x
x
+ +
2
2
1
1
i
x d
=
j
j
i
dx
x
x
It is law of transformation of contravariant vector. So,

i
dx are components of a contravariant
vector.
EXAMPLE 2
Show that
i
x

is a covariant vector where is a scalar function.
Solution
Let x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
or
i
x are coordinates in X-coordinate system and
n
x x x ..., , ,
2 1
or
i
x
are
coordinates in Y-coordinate system.
Consider ) ,..., , (
2 1 n
x x x = ) ,..., , (
2 1 n
x x x
=
n
n
x
x
x
x
x
x

+ +

2
2
1
1
i
x

=
i
n
n i i
x
x
x x
x
x x
x
x

+ +

2
2
1
1
i
x

=
i
j
j
x
x
x

or
i
x

=
j i
j
x x
x
It is law of transformation of component of covariant vector. So,

i
x

is component of covariant
vector.
EXAMPLE 3
Show that the velocity of fluid at any point is a component of contravariant vector
or
Show that the component of tangent vector on the curve in n-dimensional space are component
of contravariant vector.
Solution
Let
dt
dx
dt
dx
dt
dx
n
, , ,
2 1
be the component of the tangent vector of the point ) ,..., , (

2 1 n
x x x i.e.,
dt
dx
i
be the component of the tangent vector in X-coordinate system. Let the component of tangent
Tensor Algebra 9
vector of the point ) ,..., , (
2 1 n
x x x in Y-coordinate system are
.
dt
x d
i
Then
n
x x x ..., , ,
2 1
or
i
x being a
function of
n
x x x ..., , ,
2 1
which is a function of t. So,
dt
x d
i
=
dt
dx
dx
x
dt
dx
dx
x
dt
dx
dt
x
n
n
i i i
+ +
2
2
1
1
dt
x d
i
=
dt
dx
dx
x
j
j
i
It is law of transformation of component of contravariant vector. So,

dt
dx
i
is component of
i.e. the component of tangent vector on the curve in n-dimensional space are component of
2.4 CONTRAVARIANT TENSOR OF RANK TWO
Let A
ij
(i, j = 1, 2, ..., n) be n
2
functions of coordinates x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
in X-coordinate system. If the
quantities
ij
ij
A in Y-coordinate system having coordinates
n
x x x ..., , ,
2 1
. Then
ij
A =
kl
l
j
k
i
A
x
x
x
x
Then
ij
A
are called components of Contravariant Tensor of rank two.
2.5 COVARIANT TENSOR OF RANK TWO
Let A
ij
(i, j = 1, 2, ..., n) be
2
n functions of coordinates x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
quantities
ij
ij
A in Y-coordinate system having coordinates
n
x x x ,..., ,
2 1
, then
according to the law of transformation,
ij
A =
kl
j
l
i
k
A
x
x
x
x
Then A
ij
called components of covariant tensor of rank two.
2.6 MIXED TENSOR OF RANK TWO
Let
i
j
A (i, j = 1, 2, ..., n) be n
2
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
quantities
i
j
i
j
A in Y-coordinate system having coordinates , ,..., ,
2 1 n
x x x then
i
j
A =
k
l
l
k
i
A
x
x
x
x
Then
i
j
A are called components of mixed tensor of rank two.
Note: (i) The rank of the tensor is defined as the total number of indices per component.
(ii) Instead of saying that A
ij
are the components of a tensor of rank two we shall often say A
ij
is a tensor
of rank two.
THEOREM 2.1 To show that the Krnecker delta is a mixed tensor of rank two.
Solution
Let X and Y be two coordinate systems. Let the component of Kronecker delta in X-coordinate
system
i
j
and component of Krnecker delta in Y-coordinate be
i
j
, then according to the law of
transformation
i
j
=
l
k
j
l
k
i
j
i
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
i
j
=
k
l
j
l
k
i
x
x
x
x
This shows that Krnecker

i
j
is mixed tensor of rank two.
EXAMPLE 4
If
i
A is a covariant tensor, then prove that
j
i
x
A
do not form a tensor..

Solution
Let X and Y be two coordinate systems. As given
i
A is a covariant tensor. Then
i
A =
k
i
k
A
x
x
Differentiating it w.r.t.
j
x
j
i
x
A
,
_
k
i
k
j
A
x
x
x
j
i
x
A
=
j i
k
k
j
k
i
k
x x
x
A
x
A
x
x

2
(1)
It is not any law of transformation of tensor due to presence of second term. So,
j
i
x
A
is not a
tensor.
THEOREM 2.2 To show that
i
j
is an invariant i.e., it has same components in every coordinate
system.
Proof: Since
i
j
is a mixed tensor of rank two, then
i
j
=
k
l
j
l
k
i
x
x
x
x
Tensor Algebra 11
=

,
_
k
l
j
l
k
i
x
x
x
x
=
j
k
k
i
x
x
x
x
, as
j
k
k
l
j
l
x
x
x
x
i
j
=
i
j
j
i
x
x

, as
i
j
j
i
x
x

So,
i
j
is an invariant.
THEOREM 2.3 Prove that the transformation of a contravariant vector is transitive.
or
Prove that the transformation of a contravariant vector form a group.
Proof: Let
i
A be a contravariant vector in a coordinate system ) ,..., 2 , 1 ( n i x
i
. Let the coordinates
x
i
be transformed to the coordinate system
i
x and
i
x be transformed to
i
x .
When coordinate x
i
be transformed to
i
x , the law of transformation of a contravariant vector is
p
A =
q
q
p
A
x
x
... (1)
When coordinate
i
x be transformed to
i
x , the law of transformation of contravariant vector is
i
A =
p
p
i
A
x
x
i
A
=
q
p
i
i
x
x
x
x
A
q
from (1)
i
A
=
q
q
i
A
x
x
This shows that if we make direct transformation from

i
x to
i
x , we get same law of transformation.
This property is called that transformation of contravariant vectors is transitive or form a group.
THEOREM 2.4 Prove that the transformation of a covariant vector is transitive.
or
Prove that the transformation of a covariant vector form a group.
Proof: Let
i
A be a covariant vector in a coordinate system ) ..., , 2 , 1 ( n i x
i
i
x be
transformed to the coordinate system
i
x and
i
x be transformed to
i
x
.
When coordinate
i
x be transformed to
i
x , the law of transformation of a covariant vector is
p
A =
q
p
q
A
x
x
... (1)
When coordinate
i
x be transformed to
i
x , the law of transformation of a covariant vector is
i
A =
p
i
p
A
x
x

i
A =
q
p
q
i
p
A
x
x
x
x
i
A =
q
i
q
A
x
x

i
x to
i
This property is called that transformation of covariant vectors is transitive or form a group.
THEOREM 2.5 Prove that the transformations of tensors form a group
or
Prove that the equations of transformation a tensor (Mixed tensor) posses the group property.
Proof: Let
i
j
A be a mixed tensor of rank two in a coordinate system ) ,..., 2 , 1 ( n i x
i
i
x be transformed to the coordinate system
i
x and
i
x be transformed to
i
x .
When coordinate
i
x be transformed to
i
x , the transformation of a mixed tensor of rank two is
p
q
A =
r
s
q
s
r
p
A
x
x
x
x
... (1)
When coordinate
i
x be transformed to
i
x
, the law of transformation of a mixed tensor of rank
two is
i
j
A =
p
q
j
q
p
i
A
x
x
x
x
=
r
s
q
s
r
p
j
q
p
i
A
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
from (1)
i
j
A =
r
s
j
s
r
i
A
x
x
x
x

i
x to
i
This property is called that transformation of tensors form a group.
THEOREM 2.6 There is no distinction between contravariant and covariant vectors when we restrict
ourselves to rectangular Cartesian transformation of coordinates.
Proof: Let P(x, y) be a point with respect to the rectangular Cartesian axes X and Y. Let ) , ( y x be the
coordinate of the same point P in another rectangular cartesian axes X and Y , Let (l
1
, m
1
) and (l
2
, m
2
)
be the direction cosines of the axes X , Y respectively. Then the transformation relations are given by
+
+
y m x l y
y m x l x
2 2
1 1
...(1)
and solving these equations, we have
+
+
y m x m y
y l x l x
2 1
2 1
...(2)
put
1
x x , ,
2
x y ,
1
x x
2
x y
Tensor Algebra 13
Consider the contravariant transformation
i
A
=
;
j
j
i
A
x
x
2 , 1 j
i
A
=
2
2
1
1
A
x
x
A
x
x
i i
for 2 , 1 i .
1
A
=
2
2
1
1
1
1
A
x
x
A
x
x
2
A
=
2
2
2
1
1
2
A
x
x
A
x
x
From (1)
1
l
x
x

, but
1
x x ,
2
x y
,
1
x x ,
2
x y
Then
1
1
1
l
x
x
x
x
.
Similarly,
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
1
;
;
x
x
m
y
y
x
x
l
x
y
x
x
m
y
x
...(3)
So, we have
+
+
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
A m A l A
A m A l A
..(4)
Consider the covariant transformation
i
A =
;
j
i
j
A
x
x
2 , 1 j
i
A =
2
1
2
1
1
A
x
x
A
x
x
i
for 2 , 1 i .
1
A =
2
1
2
1
1
1
A
x
x
A
x
x
2
A =
2
2
2
1
2
1
A
x
x
A
x
x
From (3)
+
+
2 2 1 2 2
2 1 1 1 1
A m A l A
A m A l A
...(5)
So, from (4) and (5), we have
1
1
A A and
2
2
A A
Hence the theorem is proved.
2.7 TENSORS OF HIGHER ORDER
(a) Contravariant tensor of rank r
Let
r
i i i
A
. . .
2 1
be n
r
function of coordinates x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
in X-coordinates system. If the quantities
r i
i i i
A
. . .
2
are transformed to
r
i i i
A
. . .
2 1
in Y-coordinate system having coordinates
n
x x x ..., , ,
2 1
. Then according
to the law of transformation
r
i i i
A
. . .
2 1
=
r
r
p
i
p
i
p
i
x
x
x
x
x
x
K
2
2
1
1
r
p p p
A
. . .
2 1
Then
r i
i i i
A
. . .
2
are called components of contravariant tensor of rank r.
(b) Covariant tensor of rank s
Let
s
j j j
A
. . .
2 1
be
s
n functions of coordinates x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
s
j j j
A
. . .
2 1
are transformed to
s
j j j
A
. . .
2 1
in Y- coordinate system having coordinates
n
x x x ,..., ,
2 1
. Then
s
j j j
A
. . .
2 1
=
s
s
j
q
j
q
j
q
x
x
x
x
x
x
2
2
1
1

s
q q q
A
. . . , ,
2 1
Then
s
j j j
A
. . .
2 1
are called the components of covariant tensor of rank s.
(c) Mixed tensor of rank r +s
Let
r
s
i i i
j j j
A
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1
be n
r+s
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
r
s
i i i
j j j
A
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1
are transformed to
r
s
i i i
j j j
A
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1
in Y-coordinate system having coordinates
n
x x x , , ,
2 1
. Then
r
s
i i i
j j j
A
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1
=
r
r
p
i
p
i
p
i
x
x
x
x
x
x
2
2
1
1

s
s
j
q
j
q
j
q
x
x
x
x
x
x
2
2
1
1
r
s
p p p
q q q
A
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1
Then
r
s
i i i
j j j
A
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1
are called component of mixed tensor of rank s r + .
A tensor of type
s
r
j j j
i i i
A
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1
is known as tensor of type ( ) s r, , In (r,s), the first component r
indicates the rank of contravariant tensor and the second component s indicates the rank of covariant
tensor.
Thus the tensors
ij
A and
ij
A
are type (0, 2) and (2, 0) respectively while tensor
i
j
A is type (1, 1).
Tensor Algebra 15
EXAMPLE
ijk
lm
A is a mixed tensor of type (3, 2) in which contravariant tensor of rank three and covariant
tensor of rank two. Then according to the law of transformation
ijk
lm
A =
m
b
l
a k j i
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
ab
A
2.8 SCALAR OR INVARIANT
A function ) ..., , , (
2 1 n
x x x is called Scalar or an invariant if its original value does not change upon
transform ation of coordinates from x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
to
n
x x x ..., , ,
2 1
. i.e.
) ,..., , (
2 1 n
x x x = ) ,..., , (
2 1 n
x x x
Scalar is also called tensor of rank zero.
For example,
i
i
B A is scalar..
2.9 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF TENSORS
THEOREM 2.7 The sum (or difference) of two tensors which have same number of covariant and the
same contravariant indices is again a tensor of the same rank and type as the given tensors.
Proof: Consider two tensors
r
s
i i i
j j j
A
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1
and
r
s
i i i
j j j
B
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1
of the same rank and type (i.e., covariant tensor of
rank s and contravariant tensor of rank r.). Then according to the law of transformation
r
s
i i i
j j j
A
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1
=

2
2
1
1
p
i
p
i
x
x
x
x

2
2
1
1
j
q
j
q
p
i
x
x
x
x
x
x
r
r

s
s
j
q
x
x
r
s
p p p
q q q
A
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1
and
r
s
i i i
j j j
B
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1
=

2
2
1
1
p
i
p
i
x
x
x
x

2
2
1
1
j
q
j
q
p
i
x
x
x
x
x
x
r
r

s
s
j
q
x
x
r
s
p p p
q q q
B
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1
Then
r
s
r
s
i i i
j j j
i i i
j j j
B A
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
t
=

2
2
1
1
p
i
p
i
x
x
x
x

2
2
1
1
j
q
j
q
p
i
x
x
x
x
x
x
r
r

s
s
j
q
x
x
( )
r
s
r
s
p p p
q q q
p p p
q q q
B A
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
t
If
r
s
r
s
i i i
j j j
i i i
j j j
B A
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
t
=
r
s
i i i
j j j
C
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1
and
r
s
r
s
p p p
q q q
p p p
q q q
B A
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
t
=
r
s
p p p
q q q
C
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1
So,
r
s
i i i
j j j
C
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1
=

2
2
1
1
p
i
p
i
x
x
x
x

2
2
1
1
j
q
j
q
p
i
x
x
x
x
x
x
r
r
s
s
j
q
x
x

r
s
p p p
q q q
C
, . . . , ,
, . . . , ,
2 1
2 1
This is law of transformation of a mixed tensor of rank r+s. So,
r
s
i i i
j j j
C
, . . . , ,
, . . . , ,
2 1
2 1
is a mixed tensor of
rank r+s or of type (r, s).
EXAMPLE 5
If
ij
k
A and
lm
n
B are tensors then their sum and difference are tensors of the same rank and type.
Solution
As given
ij
k
A and
ij
k
B are tensors. Then according to the law of transformation
ij
k
A =
pq
r
k
r
q
j
p
i
A
x
x
x
x
x
x
and
ij
k
B =
pq
r
k
r
q
j
p
i
B
x
x
x
x
x
x
then
ij
k
ij
k
B A t =
( )
pq
r
pq
r
k
r
q
j
p
i
B A
x
x
x
x
x
x
t
If
ij
k
ij
k
B A t =
ij
k
C and
pq
r
pq
r
B A t =
pq
r
C
So,
ij
k
C =
pq
r
k
r
q
j
p
i
C
x
x
x
x
x
x
The shows that

ij
k
C is a tensor of same rank and type as
ij
k
A and
ij
k
B .
2.10 MULTIPLICATION OF TENSORS (OUTER PRODUCT OF TENSOR)
THEOREM 2.8 The multiplication of two tensors is a tensor whose rank is the sum of the ranks of
two tensors.
Proof: Consider two tensors
r
s
i i i
j j j
A
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1
(which is covariant tensor of rank s and contravariant tensor of
rank r) and
m
n
k k k
l l l
B
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1
(which is covariant tensor of rank m and contravariant tensor of rank n). Then
according to the law of transformation.
r
s
i i i
j j j
A
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1
=

2
2
1
1
p
i
p
i
x
x
x
x

2
2
1
1
j
q
j
q
p
i
x
x
x
x
x
x
r
r
s
r
j
q
x
x

r
s
p p p
q q q
A
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1
and
m
n
k k k
l l l
B
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1
=

2
2
1
1
x
x
x
x
k k

2
2
1
1
l l
k
x
x
x
x
x
x
m
m
n
n
l
x
x

m
n
B

. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1
Then their product is
r
s
i i i
j j j
A
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1

m
n
k k k
l l l
B
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1
=

1
1
1
1
j
q
p
i
p
i
x
x
x
x
x
x
r
r

1
1
1
1
l
k k
j
q
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
m
m
s
s

m
n
l
x
x

r
s
p p p
q q q
A
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1
m
n
B

. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1
Tensor Algebra 17
If
m r
n
l s
k k k i i i
l l j j j
C
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
2 1 2 1
2 1 2 1
=
n
n
r
s
k k k
l l l
i i i
j j j
B A
...
...
...
...
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
and
m r
n s
p p p
q q q
C

. . . . . .
. . . . . .
2 1 2 1
2 1 2 1
=
r
s
p p p
q q q
A
. . . ,
. . . ,
2 1
2 1
m
n
B

. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1
So,
m r
n s
k k k i i i
l l l j j j
C
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
2 1 2 1
2 1 2 1
=

r
r
p
i
p
i
x
x
x
x
1
1
1
1
1
1
x
x
x
x
x
x
k
j
q
j
q
s
s
n
n
m
m
l l
k
x
x
x
x
x
x
1
1

h r
n s
p p p
q q q
C

. . . . . .
. . . . . .
2 1 2 1
2 1 2 1
This is law of transformation of a mixed tensor of rank . n s m r + + + . So,
m k k r
n s
k i i i
l l l j j j
C
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
2 1 2 1
2 1 2 1
is a
mixed tensor of rank n s m r + + + . or of type ( ) n s m r + + , . Such product is called outer product or
open proudct of two tensors.
THEOREM 2.9 If A
i
and B
j
are the components of a contravariant and covariant tensors of rank one
then prove that A
i
B
j
are components of a mixed tensor of rank two.
Proof: As
i
A is contravariant tensor of rank one and
j
B is covariant tensor of rank one. Then
i
A =
k
k
i
A
x
x
...(1)
and
j
B =
l
j
l
B
x
x
...(2)
Multiply (1) and (2), we get
j
i
B A =
l
k
j
l
k
i
B A
x
x
x
x
This is law of transformation of tensor of rank two. So,

j
i
B A are mixed tensor of rank two.
Such product is called outer product of two tensors.
EXAMPLE 6
Show that the product of two tensors
i
j
A and
kl
m
B is a tensor of rank five.
Solution
As
i
j
A and
kl
m
B are tensors. Then by law of transformation
i
j
A =
p
q
j
q
p
i
A
x
x
x
x
and
kl
m
B =
rs
t
m
t
s
l
r
k
B
x
x
x
x
x
x

Multiplying these, we get
kl
m
i
j
B A =
rs
t
p
q m
t
s
l
r
k
j
q
p
i
B A
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
This is law of transformation of tensor of rank five. So,

kl
m
i
j
B A is a tensor of rank five.
2.11 CONTRACTION OF A TENSOR
The process of getting a tensor of lower order (reduced by 2) by putting a covariant index equal to a
contravariant index and performing the summation indicated is known as Contraction.
In other words, if in a tensor we put one contravariant and one covariant indices equal, the
process is called contraction of a tensor.
For example, consider a mixed tensor
ijk
lm
A of order five. Then by law of transformation,
ijk
lm
A =
pqr
st
m
t
l
s
r
k
q
j
p
i
A
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Put the covariant index l = contravariant index i, so that

ijk
im
A =
pqr
st
m
t
i
s
r
k
q
j
p
i
A
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
=
pqr
st
m
t
p
s
r
k
q
j
A
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
=
pqr
st
s
p
m
t
r
k
q
j
A
x
x
x
x
x
x
Since
s
p
p
s
x
x

ijk
im
A =
pqr
pt
m
t
r
k
q
j
A
x
x
x
x
x
x
This is law of transformation of tensor of rank 3. So,

ijk
im
A is a tensor of rank 3 and type (1, 2)
while
ijk
lm
A is a tensor of rank 5 and type (2, 3). It means that contraction reduces rank of tensor by
two.
2.12 INNER PRODUCT OF TWO TENSORS
Consider the tensors
ij
k
A and
l
mn
B if we first form their outer product
l
mn
ij
k
B A and contract this by
putting
k l
then the result is
k
mn
ij
k
B A which is also a tensor, called the inner product of the given
tensors.
Hence the inner product of two tensors is obtained by first taking outer product and then
contracting it.
EXAMPLE 7
If A
i
and B
i
are the components of a contravariant and covariant tensors of rank are respectively
then prove that A
i
B
i
is scalar or invariant.
Tensor Algebra 19
Solution
As A
i
and B
i
are the components of a contravariant and covariant tensor of rank one respectively,
then according to the law of the transformation
i
A
=
p
p
i
A
x
x
and
i
B =
q
i
q
B
x
x
Multiplying these, we get

i i
B A
=
q
p
i
q
p
i
B A
x
x
x
x
=
,
q
p
p
q
B A
x
x
since
q
p
p
q
x
x

=
q
p q
p
B A
i
i
B A =
p
p
B A
This shows that A
i
B
i
is scalar or Invariant.
EXAMPLE 8
If
i
j
A is mixed tensor of rank 2 and
kl
m
B is mixed tensor of rank 3. Prove that
jl
m
i
j
B A is a mixed
tensor of rank 3.
Solution
As
i
j
A is mixed tensor of rank 2 and
kl
m
B is mixed tensor of rank 3. Then by law of transformation
i
j
A =
p
q
j
q
p
i
A
x
x
x
x
and
kl
m
B =
rs
t
m
t
s
l
r
k
B
x
x
x
x
x
x
...(1)
Put k = j then
jl
m
B =
rs
t
m
t
s
l
r
j
B
x
x
x
x
x
x
...(2)
Multiplying (1) & (2) we get
jl
m
i
j
B A =
rs
t
p
q
m
t
s
l
r
j
j
q
p
i
B A
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
=
rs
t
p
q
q
r
m
t
s
l
p
i
B A
x
x
x
x
x
x
since
r
j
j
q
x
x
x
x
=
r
q
x
x
=
q
r
jl
m
i
j
B A =
qs
t
p
q
m
t
s
l
p
i
B A
x
x
x
x
x
x
since
rs
t
q
r
B =
qs
t
B
This is the law of transformation of a mixed tensor of rank three. Hence
jl
m
i
j
B A is a mixed tensor
of rank three.
2.13SYMMETRIC TENSORS
A tensor is said to be symmetric with respect to two contravariant (or two covariant) indices if its
components remain unchanged on an interchange of the two indices.
EXAMPLE
(1) The tensor
ij
A is symmetric if
ji ij
A A
(2) The tensor
ijk
lm
A is symmetric if
jik
lm
ijk
lm
A A
THEOREM 2.10 A symmetric tensor of rank two has only
) 1 (
2
1
+ n n
different components in n-
dimensional space.
Proof: Let
ij
A be a symmetric tensor of rank two. So that
ji ij
A A .
The component of
ij
A
are
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1
nn n n n
n
n
n
A A A A
A A A A
A A A A
A A A A
L
M L M M M
L
L
L
3 2 1
3 33 32 31
2 23 22 21
1 13 12 11
i.e., A
ij
will have n
2
components. Out of these n
2
components, n components A
11
, A
22
, A
33
, ..., A
nn
are
different. Thus remaining components are (n
2
n). In which A
12
= A
21
, A
23
= A
32
etc. due to symmetry.
So, the remaining different components are
) (
2
1 2
n n
. Hence the total number of different
components
=
) 1 (
2
1
) (
2
1 2
+ + n n n n n
2.14SKEW-SYMMETRIC TENSOR
A tensor is said to be skew-symmetric with respect to two contravariant (or two covariant) indices if
its components change sign on interchange of the two indices.
EXAMPLE
(i) The tensor
ij
A is Skew-symmetric of
ji ij
A A
(ii) The tensor
ijk
lm
A is Skew-symmetric if
jik
lm
ijk
lm
A A
THEOREM 2.11 A Skew symmetric tensor of second order has only
) 1 (
2
1
n n
different non-zeroo
components.
Proof: Let
ij
A be a skew-symmetric tensor of order two. Then
ji ij
A A .
Tensor Algebra 21
The components of
ij
A are
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1
0
0
0
0
3 2 1
3 32 31
2 23 21
1 13 12
L
M L M M M
L
L
L
n n n
n
n
n
A A A
A A A
A A A
A A A
[ ] 0 0 0 2 Since
22 11

nn ii ii ii ii
A A A A A A A
i.e., A
ij
will have n
2
components. Out of these n
2
components, n components A
11
, A
22
, A
33
, ..., A
nn
are zero. Omitting there, then the remaining components are n
2
n. In which A
12
= A
21
, A
13
= A
31
etc. Ignoring the sign. Their remaining the different components are
) (
2
1 2
n n
.
Hence the total number of different non-zero components =
) 1 (
2
1
n n
Note: Skew-symmetric tensor is also called anti-symmetric tensor.
THEOREM 2.12 A covariant or contravariant tensor of rank two say A
ij
can always be written as the
sum of a symmetric and skew-symmetric tensor.
Proof: Consider a covariant tensor A
ij
. We can write A
ij
as
ij
A =
) (
2
1
) (
2
1
ji ij ji ij
A A A A + +
ij
A =
ij ij
T S +
where
ij
S =
) (
2
1
ji ij
A A +
and
) (
2
1
ji ij ij
A A T
Now,
ji
S =
) (
2
1
ij ji
A A +
ji
S =
ij
S
So,
ij
S is symmetric tensor..
and
ij
T =
) (
2
1
ji ij
A A +
ji
T =
) (
2
1
ij ji
A A
=
) (
2
1
ji ij
A A
ji
T =
ij
T
or
ij
T =
ji
T
So,
ij
T is Skew-symmetric Tensor..
EXAMPLE 9
If .
k j
jk
A A a Show that we can always write
k j
jk
A A b where
jk
b is symmetric.
Solution
As given
=
k j
jk
A A a ...(1)
Interchange the indices i and j
=
j k
j k
A A a ...(2)
Adding (1) and (2),
2 =
k j
kj jk
A A a a ) ( +
=
k j
kj jk
A A a a ) (
2
1
+
=
k j
jk
A A b
where
) (
2
1
kj jk jk
a a b +
To show that
jk
b is symmetric.
Since
jk
b =
) (
2
1
kj jk
a a +
kj
b
=
) (
2
1
jk kj
a a +
=
) (
2
1
kj jk
a a +
kj
b =
jk
b
So,
jk
b is Symmetric.
EXAMPLE 10
If
i
T be the component of a covariant vector show that
,
_
i
j
j
i
x
T
x
T
are component of a Skew-
symmetric covariant tensor of rank two.
Solution
As
i
T is covariant vector. Then by the law of transformation
i
T =
k
i
k
T
x
x
Tensor Algebra 23
Differentiating it w.r.t. to
j
x
partially,,
j
i
x
T
,
_
k
i
k
j
T
x
x
x
=
j
k
i
k
k
i j
k
x
T
x
x
T
x x
x
2
j
j
x
T
=
l
k
j
l
i
k
k
i j
k
x
T
x
x
x
x
T
x x
x
2
...(1)
Similarly,
i
j
x
T
=
l
k
i
l
j
k
k
j i
k
x
T
x
x
x
x
T
x x
x
2
Interchanging the dummy indices k & l
i
j
x
T
=
k
l
j
l
i
k
k
j i
k
x
T
x
x
x
x
T
x x
x
2
...(2)
Substituting (1) and (2), we get
i
j
j
i
x
T
x
T
,
_
k
l
l
k
j
l
i
k
x
T
x
T
x
x
x
x
This is law of transformation of covariant tensor of rank two. So,
i
j
j
i
x
T
x
T
are component of
a covariant tensor of rank two.
To show that
i
j
j
i
x
T
x
T
is Skew-symmetric tensor..
Let
ij
A =
i
j
j
i
x
T
x
T
ji
A =
j
i
i
j
x
T
x
T
,
_
i
j
j
i
x
T
x
T
ji
A =
ij
A
or
ij
A =
ji
A
So,
i
j
j
i
ij
x
T
x
T
A
is Skew-symmetric.
So,
i
j
j
i
x
T
x
T
are component of a Skew-symmetric covariant tensor of rank two.

2.15 QUOTIENT LAW
By this law, we can test a given quantity is a tensor or not. Suppose given quantity be A and we do not
know that A is a tensor or not. To test A, we take inner product of A with an arbitrary tensor, if this
inner product is a tensor then A is also a tensor.
Statement
If the inner product of a set of functions with an atbitrary tensor is a tensor then these set of
functions are the components of a tensor.
The proof of this law is given by the following examples.
EXAMPLE 11
Show that the expression A(i,j,k) is a covariant tensor of rank three if A(i,j,k)B
k
is covariant
tensor of rank two and B
k
is contravariant vector
Solution
Let X and Y be two coordinate systems.
As given A (i, j, k)B
k
is covariant tensor of rank two then
k
B k j i A ) , , ( =
r
j
q
i
p
B r q p A
x
x
x
x
) , , (
...(1)
Since
k
B is contravariant vector. Then
k
B
=
r
r
k
B
x
x
or
k
k
r
r
B
x
x
B
So, from (1)

k
B k j i A ) , , ( =
k
k
r
j
q
i
p
B
x
x
r q p A
x
x
x
x
) , , (
k
B k j i A ) , , ( =
k
k
r
j
q
i
p
B r q p A
x
x
x
x
x
x
) , , (
) , , ( k j i A = ) , , ( r q p A
x
x
x
x
x
x
k
r
i
q
i
p
As
k
B is arbitrary..
So, ) , , ( k j i A is covariant tensor of rank three.
EXAMPLE 12
If A (i, j, k)A
i
B
j
C
k
is a scalar for arbitrary vectors A
i
,

B
j
,

C
k
. Show that A(i, j, k) is a tensor of
type (1, 2).
Solution
Let X and Y be two coordinate systems. As given
k
j i
C B A k j i A ) , , ( is scalar. Then
k
j i
C B A k j i A ) , , ( =
r
q p
C B A r q p A ) , , ( ...(1)
Tensor Algebra 25
Since
i i
B A ,
and
k
C are vectors. Then
i
A =
p
p
i
A
x
x
or
p
A =
i
i
p
A
x
x
j
B =
q
q
j
B
x
x
or
q
B =
j
j
q
B
x
x
k
C =
r
r
k
C
x
x
or
r
C =
k
k
r
C
x
x
So, from (1)

k
j i
C B A k j i A ) , , (
= k
j i
r
k
j
q
i
p
C B A
x
x
x
x
x
x
r q p A
) , , (
As
k
j i
C B A , , are arbitrary..
Then
) , , ( k j i A =
) , , ( r q p A
x
x
x
x
x
x
r
k
j
q
i
p
So, A(i, j, k) is tensor of type (1, 2).

2.16 CONJUGATE (OR RECIPROCAL) SYMMETRIC TENSOR
Consider a covariant symmetric tensor
ij
A of rank two. Let d denote the determinant
ij
A
with the
elements
ij
A i.e.,
ij
A d
and
0 d
.
Now, define
ij
A by
ij
A
=
d
A A
ij ij
t determinan the is of Cofactor
ij
A
is a contravariant symmetric tensor of rank two which is called conjugate (or Reciprocal) tensor
of
ij
A .
THEOREM 2.13 If
ij
B is the cofactor of
ij
A in the determinant d = |A
ij
| 0 and A
ij
defined as
ij
A =
d
B
ij
Then prove that
k
i
kj
ij
A A .
Proof: From the properties of the determinants, we have two results.
(i) d B A
ij ij

d
B
A
ij
ij
= 1
ij
ij
A A = 1, given
d
B
A
ij ij

(ii) 0
kj ij
B A
d
B
A
kj
ij
= 0,
0 d
kj
ij
A A = 0 if
k i
from (i) & (ii)
kj
ij
A A =
'
k i
k i
if 0
if 1
i.e.,
kj
ij
A A =
k
i
2.17 RELATIVE TENSOR

If the components of a tensor
r
s
i i i
j j j
A
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1
transform according to the equation
x
x
A
r
s
k k k
l l l
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1

r
s
i i i
j j j
A
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1

2
2
1
1
i
k
i
k
x
x
x
x
2
2 1
l
j
l
j
i
k
x
x
x
x
x
x
r r
r
s
s
l
j
x
x

Hence
r
r
i i i
j j j
A
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 1
is called a relative tensor of weight , where
x
x
is the Jacobian of transformation. If

, 1 the relative tensor is called a tensor density. If w = 0 then tensor is said to be absolute.
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
1. Show that there is no distinction between contravariant and covariant vectors when we
restrict ourselves to transformation of the type
i
x
= ;
i m i
m
b x a +
where a's and b's are constants such that
i
m
i
r
a a =
r
m
Solution
Given that
i
x =
i m i
m
b x a +
...(1)
or
m i
m
x a
=
i i
b x ...(2)
Multiplying both sides (2) by ,
i
r
a we get
m i
m
i
r
x a a =
i
r
i i i
r
a b x a
m r
m
x =
i
r
i i i
r
a b x a as given
r
m
i
m
i
r
a a
r
x =
i
r
i i i
r
a b x a as
r m r
m
x x
or
s
x =
i
s
i i i
s
a b x a
Differentiating Partially it w.r.t. to
i
x
i
s
x
x
=
i
s
a ..(3)
Tensor Algebra 27
Now, from (1)
i
x =
i s i
s
b x a +
s
i
x
x
=
i
s
a
...(4)
The contravariant transformation is
i
A
=
s
s
i
A
x
x
=
s i
s
A a
...(5)
The covariant transformation is
i
A =
s
i
s
A
x
x
= s
i
s
A a
...(6)
Thus from (5) and (6), it shows that there is no distinction between contravariant and
covariant tensor law of transformation
2. If the tensors
ij
a and
ij
g are symmetric and
i i
v u , are components of contravariant vectors
satisfying the equations
i
ij ij
u kg a ) ( = 0, n j i ,..., 2 , 1 ,

i
ij ij
v k'g a ) ( = 0,
k k
.
Prove that , 0
j i
ij
v u g . 0
j i
ij
v u a
Solution
The equations are
i
ij ij
u kg a ) ( = 0 ...(1)
i
ij ij
v g k a ) ( = 0 ...(2)
Multiplying (1) and (2) by u
j
and v
j
respectively and subtracting, we get
0 +
i j
ij
j i
ij
j i
ij
j i
ij
v u g k v u kg u v a v u a
Interchanging i and j in the second and fourth terms,
0 +
j i
ji
j i
ij
i j
ji
j i
ij
v u g k v u kg u v a v u a
As
ij
a and
ij
g is symmetric i.e.,
ji ij
a a &
ji ij
g g
j i
ij
i j
ij
v u g k u v kg + =
0
j i
ij
v u g k k ) ( = 0
j i
ij
v u g = 0 since
0 k k k k
Multiplying (1) by
j
v , we get
j i
ij
i j
ij
v u kg u v a = 0
j i
ij
v u a = 0 as
j i
ij
v u g = 0. Proved.
3. If
ij
A is a Skew-Symmetric tensor prove that
ik
k
j
i
l
k
l
i
j
A ) ( + = 0
Solution
Given
ij
A is a Skew-symmetric tensor then
ji ij
A A .
Now,
ik
k
j
i
l
k
l
i
j
A ) ( + =
ik
k
j
i
l ik
k
l
i
j
A A +
=
ij
i
l il
i
j
A A +
=
lj jl
A A +
ik
k
j
i
l
k
l
i
j
A ) ( + = 0 as
lj jl
A A
4. If
ij
a is symmetric tensor and
i
b is a vector and +
k ij
b a +
i jk
b a 0
j ki
b a then prove that
0
ij
a or 0
k
b .
Solution
The equation is
j ki i jk k ij
b a b a b a + + = 0
j ki i jk k ij
b a b a b a + + = 0
By tensor law of transformation, we have
+
k
r
r
j
q
i
p
pq
x
x
b
x
x
x
x
a +
i
r
r
k
q
j
p
pq
x
x
b
x
x
x
x
a
r
i
q
k
p
pq
b
x
x
x
x
a
j
r
x
x
= 0
r pq
b a 1
]
1
j
r
i
q
k
p
i
r
k
q
j
p
k
r
j
q
i
p
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
= 0
0
r pq
b a
0
pq
a or 0
r
b
0
ij
a or 0
k
b
5. If
n m
mn
n m
mn
x x b x x a
for arbitrary values of
r
x
, show that a
(mn)
= b
(mn)
i.e.,
nm mn nm mn
b b a a + +
If
mn
a
and
mn
b are symmetric tensors then further show the
mn mn
b a
.
Solution
Given
n m
mn
x x a
=
n m
mn
x x b
n m
mn mn
x x b a ) ( = 0
Tensor Algebra 29
Differentiating w.r.t.
i
x
partially
m
mi mi
n
in in
x b a x b a ) ( ) ( +
= 0
Differentiating again w.r.t.
j
x
partially
) ( ) (
ji ji ij ij
b a b a + = 0
ji ij
a a +
=
ji ij
b b +
or
nm mn
a a +
=
nm mn
b b +
or
) ( ) ( mn mn
b a
Also, since
mn
a
and
mn
b
are symmetric then
nm mn
a a
,
nm mn
b b
.
So,
mn
a 2
=
mn
b 2
mn
a
=
mn
b
EXERCISES
1. Write down the law of transformation for the tensors
(i)
ij
A
(ii)
ij
k
B
(iii)
ijk
lm
C
2. If
pq
r
A and
s
t
B are tensors then prove that
s
t
pq
r
B A is also a tensor..
3. If A
ij
is a contravariant tensor and B
i
is covariant vector then prove that
k
ij
B A is a tensor of rank
three and A
ij
B
j
is a tensor of rank one.
4. If A
i
is an arbitrary contravariant vector and C
ij
A
i
A
j
is an invariant show that C
ij
+ C
ji
is a covariant
tensor of the second order.
5. Show that every tensor can be expressed in the terms of symmetric and skew-symmetric tensor.
6. Prove that in n-dimensional space, symmetric and skew-symmetric tensor have ) 1 (
2
+ n
n
and ) 1 (
2
n
n
independent components respectively.
7. If 0
ij
U are components of a tensor of the type (0, 2) and if the equation 0 +
ji ij
gU fU holds
w.r.t to a basis then prove that either f = g and
ij
U is skew-symmetric or f = g and
ij
U is symmetric.
8. If
ij
A is skew-symmetric then 0 ) ( +
ik
k
j
i
l
k
l
i
j
A B B B B .
9. Explain the process of contraction of tensors. Show that
i
j
ij
ij
a a .
10. If
pq
r
A is a tensor of rank three. Show that
pr
r
A is a contravariant tensor of rank one.
11. If
k
j i
ij
k
a is a scalar or invariant,
k
j i
, , are vectors then
ij
k
a is a mixed tensor of type (2, 1).
12. Show that if 0
k h i h
hijk
a where
i
and
i
are components of two arbitrary vectors then

jkhi jihk hkji hijk
a a a a + + + =0
13. Prove that A
ij
B
i
C
j
is invariant if B
i
and C
j
are vector and A
ij
is tensor of rank two.
14. If A(r, s, t) be a function of the coordinates in n-dimensional space such that for an arbitrary vector
B
r
of the type indicated by the index a A(r, s, t)B
r
is equal to the component C
st
of a contravariant
tensor of order two. Prove that A(r, s, t) are the components of a tensor of the form
st
r
A .
15. If A
ij
and A
ij
are components of symmetric relative tensors of weight w. show that
2
w
ij ij
x
x
A A
and
2 +
w
ij ij
x
x
A A
16. Prove that the scalar product of a relative covariant vector of weight w and a relative contravariant
vector of weight
w is a relative scalar of weight
w w +
.
3.1 THE METRIC TENSOR
In rectangular cartesian coordinates, the distance between two neighbouring point are (x, y, z) and
) , , ( dz z dy y dx x + + + is given by
2 2 2 2
dz dy dx ds + + .
In n-dimensional space, Riemann defined the distance ds between two neighbouring points
i
x
and ) ,... 2 , 1 ( n i dx x
i i
+ by quadratic differential form
2
ds =
n
n
dx dx g dx dx g dx g
1
1
2 1
12
2 1
11
) ( + + +
n
n
dx dx g dx g dx dx g
2
2
2 2
22
1 2
12
) ( ) ( + + + +
+
. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
+
2 2
2
1
1
) (
n
nn
n
n
n
n
dx g dx dx g dx dx g + + + +
2
ds
=
j i
ij
dx dx g ) ,... 2 , 1 , ( n j i ...(1)
using summation convention.
Where ij
g
are the functions of the coordinates
i
x such that
g = 0
ij
g
The quadratic differential form (1) is called the Riemannian Metric or Metric or line element for n-
dimensional space and such n-dimensional space is called Riemannian space and denoted by
n
V and
ij
g is called Metric Tensor or Fundamental tensor..
The geometry based on Riemannian Metric is called the Riemannian Geometry.
THEOREM 3.1 The Metric tensor
ij
g is a covariant symmetry tensor of rank two.
Proof: The metric is given by
2
ds =
j i
ij
dx dx g
...(1)
METRIC TENSOR AND RIEMANNIAN METRIC
CHAPTER 3
Let x
i
be the coordinates in X-coordinate system and
i
x be the coordinates in Y-coordinate
system. Then metric ds
2
= g
ij
dx
i
dx
j
transforms to
j i
ij
x d x d g ds
2
.
Since distance being scalar quantity.
So,
2
ds
=
j i
ij
j i
ij
x d x d g dx dx g ...(2)
The theorem will be proved in three steps.
(i) To show that dx
i
is a contravariant vector.
If
i
x = ) ,... , (
2 1 n i
x x x x
i
x d
=
n
n
i i
i
i
dx
x
x
dx
x
x
dx
x
x
+ +
2
2
1
i
x d =
k
k
i
dx
x
x
It is law of transformation of contravariant vector. So,

i
dx
is contravariant vector..
(ii) To show that
ij
g is a covariant tensor of rank two. Since
i
x d =
k
k
i
dx
x
x
and
j
x d =
l
l
j
x
x
x
from equation (2)

j i
ij
dx dx g =
l
l
j
k
k
i
ij
dx
x
x
dx
x
x
g
j i
ij
dx dx g =
l k
l
j
k
i
ij
dx x
x
x
x
x
g
l k
kl
dx dx g =
l k
l
j
k
i
ij
dx dx
x
x
x
x
g
Since
l k
kl
j i
ij
dx dx g dx dx g (i, j are dummy indices).
l k
l
j
k
i
ij kl
dx dx
x
x
x
x
g g

,
_
= 0
or
l
j
k
i
ij kl
x
x
x
x
g g
= 0 as
k
dx and
l
dx are arbitrary..
kl
g
=
l
j
k
j
ij
x
x
x
x
g
or
ij
g =
j
l
i
k
kl
x
x
x
x
g
So, ij
g
is covariant tensor of rank two.
Metric Tensor and Riemannian Metric 33
(iii) To show that
ij
g is symmetric. Then
ij
g can be written as
ij
g =
) (
2
1
) (
2
1
ji ij
ji ij
g g g g + +
ij
g =
ij ij
B A +
where
ij
A =
) (
2
1
ji ij
g g +
= symmetric
ij
B =
) (
2
1
ji ij
g g
= Skew-symmetric
Now,
j i
ij
dx dx g =
j i
ij ij
dx dx B A ) ( + from (3)
j i
ij ij
dx dx A g ) ( =
j i
ij
dx dx B (4)
Interchanging the dummy indices in
j i
ij
dx dx B , we have
j i
ij
dx dx B =
j i
ji
dx dx B
j i
ij
dx dx B =
j i
ij
dx dx B
Since
ij
B is Skew-symmetric i.e.,
ji ij
B B
j i
ij
j i
ij
dx dx B dx dx B + = 0
j i
ij
dx dx B 2 = 0
j i
ij
dx dx B = 0
So, from (4),
j i
ij ij
dx dx A g ) ( = 0
ij
g =
ij
A as
j i
dx dx ,
are arbitrary..
So, ij
g
is symmetric since
ij
A is symmetric. Hence ij
g
is a covariant symmetric tensor of rank
two. This is called fundamental Covariant Tensor.
j i
ij
dx dx g is an invariant.
Proof: Let
i
x be coordinates of a point in X-coordinate system and
i
x be coordinates of a same point
in Y-coordinate system.
Since ij
g
is a Covariant tensor of rank two.
Then,
ij
g =
j i
k
kl
x
x
x
x
g
1
j
l
i
k
kl ij
x
x
x
x
g g
= 0
j i
j
l
i
k
kl ij
dx dx
x
x
x
x
g g

,
_
= 0
) (
j i
ij
dx dx g =
j i
j
l
i
k
kl
dx dx
x
x
x
x
g
=
j
j
l
i
i
k
kl
dx
x
x
dx
x
x
g
j i
ij
dx dx g =
l k
kl
dx dx g
So,
j i
ij
dx dx g is an ivariant.
3.2 CONJUGATE METRIC TENSOR: (CONTRAVARIANT TENSOR)
The conjugate Metric Tensor to
ij
g , which is written as
ij
g , is defined by
ij
g =
g
B
ij
(by Art.2.16, Chapter 2)
where
ij
B is the cofactor of
ij
g in the determinant
0
ij
g g
.
By theorem on page 26
kj
ij
A A =
k
i
So,
kj
ij
g g =
k
i
Note (i) Tensors g

ij
and g
ij
are Metric Tensor or Fundamental Tensors.
(ii) g
ij
is called first fundamental Tensor and g
ij

second fundamental Tensors.
EXAMPLE 1
Find the Metric and component of first and second fundamental tensor is cylindrical coordinates.
Solution
Let (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) be the Cartesian coordinates and )
, ,
(
3 2 1
x x x
be the cylindrical coordinates of a
point. The cylindrical coordinates are given by
, cos r x , sin r y z z
So that
z x y x x x
3 2 1
, , and z x x r x
3 2 1
, , ...(1)
Let
ij
g and
ij
g be the metric tensors in Cartesian coordinates and cylindrical coordinates
respectively.
The metric in Cartesian coordinate is given by
2
ds
=
2 2 2
dz dy dx + +
2
ds
=
2 3 2 2 2 1
) ( ) ( ) ( dx dx dx + + ...(2)
But
2
ds
=
j i
ij
dx dx g
=
+ +
2 1
12
2 1
11
) ( dx dx g dx g

1 2
21
3 1
13
dx dx g dx dx g +
+
2 2
22
) (dx g
3 2
23
dx dx g +
1 3
31
dx dx g +
2 3
32
dx dx g +
3 3
33
) (dx g +
...(3)
Comparing (2) and (3), we have
1
33 22 11
g g g and 0
32 31 23 21 13 12
g g g g g g
On transformation
,
j
j
i
i
ij ij
x
x
x
x
g g
since
ij
g is Covariant Tensor of rank two. (i, j = 1, 2, 3)
for i = j = 1.
11
g
=
2
1
3
33
1
2
22
2
1
1
11

,
_
,
_
,
_
x
x
g
x
x
g
x
x
g
since 0
32 13 12
g g g .
11
g
=
2
33
2
22
2
11

,
_
+
,
_
+
,
_
r
z
g
r
y
g
r
x
g
Since , cos r x , sin r y z z
, cos
r
x
, sin
r
y
0
r
z
and
1
33 22 11
g g g
.
11
g
= 0 sin cos
2 2
+ +
11
g = 1
Put i = j = 2.
22
g
=
2
2
3
33
2
2
2
22
2
2
1
11

,
_
,
_
,
_
x
x
g
x
x
g
x
x
g
22
g
=
2
33
2
22
2
11

,
_
+
,
_
+
,
_

z
g
y
g
x
g
Since
1
33 22 11
g g g
, sin

r
x

, cos

r
y

0

z
22
g
= ( ) ( ) 0 cos sin
2 2
+ + r r
= +
2 2 2 2
cos sin r r
22
g
=
2
r
Put i = j = 3.
33
g =

,
_
,
_
,
_
3
3
33
3
2
22
2
3
1
11
x
x
g
x
x
g
x
x
g
=
,
_
+
,
_
+
,
_
z
z
g
z
y
g
z
x
g
33 22
2
11
Since
, 0
z
x

, 0
z
y

1
z
z
. So, 1
33
g .
So, , 1
11
g
2
22
r g , 1
33
g
and 0
32 31 23 21 13 12
g g g g g g
(i) The metric in cylindrical coordinates
2
ds =
j i
ij
x d x d g
. 3 , 2 , 1 , j i
2
ds =
( ) ( ) ( )
2
3
33
2
2
22
2
1
11
x d g x d g x d g + +
since 0
32 13 12
g g g
2
ds
=
2 2 2 2
) ( d d r dr + +
(ii) The first fundamental tensor is
ij
g =
1
1
1
]
1
1
1
1
]
1
1 0 0
0 0
0 0 1
2
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
r
g g g
g g g
g g g
since g =
1 0 0
0 0
0 0 1
2
r g
ij

g =
2
r
(iii) The cofactor of g are given by
,
2
11
r B , 1
22
B
2
33
r B
and 0
32 31 23 13 21 12
B B B B B B
The second fundamental tensor or conjugate tensor is
g
B
g
ij ij
.
11
g
=
g
g g in of cofactor
11
11
g = 1
2
2
11

r
r
g
B
22
g
=
2
12
1
r g
B
33
g
= 1
2
2
33

r
r
g
B
and 0
32 31 23 21 13 12
g g g g g g
Hence the second fundamental tensor in matrix form is
1
1
1
1
]
1
1 0 0
0
1
0
0 0 1
2
r
.
EXAMPLE 2
Find the matrix and component of first and second fundamental tensors in spherical coordinates.
Solution
Let ) , , (
3 2 1
x x x be the cartesian coordinates and ) , , (
3 2 1
x x x be the spherical coordinates of a
point. The spherical coordinates are given by
, cos sin r x , sin sin r y cos r z
So that z x y x x x
3 2 1
, , and
3 2 1
, , x x r x
Let
ij
g and
ij
g be the metric tensors in cartesian and spherical coordinates respectively..
The metric in cartesian coordinates is given by
2
ds
=
2 2 2
dz dy dx + +
2
ds
=
( ) ( ) ( )
2
3
2
2
2
1
dx dx dx + +
But
2
ds
= ;
j i
ij
dx dx g ( ) 3 , 2 , 1 , j i
1
33 22 11
g g g
and
0
32 31 21 13 23 12
g g g g g g
On transformation
ij
g =
j
j
i
i
ij
x
x
x
x
g
(since
ij
g is covariant tensor of rank two) (where i, j = 1,2,3).
ij
g =
1
3 3
33
2 2
22
1 1
11
x
x
x
x
g
x
x
x
x
g
x
x
x
x
g
i j i j i
since i, j are dummy indices.

Put i = j = 1
11
g =
2
1
3
33
2
1
2
22
2
1
1
11

,
_
,
_
,
_
x
x
g
x
x
g
x
x
g
11
g =
2
33
2
22
2
11

,
_
+
,
_
+
,
_
r
z
g
r
y
g
r
x
g
Since , cos sin r x , sin sin r y cos r z
r
x
= , cos sin , sin sin
r
y

cos
r
z
and
1
33 22 11
g g g
.
So,
11
g
= ( ) ( ) + +
2 2 2
cos sin sin cos sin
11
g
= 1
put i = j = 2
22
g =
2
2
3
33
2
2
22
2
2
1
11

,
_
,
_
,
_
x
x
g
x
x
g
x
x
g
22
g =
2
33
2
22
2
11

,
_
+
,
_
+
,
_

z
g
y
g
x
g
since 1
33 22 11
g g g

, cos cos

r
x

, sin cos

r
y

sin r
z
22
g = ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
sin sin cos cos cos + + r r r
22
g =
2
r
Put i = j = 3
33
g =
2
3
3
33
2
3
2
22
2
3
1
11

,
_
,
_
,
_
x
x
g
x
x
g
x
x
g
33
g =
2
33
2
22
2
11
,
_
,
_
,
_

z
g
y
g
x
g
since 1
33 22 11
g g g
and
0 , cos sin , sin sin

z
r
y
r
x
33
g = ( ) ( ) 0 cos sin sin sin
2 2
+ + r r
33
g =

2 2
sin r
So, we have
, 1
11
g ,
2
22
r g
2 2
33
sin r g
and 0
32 31 23 21 13 12
g g g g g g
(i) The Metric in spherical coordinates is
2
ds = ;
j i
ij
x d x d g 3 , 2 , 1 , j i
2
ds =
( ) ( ) ( )
2
3
33
2
2
22
2
1
11
x d g x d g x d g + +
2
ds =
2 2 2 2 2 2
sin + + d r d r dr
(ii) The Metric tensor or first fundamental tensor is
ij
g =
1
1
1
]
1
1
1
1
]
1
2 2
2
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
sin 0 0
0 0
0 0 1
r
r
g g g
g g g
g g g
and
g =
2 4
2 2
2
sin
sin 0 0
0 0
0 0 1
r
r
r g
ij

(iii) The cofactor of g are given by , 1
11
B ,
2
22
r B
2 2
33
sin r B and
21 12
B B

13 31
B B 0
32 23
B B
The second fundamental tensor or conjugate tensor is
g
B
g
ij ij
.
11
g
=
g
B
g
g g
11 11
in of cofactor
2 4
2 4
sin
sin
r
r
11
g = 1
22
g =
2 4
2 2
22
sin
sin
r
r
g
B
22
g =
2
1
r
33
g =
2 4
2
33
sin r
r
g
B
33
g =
2 2
sin
1
r
and
0
32 31 21 13 12
g g g g g
Hence the fundamental tensor in matrix form is
ij
g =
1
1
1
]
1
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
g g g
g g g
g g g
=
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1
2 2
2
sin
1
0 0
0
1
0
0 0 0
r
r
EXAMPLE 3
If the metric is given by
2
ds
=
( ) ( ) + +
2
2
2
1
3 5 dx dx ( )
2
3
4 dx
3 2 2 1
4 6 dx dx dx dx +
Evaluate (i) g and (ii)
ij
g .
Solution
The metric is
2
ds = ;
j i
ij
dx dx g ) 3 , 2 , 1 , ( j i
2
ds
=
( )
1 2
21
3 1
13
2 1
12
2
1
11
dx dx g dx dx g dx dx g dx g + + +
2 3
33
2 3
32
1 3
31
3 2
23
2 2
22
) ( ) ( dx g dx dx g dx dx g dx dx g dx g + + + + +
Since
ij
g is symmetric
ji ij
g g
i.e., 12
g
= , 21
g
31 13 32 23
, g g g g
So,
2
ds
=
2 1
12
2 3
33
2 2
22
2 1
11
2 ) ( ) ( ) ( dx dx g dx g dx g dx g + + +
3 1
13
3 2
23
2 2 dx dx g dx dx g + + ...(1)
Now, the given metric is
2
ds
=
3 2 2 1 2 3 2 2 2 1
4 6 ) ( 4 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 dx dx dx dx dx dx dx + + + ...(2)
Comparing (1) and (2) we have
11
g = , 5
21 12 12 33 22
3 6 2 , 4 , 3 g g g g g
31 13 32 23 23
0 , 2 4 2 g g g g g
g = 4
4 2 0
2 3 3
0 3 5
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11

g g g
g g g
g g g
g
ij
(ii) Let
ij
B be the cofactor of
ij
g in g.
Then
11
B
= 8
4 2
2 3
of Cofactor
11
g
22
B
= 20
4 0
0 5
of Cofactor
22
g
33
B = 6
3 3
3 5
of Cofactor
33

g
12
B =
21 12
12
4 0
2 3
of Cofactor B g

13
B =
31 13
6
2 0
3 3
of Cofactor B g
23
B =
32 23
10
2 0
3 5
of Cofactor B g
Since g
ij
=
g
B
ij
We have
; 2
4
8
11 11

g
B
g

, 5
22
g

,
2
3
33
g

, 3
21 12
g g

,
2
3
31 13
g g

2
5
32 23
g g
Hence,
ij
g =
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1
2
3
2
5
2
3
2
5
5 3
2
3
3 2
3.3 LENGTH OF A CURVE
Consider a continuous curve in a Riemannian
n
V i.e., a curve such that the coordinate
i
x of any
current point on it are expressible as functions of some parameter, say t.
The equation of such curve can be expressed as
i
x = ) (t x
i
The length ds of the arc between the points whose coordinate s are
i
x
and
i i
dx x +
given by
2
ds =
j i
ij
dx dx g
If s be arc length of the curve between the points
1
P and
2
P on the curve which correspond to
the two values
1
t and
2
t of the parameter t.
s =

,
_
2
1
2
1
2 1
P
P
t
t
j i
ij
dt
dt
dx
dt
dx
g ds
NULL CURVE
If 0
dt
dx
dt
dx
g
j i
ij
along a curve. Then s = 0. Then the points
1
P and
2
P are at zero distance, despite
of the fact that they are not coincident. Such a curve is called minimal curve or null curve.
EXAMPLE 4
A curve is in spherical coordinate x
i
is given by
1
x = , t
,
_

t
x
1
sin
1 2
and 1 2
2 3
t x
Find length of arc 1 t 2.
Solution
In spherical coordinate, the metric is given by
2
ds
=
2 3 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 1
) ( ) sin ( ) ( ) ( ) ( dx x x dx x dx + +
given
1
x
= , t ,
1
sin
1 2
t
x

1 2
2 3
t x
1
dx = dt , ,
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
dt
t
t
dx
,
_
,
_
( ) dt t t dx 2 1
2
1
2
2 1
2 3

2
dx
=
,
1
2
t t
dt

dt
t
t
dx
1
2
2
3
2
ds
= ( )
2
2
2
1
2
2
2 2
1
2 1
sin sin
1

,
_
1
]
1
,
_
,
_
+

dt
t
t
t
t
t t
dt
t dt
2
ds
=
( )
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
4
1
dt
t
t
t
dt
dt
+
2
ds
=
2
2
2
1
5
dt
t
t
ds = dt
t
t
1
5
2
Now, the length of arc, , 2 1 t is
2
1
t
t
ds
=

1
1
]
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
2 1
1
2
5
1
5
t
dt
t
t
=
15
units
3.4 ASSOCIATED TENSOR
A tensor obtained by the process of inner product of any tensor
r
s
i i i
j j j
A
...
...
2 1
2 1
with either of the fundamental
tensor
ij
g or
ij
g is called associated tensor of given tensor..
e.g. Consider a tensor
ijk
A and form the following inner product
ijk
i
A g
= ;
jk
A

ij ijk
k
ik ijk
j
A A g A A g ;
All these tensors are called Associated tensor of
ijk
A .
Associated Vector
Consider a covariant vector
i
A . Then
k
i
ik
A A g is called associated vector of
i
A . Consider a
contravariant vector
j
A . Then
k
j
jk
A A g is called associated vector of
j
A .
3.5 MAGNITUDE OF VECTOR
The magnitude or length A of contravariant vector
.
i
A
Then A is defined by
A =
j i
ij
A A g
or
2
A
=
j i
ij
A A g
Also,
j
j
A A A
2
as j
i
ij
A A g
i.e., square of the magnitude is equal to scalar product of the vector and its associate.
The magnitude or length A of covariant vector
i
A . Then A is defined by
A =
j i
ij
A A g
or
2
A =
j i
ij
A A g
A vector of magnitude one is called Unit vector. A vector of magnitude zero is called zero vector
or Null vector.
3.6 SCALAR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS
Let A
r
and B
r
be two vectors. Their scalar product is written as B A
r r
and defined by
B A
r r
=
i
i
B A
Also, B A
r r
=
j i
ij i
i
B A g B A since
j
ij i
B g B
B A
r r
=
j i
ij i
i
B A g B A since
j
ij i
B g B
Thus
A A
r r
=
2
A A A g A A
j i
ij i
i

i.e., A=
j i
ij
A A g A
r
Angle between two vectors
Let A
r
and B
r
be two vectors. Then
B A
r r
= cos B A
r r
cos =
j i
ij
j i
ij
j i
ij
B B g A A g
B A g
B A
B A
r r
r r
since A
r
=
j i
ij
A A g ;
B
r
=
j i
ij
B B g
This is required formula for cos .
Definition
The inner product of two contravariant vectors
A
r
) or (
i
A and B
r
) or (
i
B
associated with a symmetric
tensor
ij
g is defined as
j i
ij
B A g . It is denoted by
) , ( B A g
r r
=
j i
ij
B A g
THEOREM 3.3 The necessary and sufficient condition that the two vectors A
r
and B
r
at 0 be orthogonal
if 0 ) , ( B A g
r r
Proof: Let be angle between the vectors A
r
and B
r
then
B A
r r
= cos B A
r r
or B A
r r
= cos AB
j i
ij
B A g = cos AB
cos =
AB
B A g
j i
ij
...(1)
If A
r
and B
r
are orthogonal then 0 cos
2

then from (1)

j i
ij
B A g = 0
( ) B A g
r r
, = 0 since ( ) B A g
r r
, =
j i
ij
B A g
Conversely if
0
j i
ij
B A g
then from (1)
cos =
2
0

.
So, two vectors A
r
& B
r
are orthogonal. Proved.
Note: (i) If A
r
and B
r
be unit vectors. Then
B A
r r
= 1. Then
cos
=
B A
r r
=
j i
ij
B A g
(ii) Two vectors A
r
and B
r
will be orthogonal if angle between them is
2
i.e.,
2

then
cos =
2
cos

= 0
3.7 ANGLE BETWEEN TWO VECTORS
THEOREM 3.4 To show that the definition of the angle between two vectors is consistent with the
requirement cos
2
1.
OR
To justify the definition of the angle between two vectors.
OR
To show that the angle between the contravariant vectors is real when the Riemannian Metric is
positive definition.
Proof: Let be the angle between unit vectors A
r
and B
r
then
cos = i
i
i j
ij
i
ij
j
j
j
j i
ij
B A B A g B B A B A B A g
To show that is real i.e., |cos| 1.
Consider the vector
i i
mB lA + when
l
and m are scalars. The square of the magnitude of
i i
mB lA + = ) ( ) (
j j i i
ij
mB lA mB lA g + +
=
j i
ij
j i
ij
j i
ij
j i
ij
B B g m A B m B lmA g A A l g
2 2
lg + + +
=
2 2
cos 2 m lm l + +
Since
j i
ij
A A g = ; 1
2
A
. 1
2
B B B g
j i
ij
and
j i
ij
B A g = ; cos as A
r
& B
r
are unit vector i.e., 1 1
2
A A
r
.
Since square of magnitude of any vector
. 0
So, the square of the magnitude of . 0 +
i i
mB lA
or
2 2
cos 2 m lm l + +
0
( ) + +
2 2 2 2
cos cos m m m l
0
) cos 1 ( ) cos (
2 2 2
+ + m m l
0
This inequality holds for the real values of l & m.
if

2
cos 1
0

2
cos
1
cos
1
Proved.
THEOREM 3.5 The magnitude of two associated vectors are equal.
Proof: Let A and B be magnitudes of associate vectors A
i
and A
i
respectively. Then
2
A =
j i
ij
A A g
...(1)
and
2
B = j i
ij
A A g
...(2)
From equation (1)
2
A =
j i
ij
A A g ) (
2
A =
j
j
A A ...(3)
since
j i
ij
A A g (Associate vector)
From equation (2)
2
B
=
j i
ij
A A g ) (
2
B = j
j
A A
...(4)
since
j
i
ij
A A g
from (3) and (4)
2
A =
2
B
A = B
So, magnitude of
i
A and
i
A are equal.
3.8 ANGLE BETWEEN TWO COORDINATE CURVES
Let a
n
V referred to coordinate ) ... , 2 , 1 ( , n i x
i
. For a coordinate curve of parameter x
l
, the coordinate
x
l
alone varies. Thus the coordinate curve of parameter
l
x is defined as
i
x = ,
i
c i except l i ...(1)
where s C
i,
are constants.
Differentiating it, we get
i
dx = 0,
i
, except l i and 0
l
dx
Let
i
A and
i
B be the tangent vectors to a coordinate curve of parameters
p
x and
q
x respectively..
Then
i
A = ) 0 ... 0 , , 0 ,... 0 (
p i
x dx ...(2)
i
B = ) 0 ... 0 , , 0 ,... 0 (
q i
x dx ...(3)
If is required angle then
cos =
j i
ij
j i
ij
j i
ij
B B g A A g
B A g
=
q q
qq
p p
pp
q p
pq
B B g A A g
B A g
=
q p
qq pp
q p
pq
B A g g
B A g
cos =
qq pp
pq
g g
g
...(4)
which is required formula for .
The angle
ij
w between the coordinate curves of parameters
i
x and
j
x is given by
ij
w cos =
jj ii
ij
g g
g
If these curves are orthogonal then
ij
w cos = 0
2
cos
ij
g
= 0
Hence the
i
x coordinate curve and
j
x coordinate curve are orthogonal if 0
ij
g .
3.9 HYPERSURFACE
The n equations x
i
= x
i
(u
1
) represent a subspace of
n
V . If we eliminate the parameter u
1
, we get
(n 1) equations in x
j,
s which represent one dimensional curve.
Similarly the n equations x
i
= x
i
(u
1
,u
2
) represent two dimensional subspace of V
n
. If we eliminating
the parameters u
1
, u
2
, we get n 2 equations in x
i,
s which represent two dimensional curve V
n
. This
two dimensional curve define a subspace, denoted by V
2
of V
n
.
Then n equations x
i
= x
i
(u
1
, u
2
, ... u
n1
) represent n 1 dimensional subspace V
n1
of V
n
. If we
eliminating the parameters u
1
, u
2
, ...u
n1
, we get only one equation in s x
i,
which represent n 1
dimensional curve in V
n
. This particular curve is called hypersurface of V
n
.
Let be a scalar function of coordinates .
i
x Then
) (
i
x
= constant determines a family of
hypersurface of V
n
.
3.10 ANGLE BETWEEN TWO COORDINATE HYPERSURFACE
Let
) (
i
x = constant ...(1)
and ) (
i
x = constant ...(2)
represents two families of hypersurfaces.
Differentiating equation (1), we get
i
i
dx
x
= 0 ...(3)
This shows that
i
x

is orthogonal to .
i
dx Hence
i
x

is normal to constant, since
i
dx is
tangential to hypersurface (1).
Similarly
i
x

is normal to the hypersurface (2). If is the angle between the hypersurface (1)
and (2) then is also defined as the angle between their respective normals. Hence required angle
is given by
cos =
j i
ij
j i
ij
j i
ij
x x
g
x x
g
x x
g

...(4)
If we take
= constant
p
x ...(5)
and

= constant
q
x ...(6)
The angle between (5) and (6) is given by
cos =
j
q
i
q
ij
j
p
i
p
ij
j
q
i
p
ij
x
x
x
x
g
x
x
x
x
g
x
x
x
x
g
=
q
j
q
i
ij q
j
p
i
ij
q
j
p
i
ij
g g
g

cos =
qq pp
pq
g g
g
...(7)
The angle
ij
between the coordinate hypersurfaces of parameters
i
x and
j
x is given by
ij
cos =
jj ii
ij
g g
g
...(8)
If the coordinate hypersurfaces of parameters
i
x and
j
x are orthogonal then
ij
=
2
ij
cos = 0
from (8), we have 0
ij
g .
Hence the coordinate hypersurfaces of parameters x
i
and x
j
are orthogonal if 0
ij
g .
3.11 n-PLY ORTHOGONAL SYSTEM OF HYPERSURFACES
If in a
n
V there are n families of hypersurfaces such that, at every point, each hypersurface is orthogonal
to the
1 n
hypersurface of the other families which pass through that point, they are said to form as
n-ply orthogonal system of hypersurfaces.
3.12 CONGRUENCE OF CURVES
A family of curves one of which passes through each point of
n
V is called a congruence of curves.
3.13 ORTHOGONAL ENNUPLE
An orthogonal ennuple in a Riemannian
n
V consists of n mutually orthogonal congruence of curves.
THEOREM 3.6 To find the fundamental tensors
ij
g and
ij
g in terms of the components of the unit
tangent
) ,... 2 , 1 ( n h e
h

to an orthogonal ennuple.
Proof: Consider n unit tangents ) ,... 2 , 1 ( n h e
i
h
to conguence
) ,... 2 , 1 ( n h e
h

of an orthogonal ennuple
in a Riemannian
n
V . The subscript h followed by an upright bar simply distinguishes one congruence
from other. It does not denote tensor suffix.
The contravariant and covariant components of
| h
e are denoted by
| h
e and
i h
e
|
respectively..
Suppose any two congruences of orthogonal ennuple are
| h
e and
| k
e so that
j
k
i
h ij
e e g
| |
=
h
k
...(1)
i k
i
h
e e
| |
=
h
k
from (1),
j
k
i
h ij
e e g
| |
= 0
and
j
h
i
h ij
e e g
| | = 1
We define
i
h
e
|
=
i h
i h i h
e
e e
|
| |
t determinan in of cofactor
Also, from the determinant property, we get
n
h
j h
i
h
e e
1
| | =
i
j
...(2)
Multiplying by
jk
e
n
h
j h
i
h
e e
1
| | g
j k
=
jk i
j
g
or

n
h
k
h
i
h
e e
1
| | =
ik
g ...(3)
Again multiplying (2) by
.
ik
g
n
h
ik j h
i
h
g e e
1
| | =
ik
i
j
g
or jk
g
= j h k h
e e
| | ...(4)
from (3) and (4)
ij
g
=

n
h
j h i h
e e
1
| |
...(5)
ij
g =

n
h
j
h
i
h
e e
1
| |
...(6)
This is the required results.
Corollary: To find the magnitude of any vector u is zero if the projections of u on
| h
e are all zero.
Proof: Let
i
u =
n
h
i
h h
e C
1
| ...(7)
Then
i k
i
e u
|
=

n
h
k
h
k h
n
h
i k
i
h h
C C e e C
1 1
| |
or
k
C =
i k
i
e u
|
...(8)
i.e.,
k
C = projection of
i
u on
i k
e
|
Using (8), equation (7) becomes
i
u =

n
h
i
k j h
j
e e u
1
| |
Now,
2
u
=

,
_
,
_

k
i k k
h
i
h h i
i
e C e C u u
| | from (7)
=

k h
i k
i
h k h
e e C C
,
| |
=

k h
h
k k h
C C
,
=

h
h h
C C
2
u =
( )
n
h
h
C
1
2
This implies that u = 0 iff 0
2
u iff 0
h
C .
Hence the magnitude of a vector u is zero iff all the projections of u (i.e. of u
i
) on n mutually
orthogonal directions
i
h
e
|
are zero.
Miscellaneous Examples
1. If p and q are orthogonal unit vectors, show that
k j i h
ij hk ik hj
q p q p g g g g ) ( = 1
Solution
Since p and q are orthogonal unit vectors. Then
j
i ij
q p g = 0, 1
2 2
q p .
Now,
k j i h
ij hk ik hj
q p q p g g g g ) ( =
j i k h
ij hk
k i j h
ik hj
p q q p g g q q p p g g
= ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
j i
ij
k j
hk
k i
ik
j h
hi
p q g q p g q q g p p g
= p
2
.q
2
0.0
= 1
.
1
= 1 (since 0 & 1
k h
hk
j h
hi
q p g p p g )
2. If is the inclination of two vectors A and B show that
2
sin = k j j h
ik hj
k i j h
ij hk ik hi
B B A A g g
B B A A g g g g ) (
Solution
If be the angle between the vectors A and B then
cos =
k i
ik
j i
ij
i j
ij
B B g A A g
B A g
But
2 2
cos 1 sin
2
sin =
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
1
k i
ik
j h
hj
k h
hk
j i
ij
B B g A A g
B A g A B g
=
k i j h
ik hj
k i j h
ij hk ik hj
B B A A g g
B B A A g g g g ) (
3. If
ij
X are components of a symmetric covariant tensor and u, v are unit orthogonal to w and
satisfying the relations
j
i
ij ij
w u g X + ) ( = 0
j
i
ij ij
w v g X + ) ( = 0
where prove that u and v are orthogonal and that
j i
ij
v u X = 0
Solution
Suppose X
ij
is a symmetric tensor. Since
j i
v u , are orthogonal to
i
w then
i
i
w u = 0 ...(1)
i
i
w v = 0 ...(2)
given
j
i
ij ij
w u g X + ) ( = 0 ...(3)
j
i
ij ij
w v g X + ) ( = 0 ...(4)
where .
Multiply (3) & (4) by
j j
u v , respectively and using (1) and (2), we have
j i
ij ij
v u g X ) ( = 0 ...(5)
j i
ij ij
u v g X ) ( = 0 ...(6)
Interchanging the suffixes i & j in the equation (6) and since
ij ij
X g , are symmetric, we get
j i
ij ij
v u g X ) ( = 0 ... (7)
Subtract (6) & (7) we get
j i
ij
v u g ) (
= 0
Since and . 0
Hence,
j i
ij
v u g = 0 ...(8)
So, u and v are orthogonal.
Using (8) in equation (5) & (6), we get
i i
ij
v u X = 0 Proved.
4. Prove the invariance of the expression
n
dx dx dx g ...
2 1
for the element volume.
Solution
Since
ij
g is a symmetric tensor of rank two. Then
ij
g =
kl
j
l
i
k
g
x
x
x
x
Taking determinant of both sides

ij
g
= kl
j
l
i
k
g
x
x
x
x
Since J
x
x
(Jacobian)
kl
g = g &
g g
ij

So,
g =
2
gJ
or
J =
g
g
Now, the transformation of coordinates from
l
x to
i
x , we get
n
dx dx dx ...
2 1
=
n
x d x d x d
x
x
...
2 1
=
n
x d x d x Jd ...
2 1
n
dx dx dx ...
2 1
=
n
x d x d x d
g
g
...
2 1
n
dx dx dx g ...
2 1
=
n
x d x d x d g ...
2 1
So, the volume element
n
dx dx dx g dv ...
2 1
is invariant.
EXERCISES
1. For the Metric tensor g
ij
defined g
kl
and prove that it is a contravariant tensor.
2. Calculate the quantities g
i j
for a V
3
whose fundamental form in coordinates u, v, w, is
hdudv gdwdu fdvdw cdw bdv adu 2 2 2
2 2 2
+ + + + +
3. Show that for an orthogonal coordinate system
g
11
=
11
1
g
, g
22
= ,
1
22
g
g
33
=
33
1
g
4. For a V
2
in which G g F g E g
21 12 11
, , prove that
g = g E g g F g g G g F EG
22 12 11 2
, , ,
5. Prove that the number of independent components of the metric
ij
g cannot exceed ) 1 (
2
1
+ n n .
6. If vectors u
i
, v
i
are defined by u
i
= g
ij
u
j
, v
i
= g
ij
v
j
show that u
i
= g
ij
u
j
, u
i
v
i
= u
i
v
i
and u
i
g
ij
u
j
= u
i
g
ij
u
j
7. Define magnitude of a unit vector. prove that the relation of a vector and its associate vector is
reciprocal.
8. If
is the angle between the two vectors

i
A
and
i
B
at a point, prove that
2
sin
= k j i h
jk hi
k j i h
ij hk ik hi
B B A A g g
B B A A g g g g ) (
9. Show that the angle between two contravariant vectors is real when the Riemannian metric is positive
definite.
4.1 CHRISTOFFEL'S SYMBOLS
The German Mathematician Elwin Bruno Christoffel defined symbols
[ ] k ij, =

,
_
k
j i
i
k j
j
k i
x
g
x
g
x
g
2
1
, ( ) n k j i ,... 2 , 1 , , ...(1)
called Christoffel 3-index symbols of the first kind.
and
'
j i
k
= [ ] l ij g
l k
, ...(2)
called Christoffel 3-index symbols of second kind, where
j i
g are the components of the metric Tensor
or fundamental Tensor.
There are n distinct Christoffel symbols of each kind for each independent
j i
g . Since
j i
g is
symmetric tensor of rank two and has
) 1 (
2
1
+ n n
independent components. So, the number of
independent components of Christoffels symbols are ( ) ( ) 1
2
1
1
2
1
2
+ + n n n n n .
THEOREM 4.1 The Christoffel's symbols [ ] k ij, and
'
j i
k
are symmetric with respect to the indices i
and j.
Proof: By Christoffels symbols of first kind
[ ] k ij, =

,
_
k
ij
i
jk
j
ik
x
g
x
g
x
g
2
1
Interchanging i and j, we get
[ ] k ji, =

,
_
k
ji
j
ik
i
jk
x
g
x
g
x
g
2
1
CHRISTOFFEL'S SYMBOLS AND COVARIANT
DIFFERENTIATION
CHAPTER 4
=

,
_
k
j i
i
k j
j
k i
x
g
x
g
x
g
2
1
since
ji ij
g g
] , [ k ji = ] , [ k ij
Also, by Christoffel symbol of second kind
'
j i
k
= [ ] l ij g
l k
,
= [ ] l ji g
l k
, since [ ] [ ] l ji l ij , ,
'
j i
k
=
'
i j
k
Proved.
THEOREM 4.2 To prove that
(i) [ ] m ij, =
'
j i
k
g
m k
(ii) [ ] [ ] i jk j ik , , + =
k
ij
x
g
(iii)
k
ij
x
g
'
'
k m
j
g
k l
i
g
im jl
Proof: (i) By Christoffels symbol of second kind
'
j i
k
= [ ] l ij g
l k
,
Multiplying this equation by ,
m k
g we get
'
j i
k
g
m k
=
[ ] l ij g g
l k
m k
,
= [ ] l ij
l
m
, as
l
m
l k
m k
g g
'
j i
k
g
km
= [ ] m ij,
(ii) By Christoffels symbol of first kind
[ ] j ik , =

,
_
j
k i
k
j i
i
j k
x
g
x
g
x
g
2
1
...(1)
and [ ] i jk , =

,
_
i
jk
k
ji
j
ki
x
g
x
g
x
g
2
1
...(2)
adding (1) and (2),
[ ] [ ] i jk j ik , , + =

,
_
k
ji
k
j i
x
g
x
g
2
1
since
ji ij
g g
57 Christoffel's Symbols and Covariant Differentiation 57
[ ] [ ] i jk j ik , , + =
k
ij
k
ij
x
g
x
g
2
2
1
(iii) Since
i
l lj
ij
g g .
k
x , we get
k
ij
lj
k
lj ij
x
g
g
x
g
g
= 0
Multiplying this equation by
lm
g , we get
k
ij
lj
lm
k
lj lm ij
x
g
g g
x
g
g g
=0
k
ij
lj
lm
x
g
g g
=
k
lj lm ij
x
g
g g
k
ij
m
j
x
g
=
[ ] [ ] { } l jk j lk g g
lm ij
, , +
since
[ ] [ ] . , , l jk j lk
x
g
k
lj
+
k
im
x
g
=
k
im
x
g
'
'
k j
m
g
k l
i
g
ij lm
Interchanging m and j, we get
k
ij
x
g
'
'
k m
j
g
k l
i
g
im lj
or
k
ij
x
g
'
'
k m
j
g
k l
i
g
im ij
as
jl lj
g g
Proved.
( )
j
x
g
j i
i
'
log
Proof: The matrix form of
ik
g
is
ik
g
=
1
1
1
1
1
]
1
nn n n
n
n
g g g
G g g
g g g
...
...
...
2 1
2 22 21
1 12 11
M
[ ] { } [ ] { } l jk g g j lk g g
lm ij ij lm
, ,
and
ik
g g =
gnn g g
g g g
g g g
n n
n
n
...
...
...
2 1
2 22 21
1 12 11
M
But
l
k
il
ik
g g
Take
. k l
ik
ik
g g
= 1
k
k
ik
g = [ ]
1
ik
g =
g
G
ik
(Theorem 2.13 , Pg 25)
where
ik
G is cofactor of
ik
g
in the determinant
ik
g
g =
ik ik
G g ...(1)
Differentiating w.r.t.
ik
g
partially
ik
g
g
=
ik
G since 1
ik
ik
g
g
Now,
j
x
g
=
j
ik
ik
x
g
g
g
=
j
ik
ik
x
g
G
But
ik
ik
gg G
j
x
g
=
j
ik ik
x
g
gg
j
x
g
g
1
=
j
ik ik
x
g
g
j
x
g
g
1
= [ ] [ ] { } k ij i jk g
ik
, , + as [ ] [ ] k ij i jk
x
g
j
ik
, , +
=
[ ] [ ] k ij g i jk g
ik ik
, , +
=
'
'
j i
i
k j
k
j
x
g
g
1
=
'
'
i j
i
i j
i
as k is dummy indices
j
x
g
g
1
=
'
i j
i
2
j
x
g
g
2
1
=
'
i j
i
j
x
g
) log(
=
'
i j
i
Proved.
EXAMPLE 1
If
0
ij
g
show that
'

k i x
g
j
=
[ ] [ ] [ ] ( ) +
'

, , , j j
k i
ik
x
j
Solution
By Christoffels symbol of second kind
'

k i
=
[ ]
, ik g
Multiplying it by
g , we get
'

k i
g =
[ ]
, ik g g
'

k i
g
= [ ] , ik as
1
g g
j
x partially
1
]
1
'

k i
g
x
j
=
[ ]
, ik
x
j
j j
x
g
k i k i x
g
'

+
'

=
[ ] , ik
x
j
since
j
x
g

=
[ ] [ ] + , , j j
]) , [ ] , ([ +
'

+
'

j j
k i k i
x
g
j
= [ ]
, ik
x
j
'

k i x
g
j
=
[ ] [ ] [ ] ( ) +
'

, , , j i
k i
ik
x
j
Solved.
EXAMPLE 2
Show that if 0
ij
g for j i then (i) 0
'
j i
k
whenever i, j and k are distinct.
(ii)
i
ii
x
g
i i
i
'
log
2
1
(iii)
j
ii
x
g
j i
i
'
log
2
1
(iv)
i
jj
ii
x
g
g j j
i
'
2
1
Solution
The Christoffels symbols of first kind
[ ] k ij, =

,
_
k
ij
j
ik
i
jk
x
g
x
g
x
g
2
1
...(1)
(a) If k j i
The equation (1) becomes
[ ] i ii, =
i
ii
x
g
2
1
(b) If k j i
[ ] k ii, =
1
]
1
k
i i
i
k i
i
k i
x
g
x
g
x
g
2
1
Since 0
ik
g as
k i
(given)
[ ] k ii, =
k
ii
x
g
2
1
or [ ]
i
jj
x
g
i jj
1

2
,
(c) j k i
[ ] i ij, =
1
]
1
i
ij
j
ii
i
ji
x
g
x
g
x
g
2
1
= ,
2
1
j
ii
x
g
as , 0
ij
g j i
(d) k j i
[ ] k ij, = 0 as 0
ij
g , 0
k j
g , k j i
(i) as i, j, k are distinct i.e., k j i
'
j i
k
= [ ] l ij g
kl
, since , 0
l k
g
l k
'
j i
k
= 0
(ii)
'
i i
i
= [ ] i ii g
ii
,
=
i
ii ii
x
g
g
2
1
from (a)
=
i
ii
ii
x
g
g
2
1
as
ii
ii
g
g
1
'
i i
i
=
i
ii
x
g
log
2
1
(iii) j k i
'
j i
i
= [ ] i ij g
ii
,
=
[ ] i ij
g
ii
,
1
as
ii
ii
g
g
1
'
j i
i
=
j
ii
x
g
log
2
1
(iv) i k j
'
j j
i
= [ ] i jj g
ii
,
=
i
j j
ii
x
g
g
2
1 1
from (b)
'
j j
i
=
i
j j
i i
x
g
g
2
1
Solved.
EXAMPLE 3
If , sin
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
+ + d r d r dr ds find the values of
(i) [22, 1] and [13, 3], (ii)
'
'
3 1
3
and
2 2
1
Solution
The given metric is metric in spherical coordinates, ,
1
r x ,
2
x .
3
x
Clearly,
11
g
= 1, ,
2
22
r g
2 2
33
sin r g and
0
j i
g
for j i
Also,
11
g = 1,
,
1
2
22
r
g

2 2
33
sin
1
r
g
(See Ex. 2, Pg. 39, and , 0
ij
g for . j i )
(i) Christoffel Symbols of first kind are given by
[ ] k ij, =
,
2
1
1
]
1
k
ij
j
ik
i
jk
x
g
x
g
x
g
3 , 2 , 1 , , k j i ...(1)
Taking 2 j i and 1 k in (1)
[ ] 1 , 22 =
1
]
1
1
22
2
21
2
21
2
1
x
g
x
g
x
g
Since g
21
= 0.
= 1
]
1
1
2
2 2
0 0
2
1
x
r
x x
= r
r
r

2
2
1
Taking 3 , 1 k j i in (1)
[ ] 3 , 13 =
1
]
1
3
13
3
13
1
33
2
1
x
g
x
g
x
g
=
r
r

2
sin
2
1
2
since 0
13
g
[ ] 3 , 13 =
2
sin r
(ii) Christoffel symbols of the second kind are given by
'
j i
k
= [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] 3 , 2 , 1 , ,
3 2 1
ij g j i g ij g l ij g
k k k kl
+ +
Taking k = 1, i = j = 2.
'
2 2
1
= [ ] [ ] [ ] 3 , 22 2 , 22 1 , 22
13 12 11
g g g + +
'
2 2
1
= [ ] [ ] [ ] 3 , 22 0 2 , 22 0 1 , 22 1 + + Since 0
13 12
g g
'
2 2
1
=
r
and
'
3 1
3
=
[ ] [ ] [ ] 3 , 13 2 , 13 1 , 13
33 32 31
g g g + +
=
[ ] 3 , 13
sin
1
2 2
r
Since
0
32 31
g g
'
3 1
3
=
r
r
r
1
sin
sin
1
2
2 2

4.2 TRANSFORMATION OF CHRISTOFFEL'S SYMBOLS

The fundamental tensors
ij
g and
ij
g are functions of coordinates
i
x and [ ] k ij, is also function of
coordinates
i
x . Let
ij
ij
g g

, and ] , [ k ij in another coordinate system
i
x .
(i ) Law of Transformation of Christoffel's Symbol for First Kind
Let [ ] k j i , is a function of coordinate
i
x and ] , [ k ij in another coordinate system
i
x . Then
] , [ k ij = 1
]
1
k
ij
j
ik
i
ik
x
g
x
g
x
g
2
1
...(1)
Since
ij
g is a covariant tensor of rank two. Then
ij
g =
pq
j i
p
g
x
x
x
x
2
...(2)
k
x , we get
k
ij
x
g
,
_
pq
j
q
i
p
k
g
x
x
x
x
x
=
k
pq
j
q
i
p
pq
j
q
i
p
k
x
g
x
x
x
x
g
x
x
x
x
x
,
_
k
j i
x
g
=
k
r
r
pq
j
q
i
p
pq
j k
q
i
p
j
q
i k
p
x
x
x
g
x
x
x
x
g
x x
x
x
x
x
x
x x
x
,
_
2 2
...(3)
Interchanging i, k and also interchanging p, r in the last term in equation (3)
i
kj
x
g
=
i
p
p
rq
j
q
k
r
pq
j i
q
k
p
j
q
k i
p
x
x
x
g
x
x
x
x
g
x x
x
x
x
x
x
x x
x
,
_
2 2
...(4)
and interchanging j, k and also interchange q, r in the last term of equation (3)
j
ik
x
g
=
q
pr
j
q
k
r
i
p
pq
j k
q
i
p
i
q
i j
p
x
g
x
x
x
x
x
x
g
x x
x
x
x
x
x
x x
x
,
_
2 2
...(5)
Substituting the values of equations (3), (4) and (5) in equation (1), we get
] , [ k ij =
1
1
]
1
,
_
r
pq
p
qr
q
rp
k
r
j
q
i
p
pq
k
q
j i
p
x
g
x
g
x
g
x
x
x
x
x
x
g
x
x
x x
x
2
2
2
1
] , [ k ij =

,
_
r
pq
p
qr
q
rp
k
r
i
q
i
p
pq
k
q
j i
p
x
g
x
g
x
g
x
x
x
x
x
x
g
x
x
x x
x
2
1
2
] , [ k ij =
[ ] r pq
x
x
x
x
x
x
g
x
x
x x
x
k
r
i
q
i
p
pq
k
q
j i
p
,
2
...(6)
It is law of transformation of Christoffel's symbol of the first kind. But it is not the law of
transformation of any tensor due to presence of the first term of equation (6).
So, Christoffel's symbol of first kind is not a tensor.
(ii) Law of Transformation of Christoffel's Symbol of the Second Kind
Let
[ ]
'
j i
k
l ij g
l k
,
is function of coordinates
i
x
and
'
j i
k
l ij g
kl
] , [
in another coordinate system
i
x . Then
] , [ l ij =
[ ] r pq
x
x
x
x
x
x
g
x
x
x x
x
l
r
j
q
i
p
pq
l
q
j i
p
,
2
from (6)
As
kl
g
is contravariant tensor of rank two.
kl
g =
st
t
l
s
k
g
x
x
x
x
Now
kl
g ] , [ l ij =
[ ] r pq
x
x
x
x
x
x
g
x
x
x
x
g
x
x
x x
x
g
x
x
x
x
l
r
j
q
i
p
st
t
l
s
k
pq
l
q
j i
p
st
t
l
s
k
,
2
=
j
q
i
p
l
r
t
l
s
k
pq
j i
p
st
l
q
t
l
s
k
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
g
x x
x
g
x
x
x
x
x
x
,
_
,
_
2
st
g [ ] r pq,
=
[ ] r pq g
x
x
x
x
x
x
g
x x
x
g
x
x
st
j
q
i
p
r
t
s
k
pq
j i
p
st
t
s
k
,
2
2
as
q
t
l
q
t
l
x
x
x
x

=
[ ] r pq g
x
x
x
x
x
x
g g
x x
x
x
x
sr
j
q
i
p
s
k
pq
sq
j i
p
s
k
,
2
as
sr st r
t
g g
] , [ l ij g
kl
=
'
q p
s
x
x
x
x
x
x
x x
x
x
x
j i
p
s
k
s
p
j i
p
s
p 2 2
Since
pq
sq
g g =
s
p
and
[ ]
'
q p
s
r pq g
sr
,
'
j i
k
=
'
q p
s
x
x
x
x
x
x
x x
x
x
x
j
q
i
p
s
k
j i
s
s
k 2
....(7)
It is law of transformation of Christoffels symbol of the second kind. But it is not the law of
transformation of any tensor. So, Christoffels symbol of the second kind is not a tensor.
Also, multiply (7) by
,
k
s
x
x
we get
'
j i
k
x d
x
k
s
=
'
q p
s
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x x
x
x
x
x
x
j
q
i
p
s
k
k
s
j i
s
s
k
k
s 2
Since
s
k
k
s
x
x
x
x
= 1
s
s
'
j i
k
x
x
k
s
=
'
q p
s
x
x
x
x
x x
x
j
q
i
p
j i
s 2
j i
s
x x
x

2
=

;
'
'
q p
s
x
x
x
x
j i
k
x
x
j
q
i
p
k
s
...(8)
It is second derivative of
s
x with respect to x s in the terms of Christoffels symbol of second
kind and first derivatives.
THEOREM 4.4 Prove that the transformation of Christoffels Symbols form a group i.e., possess the
transitive property.
Proof: Let the coordinates
i
x be transformed to the coordinate system
i
x and
j
x be transformed to
i
x .
When coordinate
i
x be transformed to
i
x , the law of transformation of Christoffels symbols of
second kind (equation (7)) is
'
j i
k
=

'
q p
s
x
x
x
x
x
x
x x
x
x
x
j
q
i
p
s
k
j i
s
s
k 2
...(1)
When coordinate
i
x be transformed to
i
x . Then
'
v u
r
=
'
j i
k

k
r
v u
k
k
r
v
j
u
i
x
x
x x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
2
=
'
q p
s

k
r
v
j
u
i
s
k
j i
s
k
r
v
j
u
i
j
q
i
p
s
k
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
2
k
r
v u
k
x
x
x x
x
+
2
'
v u
r
=
'
q p
s
+
k
r
v u
k
s
r
v
q
u
p
x
x
x x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
2
v
j
u
i
s
r
j i
s
x
x
x
x
x
x
x x
x
2
...(2)
as
u
i
i
p
x
x
x
x
=
u
p
x
x
Since we know that

u
i
i
s
x
x
x
x
=
u
s
x
x
...(3)
Differentiating (3) w.r.t. to ,
v
x we get
,
_
,
_
u
i
v i
s
u
i
i
s
v
x
x
x x
x
x
x
x
x
x
=
v u
s
x x
x

2
v u
i
i
s
u
i
v
j
j i
s
x x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x x
x

2 2
=
v u
s
x x
x

2
...(4)
Mutiply (5) by
s
r
x
x
.
s
r
s
s
v u
i
s
r
u
i
v
j
j i
s
x
x
x
x
x x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x x
x
2 2
=
s
r
v u
s
x
x
x x
x
2
Replace dummy index i by k in second term on L.H.S.
k
r
v u
k
s
r
u
i
v
j
j i
s
x
x
x x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x x
x
2 2
=
s
r
v u
s
x
x
x x
x
2
...(5)
Using (5) in equation (2), we get
'
v u
r
=
s
r
v u
s
s
r
v
q
u
p
x
x
x x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
q p
s
'
2
...(6)
The equation (6) is same as the equation (1). This shows that if we make direct transformation
from
i
x to
i
x we get same law of transformation. This property is called that transformation of
Christoffel's symbols form a group.
4.3 COVARIANT DIFFERENTIATION OF A COVARIANT VECTOR
Let
i
A and
i
A be the components of a covariant vector in coordinate systems
i
x and
i
x respectively..
Then
i
A =
p
i
p
A
x
x
...(1)
Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t. to
j
x
,
j
i
x
A
=
j
p
i
p
p
i j
p
x
A
x
x
A
x x
x
2
j
i
x
A
=
j
q
q
p
i
p
p
i j
p
x
x
x
A
x
x
A
x x
x
2
...(2)
It is not a tensor due to presence of the first term on the R.H.S. of equation (2).
Now, replace dummy index p by s in the first term on R.H.S. of (2), we have
j
i
x
A
=
j
q
q
p
i
p
s
i j
s
x
x
x
A
x
x
A
x x
x
2
...(3)
Since we know that from equation (8), page 65,
j i
s
x x
x

2
=
'
'
q p
s
x
x
x
x
j i
k
x
x
j
q
i
p
k
s
Substituting the value of
j i
s
x x
x

2
in equation (3), we have
j
i
x
A
=
j
q
q
p
i
p
s
j
q
i
p
k
s
x
x
x
A
x
x
A
q p
s
x
x
x
x
j i
k
x
x
,
_
'
'
=
q
p
j
q
i
p
s
j
q
i
p
s
k
s
x
A
x
x
x
x
A
q p
s
x
x
x
x
A
x
x
j i
k
'
'
j
i
x
A
,
_
'
'
q p
s
A
x
A
x
x
x
x
A
j i
k
s
q
p
j
q
i
p
k
'
j i
k
A
x
A
k
j
i
=

,
_
'
q p
s
A
x
A
x
x
x
x
s
q
p
j
q
i
p
...(4)
Now, we introduce the comma notation
j i
A
, =
'
j i
k
A
x
A
k
j
i
...(5)
Using (5), the equation (4) can be expressed as
j i
A
, =
q p
j
q
i
p
A
x
x
x
x
,
..(6)
It is law of transformation of a covariant tensor of rank two. Thus,
j i
A
,
is a covariant tensor of
rank two.
So,
j i
A
,
is called covariant derivative of
i
A with respect to
j
x .
4.4 COVARIANT DIFFERENTIATION OF A CONTRAVARIANT VECTOR
Let
i
A and
i
A be the component of contravariant vector in coordinate systems
i
x and
i
x respectively..
Then
i
A
=
s
s
i
A
x
x
or
s
A =
i
i
s
A
x
x
Differentiating it partially w.r.t. to

j
x , we get
j
s
x
A
=
j
i
i
s
i
i j
s
x
A
x
x
A
x x
x
2
...(1)
Since from equation (8) on page 65,
i j
s
x x
x

2
=
'
'
q p
s
x
x
x
x
A
j i
k
x
x
j
q
i
p
i
k
s
substituting the value of
i j
s
x x
x

2
in the equation (1), we get
j
s
A
A
=
j
i
i
s
i
j
q
i
p
i
k
s
x
A
x
x
A
q p
s
x
x
x
x
A
j i
k
x
x
'
'
j
q
q
s
x
A
A
A
=
j
i
i
s
j
q
i
i
p
i
k
s
x
A
x
x
q p
s
x
x
A
x
x
A
j i
k
x
x
'
'

Interchanging the dummy indices i and k in the first term on R.H.S. and put
p i
i
p
A A
x
x
we get
j
q
q
s
x
x
x
A
=
j
i
i
s
p
j
q
k
i
s
x
A
x
x
q p
s
A
x
x
A
j k
i
x
x
'
'
,
_
'
q p
s
A
x
A
x
x
p
q
s
j
q
=

,
_
'
j
i
k
i
s
x
A
A
j k
i
x
x
'
j k
i
A
x
A
k
j
i
=

,
_
'
q p
s
A
x
A
x
x
x
x
p
q
s
j
q
s
i
...(2)
Now, we introduce the comma notation
i
j
A
,
=
'
j k
i
A
x
A
k
j
i
...(3)
Using (3), the equation (2) can be expressed as
i
j
A
,
=
q p
j
q
i
p
A
x
x
x
x
,
...(4)
It is law of transformation of a mixed tensor of rank two. Thus,
i
A , j is a mixed tensor of rank
two. j A
i
, is called covariant derivative of
i
A with respect to
j
x .
4.5 COVARIANT DIFFERENTIATION OF TENSORS
Covariant derivative of a covariant tensor of rank two.
Let
j i
A and
j i
A be the components of a covariant tensor of rank two in coordinate system
i
x and
i
x
respectively then
ij
A =
pq
j
q
i
p
A
x
x
x
x
...(1)
Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t. to
k
x
k
ij
x
A
= pq
j
q
i
p
k k
pq
j
q
i
p
A
x
x
x
x
x x
A
x
x
x
x
,
_
k
ij
x
A
=
pq
j k
q
i
p
pq
j
q
i k
p
k
r
r
pq
j
q
i
p
A
x x
x
x
x
A
x
x
x x
x
x
x
x
A
x
x
x
x

2 2
...(2)
as
k
pq
x
A
=
k
r
r
pq
x
x
x
A
(since
pq
A components in
i
x coordinate)
j
q
k i
p
pq
x
x
x x
x
A
2
=
j
q
k i
l
lq
x
x
x x
x
A
2
j
q
k i
p
pq
x
x
x x
x
A
2
=
1
1
]
1
'
'
k
r
i
p
h
l
j
q
lq
x
x
x
x
r p
l
x
x
k i
h
x
x
A
Since we know that from equation (8) on page 65.
k i
l
x x
x

2
=
k
r
i
p
h
l
x
x
x
x
r p
l
x
x
k i
h
'
'
j
q
k i
p
pq
x
x
x x
x
A
2
= k
r
j
q
i
p
lq
j h
l
lq
x
x
x
x
x
x
A
r p
l
x
x
x
x
A
k i
h
'
'
2
j
q
k i
p
pq
x
x
x x
x
A
2
=
k
r
j
q
i
p
lq hj
x
x
x
x
x
x
A
r p
l
A
k i
h
'
'
...(3)
as
hj
A =
j
q
h
l
lq
x
x
x
x
A
by equation (1)
and
k j
q
i
p
pq
x x
x
x
x
A

2
=
k j
l
i
p
pl
x x
x
x
x
A

2
=
1
1
]
1
'
'
k
r
j
q
h
l
i
p
pl
x
x
x
x
r q
l
x
x
k j
h
x
x
A
=
pl
i
p
k
r
j
q
h
l
i
p
pl
A
x
x
x
x
x
x
r q
l
x
x
x
x
A
k j
h
'
'
k j
q
i
p
pq
x x
x
x
x
A

2
=
pl
k
r
j
q
i
p
ih
A
x
x
x
x
x
x
r q
l
A
k j
h
'
'
...(4)
Substituting the value of equations (3) and (4) in equation (2) we get,
k
ij
x
A
=
1
1
]
1
'
'
r q
l
A
r p
l
A
x
A
pl lq r
pq
+
k
r
j
q
i
p
x
x
x
x
x
x
ih hj
A
k j
h
A
k i
h
'
'
hj ih
k
ij
A
k i
h
A
k j
h
x
A
'
'
= 1
]
1
'
'
r q
l
A
r p
l
A
x
A
pl lq
r
pq
k
r
j
q
i
p
x
x
x
x
x
x

k ij
A
, =
hj ih
k
ij
A
k i
h
A
k j
h
x
A
'
'
, then
k ij
A
, =
k
r
j
q
i
p
r pq
x
x
x
x
x
x
A
,
It is law of transformation of a covariant tensor of rank three. Thus, A
ij,k
is a covariant tensor
of rank three.
So,
k ij
A
,
is called covariant derivative of
ij
A w.r.t. to
k
x
.
Similarly we define the covariant derivation x
k
of a tensors
ij
A
and
i
j
A by the formula
k A
ij
, =
'
'
k l
j
A
k l
i
A
x
A
il lj
k
ij
and
i
k j
A
,
=
'
'
k j
l
A
k l
i
A
x
A
i
l
l
j
k
i
j
In general, we define the covariant deriavative x
k
of a mixed tensor
l ij
c ab
A
...
...
by the formula
l ij
k c ab
A
...
, ...
=
'
+ +
'
'
k p
l
A
k p
j
A
k p
i
A
x
A
p ij
c ab
l ip
c ab
l pj
c ab
k
l ij
c ab ...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
'
'
'
k c
p
A
k b
p
A
k a
p
A
l ij
p ab
l ij
c ap
l ij
c pb
...
...
...
...
...
...
Note:
k i
A
,
is also written as .
, i k k i
A A
4.6 RICCI'S THEOREM
The covariant derivative of Kronecker delta and the fundamental tensors g
ij
and g
ij
is zero.
Proof: The covariant derivative x
p
of Kronecker delta is
i
k j,
=
'
'

k j
l
k l
i
x
i
l
l
j
k
i
j
=
'
'
+
k j
i
k j
i
0
i
k j,
= 0 as
'
'

k j
i
k l
i
x
l
j
k
i
j
; 0
Also, consider first the tensor g
ij
and the covariant derivative of g
ij
is
k ij
g
, =
'
'
k j
m
g
k i
m
g
x
g
im mj
k
ij
k ij
g
,
=
[ ] [ ] i jk j ik
x
g
k
ij
, ,
as
[ ] j ik
k i
m
g
mj
,
'
But
k
ij
x
g
= [ ] [ ] i jk j ik , , +
So,
k ij
g
,
=
k
ij
k
ij
x
g
x
g
k ij
g
,
= 0
W e can perform a sim ilar calculation for the tensor g
ij
.
Since we know that
i
j mj
im
g g . Similarly taking covariant derivative, we get
i
k j k mj
im
mj
im
k
g g g g
, , ,
+
But g
mj,k
= 0 and . 0
,

i
k j
So,
0 as 0
,

mj
im
k
g g
EXAMPLE 4
Prove that if A
ij
is a symmetric tensor then
j
j i
A
,
=
( )
i
jk jk j
i
j
x
g
A g A
x g
2
1 1
Solution
Given that
ij
A be a symmetric tensor. Then
ij
A =
ji
A ...(1)
We know that
j
k i
A
,
=
'
'
k i
l
A
k l
j
A
x
A
j
l
l
i
k
j
i
Put , j k we get
j
j i
A
,
=
'
'
j i
l
A
j l
j
A
x
A
j
l
l
i
j
j
i
...(2)
=
( )
[ ] h ij g A
x
g
A
x
A
hl j
l
l
l
i
j
j
i
,
log
= [ ] h ij A
x
g
g
A
x
A
jh
j
j
i
j
j
i
,
since
ij
A is symmetric.
j
j i
A
,
=
( )
[ ] k ij A
x
g A
g
jk
j
j
i
,
1
...(3)
But
[ ] k ij A
jk
, =

,
_
k
ij
j
ki
i
jk
jk
x
g
x
g
x
g
A
2
1
[ ] k ij A
jk
, =

,
_
k
ij
jk
j
ki jk
i
jk
jk
x
g
A
x
g
A
x
g
A
2
1
j
ki jk
x
g
A
=
k
ji kj
x
g
A
...(4)
On Interchanging the dummy indices j & k.
j
ki jk
x
g
A
=
k
ji jk
x
g
A
since
ji ij
A A
k
ij jk
j
ki jk
x
g
A
x
g
A
= 0 as
ji ij
g g ...(5)
[ ] k ij A
jk
, =
i
jk jk
x
g
A
2
1
Put the value of [ ] k ij A
jk
, in equation (3), we get
j
j i
A
,
=
( )
i
jk
jk
j
j
i
x
g
A
x
g A
g
2
1 1
Proved.
EXAMPLE 5
Prove that
b a
j i
k
j i
k
'
'
are components of a tensor of rank three where

b a
j i
k
j i
k
'
'
and
are the Christoffel symbols formed from the symmetric tensors
ij
a and
ij
b .
Solution
Since we know that from equation (8), page 65.
j i
s
x x
x

2
=
'
'
q p
s
x
x
x
x
j i
k
x
x
j
q
i
p
k
s
'
j i
k
x
x
k
s
=
'
q p
s
x
x
x
x
x x
x
j
q
i
p
j i
s 2
or
'
j i
k
=
s
k
j
q
i
p
j i
s
x
x
q p
s
x
x
x
x
x x
x
1
]
1
'
2
Using this equation, we can write
a
j i
k
'
=
s
k
a
j
q
i
p
j i
s
x
x
q p
s
x
x
x
x
x x
x
1
1
]
1
'
2
and
b
j i
k
'
= s
k
b
j
q
i
p
j i
s
x
x
q p
s
x
x
x
x
x x
x
1
1
]
1
'
2
Subtracting, we obtain
b a
j i
k
j i
k
'
'
= s
k
j
q
i
p
b a
x
x
x
x
x
x
q p
s
q p
s
1
1
]
1
'
'
Put
b a
q p
s
q p
s
'
'
=
s
pq
A
Then above equation can written as
k
ij
A =
s
k
j
q
i
p
s
pq
x
x
x
x
x
x
A
It is law of transformation of tensor of rank three.

So,
b a
j i
k
j i
k
'
'
are components of a tensor of rank three.

EXAMPLE 6
If a specified point, the derivatives of g
ij
w.r.t. to x
k
are all zero. Prove that the components of
covariant derivatives at that point are the same as ordinary derivatives.
Solution
Given that
k
ii
x
g
= 0, k j i , , at P
0
...(1)
Let
i
j
A be tensor..
Now, we have to prove that . at
0 ,
P
x
A
A
k
i
j
i
k j
i
k j
A
,
=
'

'
k j
A
k
i
A
x
A
i
j
k
i
j
...(2)
Since
'
j i
k
and [ ] k ij,. both contain terms of the type
k
ij
x
g
and using equation (1) we get
'
j i
k
=
[ ] k ij, 0
at
0
P .
So, equation (2) becomes
i
k j
A
,
=
k
i
j
x
A
at
0
P
4.7 GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE AND CURL
(a) Gradient
If be a scalar function of the coordinates, then the gradient of is denoted by
grad =
i
x

which is a covariant vector.
(b) Divergence
The divergence of the contravariant vector
i
A is defined by
i
A div =
'
i k
i
A
x
A
k
i
i
i
i
A
,
The divergence of the covariant vector
i
A is defined by
i
A div =
ik
ik
A g
EXAMPLE 7
Prove that div
( )
k
k
i
x
A g
g
A
1
Solution:
If
i
A be components of contravariant vector then
i
A div =
'
i k
i
A
x
A
A
k
i
i
i
i ,
Since
'
i k
i
= ( )
k k
x
g
g
g
x
1
log
So,
i
A div
=
k
k i
i
A
x
g
g x
A
1
Since i is dummy index. Then put , k i we get
div A
i
=
k
k k
k
A
x
g
g x
A
1
i
A div =
( )
k
k
x
A g
g
1
...(1)
Proved
(c) Curl
Let
i
A be a covariant vector then
j i
A
, =
'
j i
k
A
x
A
k
j
i
and i j
A
, =
'
i j
k
A
x
A
k
i
j
are covariant tensor.
So,
i
j
j
i
i j j i
x
A
x
A
A A

, ,
is covariant tensor of second order, which is called curl of
i
A .
Thus
i
A curl =
i j j i
A A
, ,

Note: curl A
i
is a skew-symmetric tensor.
Since
A
j, i
A
i,j
= (A
i,j
A
j,i
)
EXAMPLE 8
If
ij
A be a skew-symmetric tensor of rank two. Show that
j ki i jk k ij
A A A
, , ,
+ + =
j
ki
i
jk
k
ij
x
A
x
A
x
A
Solution
Since we know that
k ij
A
,
=
'
'
k j
l
A
k i
l
A
x
A
il lj
k
ij
i jk
A
, =
'
'
k j
l
A
i j
h
A
x
A
jl lk
i
jk
j ki
A
, =
'
'
j i
l
A
j k
l
A
x
A
kl li
j
ki
Adding these, we get
j ki i jk k ij
A A A
, , ,
+ +
=

,
_
'
'
i k
l
A
k i
l
A
x
A
x
A
x
A
jl lj
j
ki
i
jk
k
ij
,
_
'
'
k j
l
A
j k
l
A
il li

,
_
'
'
i j
l
A
j i
l
A
lk kl
Since
'
k i
l
is symmetric i.e.,
'
'
i k
l
k i
l
etc.
=
) (
jl lj
j
ki
i
jk
k
ij
A A
k i
l
x
A
x
A
x
A
+
'
( ) ) (
lk kl il li
A A
j i
l
A A
j k
l
+
'
'
Since
ij
A is skew-symmetric. Then 0 +
jl lj jl lj
A A A A . Similarly,,
il li
A A + = 0 and 0 +
lk kl
A A
So,
j ki i jk k ij
A A A
, , ,
+ + =
j
ki
i
jk
k
ij
x
A
x
A
x
A
THEOREM 4.5 A necessary and sufficient condition that the curl of a vector field vanishes is that
the vector field be gradient.
Proof: Suppose that the curl of a vector
i
A vanish so that
i
A curl = 0
, ,

i j j i
A A ...(1)
To prove that ,
i
A is scalar..
Since from (1),
i j j i
A A
, ,
= 0
i
j
j
i
x
A
x
A
= 0
j
i
x
A
=
i
j
x
A
j
j
i
dx
x
A
=
j
i
j
dx
x
A
i
dA = ( )
j j
i
dx A
x
Integrating it we get
i
A =
( )
j
j
i
dx A
x
=

j
j
i
dx A
x
i
A = ,
i
x

where

j
j
dx A
or
i
A = .
Conversely suppose that a vector
i
A is such that
i
A =
,
is scalar..
To prove curl 0
i
A
Now,
i
A =
i
x

j
i
x
A
=
i j
x x

2
and
i
j
x
A
=
j i
x x

2
So,
i
j
j
i
x
A
x
A
= 0
So,
i
A curl
=
0
, ,

i
j
j
i
i j j i
x
A
x
A
A A
So,
i
A curl = 0 Proved.
THEOREM 4.6 Let and
be scalar functions of coordinates x

i
. Let A be an arbitrary vector then
(i) + A A div A div ) (
(ii) + ) (
(iii) 2 + +
2 2
) (
2
(iv) +
2
) ( div
Proof: (i) Since we know that
i
A div =
( )
i
i
x
A g
g
1
...(1)
replace A
i
by
i
A , we get
) div(
i
A =
( )
i
i
x
A g
g
1
=
1
1
]
1
i
i
i
i
x
A g
x
A g
g
) ( 1
=
i
i
i
i
x
A g
g
A
x
) ( 1
=
i i
A A div +
Thus
) div( A = A A div + ...(2)
(ii) By definition of gradient,
) ( =
( )
i
x

=
i i
x x

+
Thus
) (
= + ...(3)
(iii) Taking divergence of both sides in equation (3), we get
) ( div
= [ ] + div
) (
2
= ) ( div ) ( div +
= ) ( div ) ( div + + +
) (
2
=
+ + 2 ) ( div ) ( div
Thus,
) (
2
= + + 2
2 2
(iv) Replace A by in equation (3), we get
) ( div = ) ( div +
) ( div = +
2
THEOREM 4.7 Let
i
A be a covariant vector and a scalar function. Then
(i) curlA A A curl + ) (
(ii) ) ( curl
Proof: (i) Let
i
A be a covariant vector then
A curl =
i j j i i
A A A
, ,
curl
Replacing
i
A by
i
A , we get
( )
i
A curl = ( ) ( ) i A j A
j i
, ,
=
i j j i j i i
A A A jA
, ,
, , +
= ) ( ) , , (
, , i j j i j i
A A i A j A +
=
i i
A A curl +
So,
curl ) ( A = A A curl + ...(1)
(ii) Replacing A by in equation (1), we get
) ( curl = + ) ( curl
Interchange of and
, we get
) ( curl
=
. ) ( curl +
Since curl ( ) . 0
So,
) ( curl = . Proved.
4.8 THE LAPLACIAN OPERATOR
The operator
2
is called Laplacian operator read as "del square".
THEOREM 4.8 If
is a scalar function of coordinates

i
x then

2
=
,
_
r
kr
k
x
g g
x g
1
Proof: Since

2
=
grad div
...(1)
and
grad
= ,
r
x

which is covariant vector.
But we know that any contravariant vector
k
A associated with
r
A (covariant vector) is
k
A
=
r
kr
A g (Sec Art. 3.4, Pg 43)
Now, the contravariant vector
k
A associated with
r
x

(Covariant vector) is
k
A
=
r
kr
x
g

Since
i
A div =
( )
,
1
k
k
x
A g
g
(Sec Ex. 7, Pg 75)

So, from (1)

2
=
k
r
kr
r
kr
x
x
g g
g x
g
,
_

,
_
1
div Proved.
EXAMPLE 9
Show that, in the cylindrical coordinates,
V
2
=
2
2
2
2
2
1 1
z
V V
r r
V
r
r r
+
,
_
by Tensor method
Solution
The cylindrical coordinates are ). , , ( z r If V is a scalar function of ). , , ( z r
Now,
V
2
= V
Since
V =
z
V
k
V
j
r
V
i
Let
1
A =
,
r
V

,
2

V
A

z
V
A
3
...(1)
Then ,
3 2 1
k kA j jA i iA V + + since
V
is covariant tensor. The metric in cylindrical coordinates
is
2
ds =
2 2 2 2
dz d r dr + +
here, ,
1
r x ,
2
x z x
3
.
Since
j i
ij
dx dx g ds
2
11
g
= 1, ,
2
22
r g 1
33
g
and others are zero.
g =
2 2
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
1 0 0
0 0
0 0 1
r r
g g g
g g g
g g g
g
ij

g = r (See Pg. 34, Example 1)
Now,
) ( div V =
( )
k
k
i
x
A g
g
A
1
div
=
3
3
2
2
1
1
) ( ) ( 1 ) ( 1
x
A g
x
A g
g x
A g
g
) ( div V =
1
1
]
1
z
rA rA
r
rA
r
) ( ) ( ) ( 1
3 2 1
...(2)
We can write
k
A =
q
kq
A g (Associated tensor)
k
A =
3
3
2
2
1
1
A g A g A g
k k k
+ +
Put
1 k
1
A =
3
13
2
12
1
11
A g A g A g + +
1
A =
1
11
A g as 0
13 12
g g
Similarly,
2
A =
2
22
A g
3
A =
3
33
A g
and
11
g = 1
in of Cofactor
2
2
11

r
r
g
g g
22
g
=
2
22
1 in of Cofactor
r g
g g
33
g = 1
in of Cofactor
2
2
33

r
r
g
g g
(See. Pg. 34, Ex.1)
So,
1
A
=
1 1
11
A A g
2
A = 2
2
2
22
1
A
r
A g
3
A
= .
3 3
33
A A g
or
, 1
1
A A
,
1
2
2
2
A
r
A

.
3
3
A A
from (1), we get
1
A
=
,
r
V

,
1
2
2

V
r
A

z
V
A
3
from (2),
So,
V
2
= 1
]
1
,
_
+
,
_
+
,
_
z
V
r
z
V
r
r
r
V
r
r r
A
i
2
1 1
div
) ( div V =
1
]
1
,
_
+
,
_
+
,
_
z
V
r
z
V
r r
V
r
r r
1 1
= 1
]
1
+
,
_
2
2
2
2
1 1
z
V
r
V
r r
V
r
r r
) ( div V =
2
2
2
2
2
1 1
z
V V
r r
V
r
r r
+
,
_
V
2
=
2
2
2
2
2
1 1
z
V V
r r
V
r
r r
+
,
_
EXERCISES
1. Prove that the expressions are tensors
(a)

'
'
i j
l
ij
ij
A
jl
A
l i x
A
l A ,
(b)
r
ij
r
k i
r
jk l
r
jk i r
l jk i
A
l k
A
l j
A
l i
x
A
A

'

'

'

,
+
'
ijk
A
l
r
2. Prove that
j
j i
A
,
=
'
j i
k
A
x
g A
g
j
k
j
j
i
) ( 1
3. If
ijk
A is a skew-symmetric tensor show that ) (
1
jk i
k
A g
x g
is a tensor..
4. Prove that the necessary and sufficient condition that all the Christoffel symbols vanish at a point is
that g
ij
are constant.
5. Evaluate the Christoffel symbols in cylindrical coordinates.
6. Define covariant differentiation of a tensor w.r. to the fundamental tensor g
ij
. Show that the covariant
differentiation of sums and products of tensors obey the same result as ordinary differentiation.
7. Let contravariant and covariant components of the same vector A be A
i
and A
i
respectively then
prove that
i
A div
=
i
A div
8. If
ij
A is the curl of a covariant vector. Prove that
j ki i jk k ij
A A A
, , ,
+ + = 0
9. To prove that u u = ucurl u if u a vector of constant magnitude.
10. A necessary and sufficient condition that the covariant derivative vector be symmetric is that the
vector must be gradient.
11. Show that, in spherical coordinates
V
2
=
2
2
2 2 2
2
2
sin
1
sin
sin
1 1

+
,
_
+
,
_
V
r
V
r r
V
r
r r
by tensor method.
5.1 RIEMANN-CHRISTOFFEL TENSOR
If A
i
is a covariant tensor then the covariant x
j
derivative of A
i
is given by
A
i,j
=

'

A
j i x
A
j
i
...(1)
Differentiating covariantly the equation (1) w.r. to
,
k
x
we get
jk i
A
,
=

'

'

, ,
,
i j
k
j i
A
k j
A
k i x
A
=

,
_
'
'

,
_
'

A
j
x
A
k i
A
j i
x
A
x
j j
i
k
,
_
'

'

A
k i
x
A
k i
i
jk i
A
,
=
j k k j k
i
x
A
k i x
A
k i
A
x
j i
x x
A
'

'

'

'
'

+
'

'
'

+ A
i k j x
A
k j
A
j k i
i
...(2)
Interchanging j and k in equation (2), we get
kj i
A
,
=
k j j k j
i
x
A
j i x
A
k i
A
x
k i
x x
A
'

'

'

2
RIEMANN-CHRISTOFFEL TENSOR
CHAPTER 5
`

'
'

+
'

'
'

+ A
i j k x
A
i k
A
k j i
i
...(3)
Subtract equation (3) from (2), we get
kj i jk i
A A
, ,
=

'
'

'

'
'

A
k j i
A
x
j i
A
j k i
k
'

+ A
x
k i
j
Interchanging of and in the first and third term of above equation, we get
kj i jk i
A A
, ,
=

1
1
1
1
1
]
1
'
'

'
'

+
'

'

A
k j i j k i x
j i
x
k i
k j
...(4)
kj i jk i
A A
, ,
=

jk i
R A ...(5)
where
jk i
R =
'
'

'
'

+
'

'

k j i j k i x
j i
x
k i
k j
...(6)
Since A
i
is an arbitrary covariant tensor of rank one and difference of two tensors A
i, jk
A
i, kj
is
a covariant tensor of rank three. Hence it follows from quotient law that
jk i
R is a mixed tensor of rank
four. The tensor
jk i
R is called Riemann Christoffel tensor or Curvature tensor for the metric
j i
ij
dx dx g .
The symbol
jk i
R is called Riemanns symbol of second kind.
Now, if the left hand side of equation (4) is to vanish i.e., if the order of covariant differentiation
is to be immaterial then
jk i
R = 0
Since A
is arbitrary. In general
jk i
R 0, so that the order of covariant differentiation is not
immaterial, It is clear from the equation (4) that a necessary and sufficient condition for the validity of
inversion of the order of covariant differentiation is that the tensor
jk i
R vanishes identically..
Remark
The tensor
i
ikl
R =
'

'

'
'
'
'
l j k j
l
i
k
i
l j
i
k j
i
x x
l k
...(7)
Riemann-Christoffel Tensor 87
THEOREM 5.1 Curvature tensor
jk i
R is anti symmetric w.r.t. indices j and k.
Proof: We know that from (7) curvature tensor
jk i
R =
'

'

'
'
'

'

k i j i
k j
k i j i
x x
k j
jk i
R =
'

'
'

'
'

'

j i k k i j x
j i
x
k i
k j
Interchanging j and k, we get
kj i
R =
'

'
'

'
'

'

k i j j i k
x
k i
x
j i
j k
=
1
1
1
1
1
]
1
'

'
'

'
'

'

j i k k i j
x
j i
x
k i
k j
j ik
R =

jk i
R
So,
jk i
R antisymmetric w.r.t. indices j and k.
Theorem 5.2 To prove that

+ +
j ki i jk jk i
R R R = 0
Proof: Since we know that
ijk
R =
'

'

'
'
'

'

k i j i
k j
k i j i
x x
k j
k ij
R =
'
'

'

'
'

'

k j i k i j x
j i
x
k i
k j
...(1)
Similarly
ki j
R =
'
'

'

'
'

'

i k j i j k
x
k j
x
i j
i k
...(2)
and
j ki
R =
'
'

'

'
'

'

j i k j k i x
i k
x
j k
j i
...(3)
On adding (1), (2) and (3), we get

+ +
j i k i k j k j i
R R R = 0
This is called cyclic property.
5.2 RICCI TENSOR
The curvature tensor
jk i
R can be contracted in three ways with respect to the index and any one of
its lower indices
,
k j
R ,
k i
R
j i
R
Now, from equation (7), art. 5.1,
jk
R =
'
'
'
'
'
'
k j
k j
k j
x x
k j
=
'
'
'
'
'
'
j k k j x
j
x
k
k j
=
j k k j
x x
g
x x
g

log
log
2 2
Since
k
x
g
k
'
log
and and are free indices 0
k j
R .
Also for
j i
R .
Write
j i
R for
j i
R
ij
R =
'
'

'
'
'
'

i j i
j
i j i
x x
R
j
ij
ij
R =
'

'
'
'
'

'
j i i j
x
j i
x
i
j
ij
R =
'

'
'
'
'

j i i j
x
j i
x x
g
i j
log
2
...(1)
Interchanging the indices i and j we get
ji
R =
'

'
'
'
'

'
i j j i
x
i j
x
j
i
ji
R =
'

'
'
'
'

j i j i
x
j i
x x
g
j i
log
2
...(2)
(Since and are dummy indices in third term).
Comparing (1) and (2), we get
ij
R =
ji
R
Thus
ij
R is a symmetric Tensor and is called Ricci Tensor..
For :
k i
R
k i
R
=
ik ik
R R

5.3 COVARIANT RIEMANN-CHRISTOFFEL TENSOR

The associated tensor
l k j i
R =

jkl i
R g ...(1)
is known as the covariant Riemann-Christoffel tensor or the Riemann-Christoffel tensor of the first
kind.
Expression for
ijkl
R
ijkl
R =

jkl i
R g
=

,
_
'
'

'
'

+
'

'

l k j k l j k j
x
l j
x
g
l k i (2)
Now,
'

l j x
g
k
i =
k
i
i k
x
g
l j l j
g
x
'

1
]
1
'

=
[ ]
k
i
k
x
g
l j x
i jl
'

,
...(3)
Similarly,
'

k j x
g
l
i =
[ ]
l
i
l
x
g
k j x
i jk
'

,
...(4)
1
]
1

dx
vdu
dx
duv
dx
udv
formula By the
Using (3) and (4) in equation (2), we get
l k j i
R =
[ ] [ ]
'
'

'
'

+
'

+
'

l k j
g
k l j
g
x
g
k j x
i jk
x
g
l j x
i jl
i i
l
i
l k
i
k
, ,
=
[ ] [ ]
'
'

'
'

+
'

'

+

l k j
g
k l j
g
x
g
l j
x
g
k j
x
i jk
x
i jl
i i k
i
l
i
l k
, ,
l k j i
R =
[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ] ( ) [ ] [ ] ( ) i k ik
l j
i l il
k j x
i jk
x
i jl
l k
, , , ,
, ,
+
'

+
'

+
[ ] [ ] i l
k j
i k
l j
, ,
'

'

+
l k j i
R =
[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
'

'

+
, ,
, ,
ik
l j
il
k j x
i jk
x
i jl
l k
...(5)
l k j i
R =
[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
'

'

+
, ,
, ,
il ik
l j k j
i jl i jk
x x
k k
...(6)
But we know that
[ ] i jl, =

,
_
i
jl
l
ji
j
li
x
g
x
g
x
g
2
1
...(7)
and [ ] i jk , =

,
_
i
ik
k
ji
j
ki
x
g
x
g
x
g
2
1
...(8)
Using (7) and (8), equation (5) becomes
ijkl
R =

,
_
,
_
i
jk
k
ji
j
ki
l i
jl
l
ji
j
li
k
x
g
x
g
x
g
x x
g
x
g
x
g
x 2
1
2
1
[ ] [ ]
'

'

+ , , ik
l j
il
k j
ijkl
R =
+
,
_
k i
jl
l j
ik
l i
jk
k j
il
x x
g
x x
g
x x
g
x x
g
2
2
2
2
2
1
[ ] [ ]
'

'

, , ik
l j
il
k j
...(9)
Since
'

k j
= [ ]
, jk g and
[ ]
'

, jl g
l j
l k j i
R =

,
_
l i
jl
l j
ik
l i
jk
k j
il
x x
g
x x
g
x x
g
x x
g
2
2
2
2
2
1
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] +

, , , , ik jl g il jk g ...(10)
This is expression for
l k j i
R .
The equation (9) can also be written as
l k j i
R =

,
_
k i
jl
l j
ik
l i
jk
k j
il
x x
g
x x
g
x x
g
x x
g
2
2
2
2
2
1
'

'

'

'

+

k i l j
g
l i k j
g
5.4 PROPERTIES OF RIEMANN-CHRISTOFFEL TENSORS OF FIRST KIND
l k j i
R
(i)
ijkl jikl
R R
(ii)
ijkl ijlk
R R
(iii)
ijkl klij
R R
(iv) 0 + +
iljk iklj ijkl
R R R
Proof: We know that from equation (9), Pg. 91.
ijkl
R
=

,
_
k i
jl
l j
ik
l i
jk
k j
il
x x
g
x x
g
x x
g
x x
g
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
[ ] [ ]
'

'

+ , , ik
l j
il
k j
...(1)
(i) Interchanging of i and j in (1), we get
jikl
R =
[ ] [ ]
'

'

+
,
_
, ,
2
1
2
2
2
2
jk
l i
jl
k i
x x
g
x x
g
x x
g
x x
g
k j
il
l i
jk
l j
ik
k i
jl
=
,
_
l j
ik
k i
jl
l i
jk
k j
il
x x
g
x x
g
x x
g
x x
g
2
2 2
2
2
1
[ ] [ ]
'

'

+ , , jk
l i
jl
k i
jikl
R =
ijkl
R
or
ijkl
R =
jikl
R
(ii) Interchange l and k in equation (1) and Proceed as in (i)
(iii) Interchange i and k in (1), we get
kjil
R =
[ ] [ ]
'

'

+
,
_
, ,
2
1
2
2
2
2
ki
l j
kl
i j x x
g
x x
g
x x
g
x x
g
i k
jl
l j
ki
l k
ji
i j
kl
Now interchange j and l, we get
klij
R =
[ ] [ ]
'

'

+
,
_
, ,
2
1
2
2 2
2
ki
j l
kj
i l x x
g
x x
g
x x
g
x x
g
i k
lj
j l
ki
j k
li
i l
kj
For
[ ]
'

, kj
i l
=
'

'

j k
g
i l
=
'

'

i l
g
j k
= [ ]
'

, li
j k
[ ]
'

, li
i l
=
[ ]
'

, li
j k
So,
klij
R
=

,
_
i k
lj
j l
ki
j k
li
i l
kj
x x
g
x x
g
x x
g
x x
g
2
2 2
2
2
1
[ ] [ ]
'

'

+ , , ki
j l
li
j k
klij
R
=
,
ijkl
R
from (1)
from equation (1)
ijkl
R =
[ ] [ ]
'

'

+
,
_
, ,
2
1
2 2 2
2
ik
l j
il
k j
x x
g
x x
g
x x
g
x x
g
k j
jl
l j
jk
l i
jk
k j
il
iklj
R =
[ ] [ ]
'

'

+
,
_
, ,
2
1
2
2 2
2
il
j k
ij
l k x x
g
x x
g
x x
g
x x
g
l i
kj
j k
il
j i
kl
l k
ij
iljk
R =
[ ] [ ]
'

'

+
,
_
, ,
2
1
2
2 2
2
ij
k l
ik
j l
x x
g
x x
g
x x
g
x x
g
j i
lk
k l
ij
k i
lj
j l
ik
On adding these equations, we get
iljk iklj ijkl
R R R + + = 0
This property of
ijkl
R is called cyclic property..
Theorem 5.3 Show that the number of not necessarily independent components of curvature tensor
does not exceed
) 1 (
12
1 2 2
n n
.
Or
Show that number of distinct non-vanishing components of curvature tensor does not exceed
) 1 (
12
1 2 2
n n
.
Proof: The distinct non-vanishing components of
ijkl
R of three types.
(i) Symbols with two distinct indices i.e.,
ijij
R . In this case total number of distinct non-vanishing
components of
ijkl
R are
) 1 (
2
1
n n
.
(ii) Symbols with three distinct indices i.e.,
ijik
R . In this case, total number of distinct non-
vanishing components
ijkl
R are
) 2 ( ) 1 (
2
1
n n n
.
(iii) Symbols
ijkl
R with four distinct indices. In this case, total number of distinct non-vanishing
components of
ijkl
R is
12
) 1 (
2 2
n n
.
Hence the number of distinct non-vanishing components of the curvature tensor
ijkl
R does not
exceed
) 1 (
12
1 2 2
n n
.
Remark
When
ijkl
R is of the form
iiii
R i.e., all indices are same
In this case,
iiii
R has no components.
5.5 BIANCHI IDENTITY
It states that
i
l jmk
i
k jlm
i
m jkl
R R R
, , ,
+ + = 0
and
l hjmk k hjlm m hjkl
R R R
, , ,
+ + = 0
Proof: Introducing geodesic coordinate
1
in which Christoffel symbols are constant with the pole at
0
P .
Since we know that
i
jkl
R =
'
'
'
'
'
'
jl
m
jk
m
ml
i
mk
i
jl
i
jk
i
x x
l k
i
jkl
R =
'
'
'
'
'
'
ml
i
jk
m
jl
m
mk
i
x
jk
i
x
jl
i
l k
i
m jkl
R
,
=
l m k m
x x
k j
i
x x
l j
i

'
'
2 2
...(1)
Since
'
'
l j
m
k j
i
,
etc. are constant at pole.
So, their derivatives are zero.
i
jlm
R =
'

'

'
'
'
'
m j l j
m
i
l
i
m j
i
l j
i
x x
m l
1
Details of geodesic coordinate given in chapter curvature in curve. Geodesic.
=
'

'
'

'
'
'
l j m
i
m j l
i
x
l j
i
x
m j
i
m l
i
k jlm
R
,
=
m k l k
x x
l j
i
x x
m j
i

'
'
2 2
...(2)
and
i
jmk
R =
'

'

'
'
'
'
k j m j
k
i
m
i
k j
i
m j
i
x x
k m
i
jmk
R =
'

'
'

'
'
'
m j k
i
k j m
i
x
m j
i
x
k j
i
k m
i
jmk
R =
l k l m
x x
m j
i
x x
k j
i

'
'
2 2
...(3)
On adding (1), (2) and (3), we get
i
l jmk
i
k jlm
i
m jkl
R R R
, , ,
+ + = 0 ...(4)
Multiplying
i
m jkl
R
,
by
hi
g i.e.,
i
m jkl hi
R g
, =
m hjkl
R
,
Then equation (4) becomes
R R R
, , ,
+ + = 0 ...(5)
Since every term of equation (4) and (5) is a tensor. So, equation (4) and (5) are tensor equations
and therefore hold in every coordinate system. Further,
0
P is an arbitrary point of
n
V . Thus there hold
throughout
n
V . Hence equation (4) or (5) is called Bianchi identity..
5.6 EINSTEIN TENSOR
Theorem 5.4 To prove the tensor
R R
i
j
i
j

2
1
is divergence free.
Proof: We know that from equation (5)
R R R
, , ,
+ + = 0
Multiply it by ,
jk hl
g g we get
l hjmk
jk hl
k hjlm
jk hl
m hjkl
jk hl
R g g R g g R g g
, , ,
+ + = 0
) ( ) (
, , , l jhmk
jk hl
k hjml
jk hl
m jk
jk
R g g R g g R g + + = 0
Since
hjml hjlm
R R &
jhmk hjmk
R R
l hm
hl
k jm
jk
m jk
jk
R g R g R g
, , ,
= 0
l
l m
k
k m
R R m R
, ,
, = 0 Since R R g
jk
jk
k
k m
k
k m
R R m R
, ,
, = 0
k
k m
R m R
,
2 , = 0
m R R
k
k m
,
2
1
,

= 0
k R R
k
m
k
k m
,
2
1
,

= 0 since k R m R
k
m
, ,
k
k
m
k
m
R R
,
2
1
,
_

= 0
R R
k
m
k
m

2
1
is divergence free.
The tensor
k
m
k
m
k
m
G R R
2
1
or
R R
i
j
i
j

2
1
is known as Einstein Tensor..
5.7 RIEMANN CURVATURE OF A V
n
Consider two unit vectors p
i
and q
i
at a point P
0
of V
n
. These vectors at P
0
determine a pencil of
directions deferred by t
i
= p
i
+ q
i
. and being parameters. One and only one geodesic will pass
through P
0
in the direction of
i
p . Similarly one and only one geodesic will pass through in the direction
q
i
. These two geodesics through P
0
determined by the orientation of the unit vectors p
i
and q
i
. Let this
surface is denoted by S.
The Gaussian curvature of S at P
0
is defined to be the Riemannian Curvature of
n
V at
0
P for the
orientation determined by p
i
and q
i
.
Let the coordinates
i
y of
n
V are Riemannian coordinates with origin at P
0
. The equation of
surfaces S in given by
i
y = s q p
i i
) ( + ...(1)
i.e.,
i
y =
2 1
u q u p
i i
+ ...(2)
where , and
2 1
u s u s three parameters namely s , , can be reduced to two parameters
1
u
and
2
u . Here
1
u and
2
u are coordinates of any current point on S.
Let

du du b ds
2
be the metric for the surface S. where
b =

u
y
u
y
g
j i
ij
(, = 1, 2)
Let
'
'
and
g
j i
k
be the Christoffel symbols corresponding to the coordinates y
i
and u
.
Let
R and R
hijk
be curvature tensor corresponding to the metrices b

du
du
and
j i
ij
dy dy g .
Since the Greek letters , , , take values 1,2 and so that the number of independent non-
vanishing components of ) 1 (
12
1
is
2 2
n n R for , 2 n i.e., they are ( ) . 1 1 2 2

12
1
2 2
Let us
transform the coordinate system
u to
u and suppose that the corresponding value of

1212
R are
'
1212
R .
Then
'
1212
R =
2 1 2 1
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
R

=
2 1 2 1
2
2
2 1 2 1
1
1
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
R
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
R

=
2 1 2
1
1
2
21
2 1 2
2
1
1
12
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
R
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
R

=
1212
R
2
1
1
2
2
2
1
1
1221
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
R
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u

2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
2121
2
2
2
1
2
1
11
2
2112
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
R
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
R

+
=
1
1
]
1
,
_
2
2
1
1
2
2 2
2
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2112
2
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
R
=
2
1212
J R where
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
J

2
2
1
2
2
1
1
1
so,
1212
R =
2
1212
J R ...(3)
Again
b =

u
u
u
u
b

b
=

u
u
u
u
b
or b =
2
bJ ...(4)
from (3) and (4), we get
b
R
1212
=
( ) say
1212
K
b
R
...(5)
This shows that the quantity K is an invariant for transformation of coordinates. The invariant K
is defined to be the Guasian curvature of S. Hence K is the Riemannian Curvature of S at
0
P .
Since Riemannian Coordinates y
i
with the origin at
0
P . We have as geodesic coordinates with the
pole at
0
P .
Therefore
b g
j i
k
'
'
,
= 0 at
0
P
Then
hijk
R =
[ ] [ ]
,
_
j
g
k
g
y
h ik
y
h ij , ,
at
0
P .
and
R =
[ ] [ ]
,
_
,
+

u u
b b
at
0
P .
1212
R =
[ ] [ ]
1 2
1 , 22 1 , 21
u u
b b
at
0
P ...(6)
from (5) we get
K=
[ ] [ ]
,
_
1 2
1 , 22 1 , 21 1
u u b
b b
...(7)
This is required expression for Riemannian curvature at
0
P .
5.8 FORMULA FOR RIEMANNIAN CURVATURE IN THE TERMS OF COVARIANT
CURVATURE TENSOR OF V
n
Let
'
'
and
g
j i
k
be the Christoffel symbols of second kind relative to the metrices

du du b
and
j i
ij
dy dy g respectively. We have
[ ]
b
, =
[ ]
g
k j i
k ij
u
y
u
y
u
y
,

...(8)
[ ]
b
1 , 21 =
[ ]
g
k j i
k ij
u
y
u
y
u
y
,
1 1 2
= [ ]
g
k j i
k ij p p q , using (2)
Now,
[ ]
2
1 , 21
u
b
=
[ ]
k j i g
p p q
u
k ij
2
,
=
[ ]
2
,
u
y
y
k ij
p p q
h
h
g k j i
=
[ ]
h
g h k j i
y
k ij
q p p q
,
Interchanging h and k, we get
[ ]
2
1 , 21
u
b
=
[ ]
k
g h j k i
y
h ij
p p q q
,
...(9)
Similarly,
[ ]
1
1 , 22
u
b
=
[ ]
k
g h j k i
y
h ij
p p q q
,
...(10)
Using (9) and (10), equation (6) becomes
1212
R =
[ ] [ ]
0
at
, ,
P
y
h ik
y
h ij
q p q p
j
g
k
g
k j i h
1
]
1
1212
R =
0
at P R q p q p
hijk
k j i h
...(11)
Since
b =

u
y
u
y
g
j i
ij
11
b =
j i
ij
j i
ij
p p g
u
y
u
y
g
1 1
11
b =
j h
hj
p p g
Similarly
22
b =
k i
ik
j i
ij
q q g q q g
12
b =
j i
ij
q p g
k h
hk
i j
ji
q p g q p g
b =
21 12 22 11
22 21
12 11
b b b b
b b
b b

b = [ ] hk ij ik hi
k j i h
g g g g
q p q p

...(12)
Dividing (11) and (12), we get
K=
) (
1212
hk ij hj ik
k j i h
hijk
k i h
g g g g q p q p
R q q p
b
R
...(13)
This is formula for Riemannian Curvature of
n
V at
0
P determined by the orientation of Unit vectors
i
p
and
i
q at
0
P .
5.9 SCHURS THEOREM
If at each point, the Riemannian curvature of a space is independent of the orientation choosen then it
is constant throughout the space.
Proof: If K is the Riemannian curvature of
n
V at P for the orientation determined by unit vectors
i
p
and
i
q then it is given by
K=
k j i h
hk ij hj ik
hijk
k j i h
q p q p g g g g
R q p q p
) (
...(1)
Let K be independent of the orientation choosen. Then equation (1) becomes
K=
hk ij hj ik
hijk
g g g g
R
hijk
R = ) (
hk ij hj ik
g g g g K ...(2)
We have to prove that K is constant throughout the space
n
V .
If , 2 N the orientation is the same at every point. So, consider the case of
n
V when
. 2 > n
Since
ij
g are constants with respect to covariant differentation, therefore covariant differentation
of (2) gives
l hijk
R
,
=
l hk ij hj ik
K g g g g
,
) ( ...(3)
where K,
l
is the partial derivative of K.
Taking the sum of (3) and two similar equations obtained by cyclic permutation of the suffices,
j, k and l.
k il hj ij hl j ik hl il hk i ij hk ik hj
K g g g g K g g g g K g g g g , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( + + =
k
hilj j hikl l hijk
R R R
,
, ,
+ +
...(4)
Here 2 > n therefore three or more distinct values to indices j, k, m can be given .
Multiplying (4) by
hj
g and using ,
j
l hl
hj
g g we get
k il h
h
i j
j
l ik
j
k il l hk
h
i ik
K ng l g K g g k g ng , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( + + = 0
or,
k il l ik
K g n K g n
, ,
) 1 ( 0 ) 1 ( + + = 0 for j i
i
j
, 0
k il l ik
K g K g
, ,
= 0
Multiplying by
ik
g and using
ik
ik
g = , ,
k
l
ik
il
g g n
we get
k
k
l l
K nK , , = 0 or 0 , ) 1 (
l
K n
or
k
K, = 0 as 0 , ) 1 (
l
K n
or
l
x
K
= 0.
integrating it, we get K = constant. This proves that the partial derivatives of K w.r.t. to xs are all zero.
Consequently K is constant at P. But P is an arbitrary point of
n
V . Hence K is constant throughout
n
V .
5.10 MEAN CURVATURE
The sum of mean curvatures of a
n
V for a mutually orthogonal directions at a point, is independent of
the ennuple choosen. Obtain the value of this sum.
Or
Prove that the mean curvature (or Riccian Curvature) in the direction
i
e at a point of a
n
V is the
sum of n 1 Riemmanian curvatures along the direction pairs consisting of the direction and n 1
other directions forming with this directions an orthogonal frame.
Proof: Let
i
h
e be the components of unit vector in a given direction at a point P of a
n
V . Let
i
k
e
be the
components of unit vector forming an orthogonal ennuple.
Let the Riemannian curvature at P of
n
V for the orientation determined by
i
h
l and ( ) k h e
i
k
be
denoted by
hk
K and given by
hk
K =
) (
qr ps qs pr
s
k
r
h
q
k
p
h
pqrs
s
k
r
k
q
k
p
h
g g q g e e e e
R e e

=
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
1 1 1 1
qr
r
h
q
k
ps
s
k
p
h
qs
s
k
q
k
pr
r
h
p
h
pqrs
s
k
r
h
q
k
p
h
g e e g e e g e e g e e
R e e e e
...(1)
Since unit vectors
i
k
i
h
e , are orthogonal. Therefore
pr
r
h
p
h
g e e
= 1
and ps
s
h
p
h
g e e
= 0 etc.
Using these in equation (1), then equation (1) becomes
hk
K
=
0 0 1 1
pqrs
s
k
r
h
q
k
p
h
R e e e e
hk
K
= pqrs
s
k
r
h
q
k
p
h
R e e e e
...(2)
n
k
hk
K
1
=

n
k
pqrs
s
k
r
h
q
k
p
h
R e e e e
1
Put
n
k
h hk
M K
1
.
Then
h
M =
pqrs
s
k
n
k
q
k
r
h
p
h
R e e e e

1
= pqrs
qs r
h
p
h
R g e e
= qprs
qs r
h
p
h
R g e e
h
M = pr
r
h
p
h
R e e
...(3)
This shows that
h
M is independent of (n 1) orthogonal direction choosen to complete an orthogonal
ennuple. Here
h
M is defined as mean curvature or Riccian curvature of
n
V for the direction
p
h
e
1
.
Summing the equation (1) from
1 h
to , n h we get
n
h
h
M
1
=
pr
r
h
p
h
R e e
| |
=
pr
pr
R g
= R
or
n
h
h
M
1
= R R g
pr
pr

This proves that the sum of mean curvatures for n mutual orthogonal directions is independent of the
directions chosen to complete an orthogonal ennuple and has the value
. R
5.11 RICCIS PRINCIPAL DIRECTIONS
Let
i
h
e
1
is not a unit vector and the mean curvature
h
M is given by
h
M =
j
h
i
h ij
j
h
i
h ij
e e g
e e R
j
h
i
h ij h ij
e e g M R ) ( +
= 0
Differentiating it w.r. to ,
1
i
h
e we get
j
h ij ij
k
h
j
h jk
i
h
h
e Mg R e e g
e
M
) ( 2 + +
= 0 ...(1)
For maximum and minimum value of
h
M .
i
h
h
e
M
= 0
i
h ij ij
e Mg R ) ( + = 0
These are called Ricci's Principal direction of the space as they are principal directions of Ricci
tensor .
ij
R
5.12 EINSTEIN SPACE
A space, which is homogeneous relative to the Ricci tensor
ij
R is called Einstein space.
If space is homogeneous then we have
ij
R =
ij
g ...(1)
Inner multiplication by ,
ij
g we get
R = n since R g R
ij
ij
and n g g
ij
ij

=
R
n
1
from (1)
ij
R = ij
g
n
R
Hence a space is an Einstein space if ij ij
g
n
R
R
at every point of the space.
Theorem 5.5 To show that a space of constant Curvature is an Einstein space.
Proof: Let the Riemannian curvature K at P of
n
V for the orientation determined by
i
p and ,
i
q is
given by
K =
) (
hk ij hj ik
k j i h
hijk
k j i h
g g g g q p q p
R q p q p
Since K is constant and independent of the orientaion.

K=
) (
hk ij hj ik
hijk
g g g g
R
hijk
R = ) (
hk ij hj ik
g g g g K
Multiplying by
hk
g
) (
hk ij hj ik
hk
g g g g Kg =
hijk
hk
R g
) (
ij hj
h
i
ng g K =
ij
R
Since ;
h
i ik
hk
g g n g g
hk
hk
and
ij jk hi
hk
R R g
) (
ij ij
ng g K =
ij
R
ij
g n K ) 1 ( =
ij
R ...(1)
Multiplying by ,
ij
g we get
) 1 ( n Kn = R as R R g
ij
ij
...(2)
from (1) & (2)
ij
R =
( )
ij ij
Rg
n n n
R
g n
1
1
) 1 (

ij
R = ij
g
n
R
This is necessary and sufficient condition for the space
n
V to be Einstein space.
5.13 WEYL TENSOR OR PROJECTIVE CURVATURE TENSOR
Weyl Tensor denoted as
hijk
W and defined by
hijk
W =
) (
1
1
ij kh hj ki hijk
g g R g
n
R
+
Theorem 5.6 A necessary and sufficient condition for a Riemannian ( ) 3 > n V
n
to be of constant
curvature to that the Weyl tensor vanishes identically throughout
n
V .
Proof: Necessary Condition:
Let K be Riemannian Curvature of
n
V . Let K = constant.
We have to prove that 0
hijk
W
Since we know that
K=
k j i h
hk ij ik hj
hijk
k j i h
q p q p g g g g
R q p q p
) (
= constant
Since K be independent of the orientation determined by the vector
i
p and
i
q .
Then
K=
hk ij ik hj
hijk
g g g g
R
...(1)
Multiplying by ,
hk
g we get
hijk
hk
R g = ) (
hk ij ik hj
hk
g g g g K g
ij
R = ) (
ij ik
k
j
ng g K
ij
R =
ij
g n K ) 1 ( ...(2)
Multiplying by
ij
g again, we get
ij
ij
R g =
ij
ij
g g n K ) 1 (
R = n n K ) 1 ( ...(3)
Putting the value of K from (3) in (2), we get
ij
R = ij
g
n
R
...(4)
The equation (3) shows that R is constant since K is constant.
Now, the W tensor is given by
hijk
W
=
] [
1
1
ij hk hj ik hijk
g g R g
n
R
+
from (5), we get
hijk
W =
1
]
1
+
ij hk hj ik hijk
g
n
R
g g
n
R
g
n
R
1
1
=
] [
) 1 (
ij hk hj ik hijk
g g g g
n n
R
R
+
=
,
) 1 ( K
R
n n
R
R
hijk
hijk

+
by. eqn. (1)
hijk
W =
,
K
R
K R
hijk
hijk
+
by equation (3)
hijk
W =
hijk
R 2
Since K is constant. The equation (5) shows that 0
hijk
W .
This proves necessary condition.
Sufficient Condition
Let . 0
hijk
W Then we have to prove that K is constant.
Now, . 0
hijk
W
] [
1
1
ij hk hj ik hijk
R g R g
n
R
+ = 0
Multiplying by ,
hk
g we get
] [
1
1
ij hk
hk
hj ik
hk
ij
R g g R g g
n
R
+ = 0
] [
1
1
ij hj
h
i ij
nR R
n
R
+ = 0
) 1 (
1
n
n
R
R
ij
ij

+
= 0
ij
R 2 = 0
ij
R = 0
Since . 0 0
hijk
hk
ij
R g R
hk
g
= 0 or 0
hijk
R
If , 0
hijk
R then clearly K = 0. So, K is constant.
If 0
hk
g then
K =
k j i h
ij ik hj
k j i h
hijk
q p q p g g g
q p q p R
) 0 (
K=
2 2
) ( ) ( q p
q p q p R
g q q g p p
q p q p R
k j i h
hijk
ik
k i
hj
j h
k j i h
hijk
K=
k j i h
hijk
q p q p R since 1 , 1
2 2
q p
K= constant as 0
ij
R
This proves sufficient condition.
EXAMPLE 1
For a
2
V referred to an orthogonal system of parametric curves (g
12
= 0) show that
12
R
= 0,
1221 11 22 22 11
R g g g R
R =
22 11
1221
2
g g
R
R g
ij
ij
Consequently
ij
R
=
.
2
1
ij
Rg
Solution
Given that
0
12
g
so that . 0
12
g
Also,
ij
g =
11
11
1 1
g
g
g
ij

&
.
1
22
22
g
g
The metric of
2
V is given by
2
ds = ;
j i
ij
dx dx g (i, j = 1, 2)
2
ds
=
2 2
22
2 1
11
) ( ) ( dx g dx g + Since . 0
12
g
We know that .
1 ij hijk
hk
R R g
and g =
22 11
22
11
22 21
12 11
0
0
g g
g
g
g g
g g
g
ij

(i) To prove 0
12
R
12
R =
2
1
12 h
h
k h
hk
R g R g
as 0
122

h
R
=
2121
21
R g as 0
1121
R
12
R = 0
(ii) To prove
1221 11 22 22 11
R g R g R
11
R =
k
k
k h
hk
R g R g
211
2
11

11
R =
22
2112
2112
22
g
R
R g
So,
11
R =
22
2112
g
R
...(1)
and
22
R =
k
k
k h
hk
R g R g
122
1
22

=
11
1221
1221
11
g
R
R g
So,
22
R =
11
1221
g
R
...(2)
from (1) and (2)
R
11
g
22
= R
1221
=R
22
g
11
(3)
(iii) To prove
R =
22 11
1221
2
g g
R
R =
2
2
1
1
i
i
i
i
ij
ij
R g R g R g +
=
22
22
11
11
R g R g + for 0
12
g
=
22
22
11
11
g
R
g
R
+
=
[ ] 3) ( eqn. by
22 11
1221
11 22
1221
Q
g g
R
g g
R
+
R =
22 11
1221
2
g g
R
(iv) To prove
ij ij
Rg R
2
1
R =
22 11
1221
2
g g
R
R = 22 11
1221
as
2
g g g
g
R
1221
R =
Rg
2
1
The eqn (3) expressed as
22 11
g R =
11 22
2
1
g R Rg .
it becomes
11
R =
2 2 2
11
22
22 11
22
Rg
g
g Rg
g
Rg

22
R =
2 2 2
22
11
22 11
11
Rg
g
g Rg
g
Rg

So,
11
R = 11
2
1
Rg
& 22 22
2
1
g R
12
R =
12
2
1
g
as
12 12
0 g R
This prove that .
2
1
ij ij
R R
EXAMPLE 2
The metric of the V
2
formed by the surface of a sphere of radius r is
2
ds
2 2 2 2 2
sin + d r d r
in spherical polar coordinates. Show that the surface of a sphere is a surface of constant curvature
.
1
2
r
Solution
Given that
2
ds =
2 2 2 2 2
sin + d r d r
Since r is radius of curvature then r is constant.
, sin ,
2 2
22
2
11
r g r g . sin , 0
2 4
22 11 12
r g g g g
We can prove
R
1221
= r
2
sin
2

Now, the Riemannian curvature K of V
n
is given by
K= .
) (
ij hk ik hj
k j i h
k j i h
g g g g q p q p
q p q p
At any point of
2
V there exists only two independent vectors.
Consider two vectors whose components are (1, 0) and (0, 1) respectively in
2
V . Then
K=
g
R
g g
R
1212
22 11
1212
K=
constant.
1
sin
sin
2 2 4
2 2

r r
r
EXERCISES
1. Show that
ijkl
R =
[ ] ] , [ ,
] , [ ] , [
'

'

+
ik
l j
il
k j
x
i jk
x
i jl
l k
2. Show that
ijkl
R =
,
_
k i
jl
l j
ik
l i
jk
k j
il
x x
g
x x
g
x x
g
x x
g
2
2
2
2
2
1
( ) ] , [ ] , [ ] , [ ] , [ +

ik jl il jk g .
3. Using the formula of the problem 2. Show that
klij ijlk jikl ijkl
R R R R
and
0 + +
iljk iklj ijkl
R R R
4. Show that the curvature tensor of a four dimensional Riemannian space has at the most 20 distinct
non-vanishing components.
5. (a) If prove that the process of contraction applied to the tensor
h
ijk
R generates only one new tensor
ij
R which is symmetric in i and j.
(b) If . ) ( ) ( ) (
2 3
33
2 2
22
2 1
11
2
dx g dx g dx g ds + + Prove that ,
1
ihhj
hh
ij
R
g
R (h, i, j being unequal).
6. Show that when in a V
3
the coordinates can be chosen so that the components of a tensor g
ij
are zero
when i, j, k are unequal then
(i)
hiij
ii
hj
R
g
R
1

(ii)
hjjh
jj
hiih
ii
hh
R
g
R
g
R
1 1
+
7. Prove that if
i
R =
ij
j
R g
then
i
i
x
R
R
2
1
,
and hence deduce that when n > 2 then scalar curvature of an Einstein space is constant.
8. If the Riemannian curvature K of V
n
at every point of a neighbourhood U of V
n
is independent of the
direction chosen, show that K is constant throughout the neighbourhood U. Provided n > 2.
9. Show that a space of constant curvature K
0
is an Einstein space and that R = K
0
n(1 n).
10. Show that the necessary and sufficient condition that
n
V be locally flat in the neighbourhood of 0 is
that Riemannian Christoffel tensor is zero.
11. Show that every V
2
is an Einstein space.
12. For two dimensional manifold prove that
K =
2
R
13. Show that if Riemann-Christoffel curvature tensor vanishes then order of covariant differentiation is
commutative.
The concept of symmetry and skew-symmetry with respect to pairs of indices can be extended to
cover to pairs of indices can be extended to cover the sets of quantities that are symmetric or skew-
symmetric with respect to more than two indices. Now, consider the sets of quantities k
i i
A
...
or
k l
i i
A
...
depending on k indices written as subscripts or superscripts, although the quantities A may not
represent tensor.
6.1 COMPLETELY SYMMETRIC
The system of quantities
k
i i
A
...
1
(or
k
i i
A
...
1
) depending on k indices, is said to be completely symmetric
if the value of the symbol A is unchanged by any permutation of the indices.
6.2 COMPLETELY SKEW-SYMMETRIC
The systems k
i i
A
...
1 or (
k
i i
A
...
1
) depending on k indices, is said to be completely skew-symmetric if the
value of the symbol A is unchanged by any even permutation of the indices and A merely changes the
sign after an odd permutation of the indices.
Any permutation of n distinct objects say a permutation of n distinct integers, can be accomplished
by a finite number of interchanges of pairs of these objects and that the number of interchanges
required to bring about a given permutation form a perscribed order is always even or always odd.
In any skew-symmetric system, the term containing two like indices is necessarily zero. Thus if
one has a skew-symmetric system of quantities
ijk
A where i, j, k assume value 1, 2, 3. Then
122
A = 0
112
A
123
A = ,
213
A
123 312
A A etc.
In general, the components
ijk
A of a skew-symmetric system satisfy the relations.
ijk
A
=
jik ikj
A A
ijk
A =
kij jki
A A
THE e-SYSTEMS AND THE GENERALIZED
KRNECKER DELTAS
CHAPTER 6
6.3 e-SYSTEM
Consider a skew-symmetric system of quantities
n
i i
e
...
1
) or (
,...,
1 n
i i
e in which the indices
n
i i ...
1
assume
values 1,2,...n. The system
n
i i
e
...
1
) or (
...
1 n
i i
e is said to be the e-system if
'

+
cases other all in 0
..., 2, 1, number of n permutatio odd an
,..., , when ; 1
..., 2, 1, number of n permutatio even an
,..., , when ; 1
) or (
2 1
2 1
...
...
1
1
n
i i i
n
i i i
e e
n
n
i i
i i
n
n
EXAMPLE 1
Find the components of system e
ij
when i, j takes the value 1,2.
Solution
The components of system e
ij
are
. , , ,
22 21 12 11
e e e e
By definition of e-system, we have
11
e = 0, indices are same
12
e = 1, since i j has even permutation of 12
21
e = 1
12
e since i j has odd permutation of 12
22
e = 0, indices are same
EXAMPLE 2
Find the components of the system
jk i
e .
Solution
By the definition of e-system,
123
e = 1
321 231
e e
213
e = 1
321 132
e e
ijk
e = 0 if any two indices are same.
6.4 GENERALISED KRNECKER DELTA
A symbol
k
k
i i
j j
...
...
1
1
depending on k superscripts and k subscripts each of which take values from 1 to n,
is called a generalised Krnecker delta provided that
(a) it is completely skew-symmetric in superscripts and subscripts
The e-Systems and the Generalized Krnecker Deltas 113
(b) if the superscripts are distinct from each other and the subscripts are the same set of
numbers as the superscripts.
The value of symbol
zero is symbol the of value the cases other all in 0,

subscripts as order same in the
ts superscrip the arrange tions transposi of number odd where 1;
. subscripts as order same in the ts superscrip
the arrange to required is tion transposi of number even an ; 1
...
...
1
1
k
k
i i
j j
EXAMPLE 3
Find the values of .
ij
kl
Solution
By definition of generalised Kronecker Delta, 0
ij
kl
if i = j or k = l or if the set. ij is not the set kl.
i.e.,
11
pq
=
22
pq
= 0
23
13

ij
kl
= 1 if kl is an even permutation of ij
i.e.,
12
12
= 1
23
23
31
31
13
13
21
21

and 1
ij
kl
if kl is an odd permutation of ij.
i.e.,
12
21
= 1
21
12
13
31
31
13

Theorem 6.1 To prove that the direct product
n
n
j j j
i i i
e e
...
...
2 1
2 1
of two systems
n
i i
e
...
1
and
n
j j j
e
...
2 1
is the
generalized Krnecker delta.
Proof: By definition of generalized Krnecker delta, the product
n
n
j j j
i i i
e e
...
...
2 1
2 1
has the following values.
(i) Zero if two or more subscripts or superscripts are same.
(ii) +1, if the difference in the number of transpositions of
n
i i i ,..., ,
2 1
and
n
j j j ,..., ,
2 1
from
1,2,...n is an even number.
(iii) 1, if the difference in the number of transpositions of i
1
, i
2
,...,i
n
and j
1
, j
2
, ...j
n
from 1, 2,..n
an odd number.
Thus we can write
n
n
j j j
i i i
e e
...
...
2 1
2 1
=
n
n
i i i
j j j
...
...
2 1
2 1

(i)
n
i i i
e
...
2 1
=
n
n
i i i
j j j
...
...
2 1
2 1
(ii)
n
n n
i i i
j j j i i i
e
...
... ...
2 1
2 1 2 1

Proof: By Definition of e-system, n
i i i
e
...
2 1 ) or (
...
2 1 n
i i i
e has the following values.
(i) +1; if
n
i i i ,..., ,
2 1
is an even permutation of numbers 1,2,...n.
(ii) -1; if
n
i i i ,..., ,
2 1
is an odd permutation of numbers 1,2,...n
(iii) 0; in all other cases
Hence by Definition of generalized krnecker delta, we can write
(1)
n n
i i i
n
i i i
e
...
... 2 1
...
2 1 2 1

and
(2)
n
i i i i i i
n n
e
... 2 1
... ...
2 1 2 1

6.5 CONTRACTION OF
jk i
Let us contract
jk i
on k and
. For n = 3, the result is

ijk
=
ij ij ij ij
3 2 1
+ +
3 2 1
This expression vanishes if i and j are equal or if and are equal.
If i = 1, and j = 2, we get .
123
3
Hence
12

+
12 of n permutatio not is if 0;
12 of n permutatio odd an is if 1;
12 of n permutatio even an is if ; 1
Similarly results hold for all values of and selected from the set of numbers 1, 2, 3.
Hence
ij
0;
1;
+
numbers. same the from formed not are ts superscrip and subscripts
e or when th equal are ts superscrip or subscripts the of two if
of n permutatio odd an is if
of n permutatio even an is if ; 1
j i
j i
If we contract .
ij
To contract
ij
first contract it and the multiply the result by

.
2
1
We obtain
a system depending on two indices
i
=
) (
2
1
2
1
3
3
2
2
1
1
i i i ij
j
+ +
The e-Systems and the Generalized Krnecker Deltas 115
It i = 1 in
i
then we get
( )
13
3
12
2
1
2
1

+
This vanishes unless
1
and if = 1 then . 1
1
1

Similar result can be obtained by setting i = 2 or i = 3. Thus
i
has the values.

(i) 0 if ) , 3 , 2 , 1 , ( , i i
(ii) 1 if i .
By counting the number of terms appearing in the sums. In general we have
i
=
ij
j
n

1
1
and ) 1 ( n n
ij
ij
...(1)
We can also deduce that
r
r
i i i
j j j
...
...
2 1
2 1
=
k r r
k r r
i i i i i
j j j j j
r n
k n ... ...
... ...
1 2 1
1 2 1
)! (
)! (

...(2)
and
r
r
i i i
j j j
...
...
2 1
2 1
=
!
!
) 1 ( ) 2 ( ) 1 (
r n
n
r n n n n
+ ...(3)
or
n
n
i i i
i i i
e e
...
...
2 1
2 1
= n! ...(4)
and from (2) we deduce the relation
n r r
n r r
i j j j j
i i i i i
e e
... ...
... ...
1 2 1
1 2 1
+
+
= n! ...(5)
EXERCISE
1. Expand for n = 3
(a)

j
i
(b)
j i
ij
x x
12
(c)
j i
ij
y x
(d)
ij
ij
2. Expand for n = 2
(a)
2 1
j i
ij
a a e (b)
1 2
j i
ij
a a e (c) . a e a a e
ij j i ij

3. Show that ! 3
ijk
ijk
if i, j, k = 1, 2, 3.
4. If a set of quantities
k
i i i
A
...
2 1
is skew-symmetric in the subscripts (K in number) then
k
k
k
j
i i
i i
j
A
...
...
1
1
... 1
= k!
k
j j
A
...
1
5. Prove that g
ijk
is a covariant tensor of rank three where where
ijk
is the usual permutation
symbol.
7.1 LENGTH OF ARC
Consider the n-dimensional space R be covered by a coordinate system X and a curve C so that
i
x C:
= ), (t x
i
) ..., 2 , 1 ( n i ...(1)
which is one-dimensional subspace of R. Where t is a real parameter varying continuously in the
interval .
2 1
t t t The one dimensional manifold C is called arc of a curve.
Let F
,
_
dt
dx
dt
dx
dt
dx
x x x
n
n
,...,
, ,..., ,
2 1
2 1
be a continuous function in the interval .
2 1
t t t Wee
assume that
, 0 , >
,
_
dt
dx
x F
unless every
0
dt
dx
i
and that for every positive number k
,
_
dt
dx
k
dt
dx
k
dt
dx
k x x x F
n
n
,..., , , ,..., ,
2 1
2 1
=
,
_
dt
dx
dt
dx
dt
dx
x x x kF
n
n
,... , , ,..., ,
2 1
2 1
.
The integral
s =

,
_
2
1
,
t
t
dt
dt
dx
x F
...(2)
is called the length of C and the space R is said to be metrized by equation (2).
Different choices of functions
,
_
dt
dx
x F , lead to different metric geometrices.
If one chooses to define the length of arc by the formula
s =

2
1
, ) (
t
t
q p
pq
dt
dt
dx
dt
dx
x g (p,q = 1, 2, ..., n) ...(3)
where
dt
x d
dt
x d
x g
q p
pq
) (
is a positive definite quadratic form in the variable
,
dt
dx
p
then the resulting
geometry is the Riemannian geometry and space R metrized in this way is the Riemannian n-dimensional
space R
n
.
GEOMETRY
CHAPTER 7
Geometry 117
Consider the coordinate transformation ) ,..., ( :
1 n i i
x x x x T such that the square of the element
of arc ds,
2
ds
=
q p
pq
dx dx g ...(4)
can be reduced to the form
2
ds
=
i i
x d x d
...(5)
Then the Riemannian manifold
n
R is said to reduce to an n-dimensional Euclidean manifold E
n
.
The Y-coordinate system in which the element of arc of C in E
n
is given by the equation (5) is
called an orthogonal cartesian coordinate system. Obviously, E
n
is a generalization of the Euclidean
plane determined by the totality of pairs of real values ). , (
2 1
x x If these values ) , (
2 1
x x are associated
with the points of the plane referred to a pair of orthogonal Cartesian axes then the square of the
element of arc ds assumes the familiar form
2
ds = . ) ( ) (
2 2 2 1
x d x d +
THEOREM 7.1 A function F
,
_
dt
dx
x,
satisfying the condition F
,
_

,
_
dt
dx
x kF
dt
dx
k x , ,
for every
k > 0. This condition is both necessary and sufficient to ensure independence of the value of the
integral
2
1
t
t
F s
,
_
dt
dx
x,
dt of a particular mode of parametrization of C. Thus if t in ) ( : t x x C
i i
is replaced by some function t = ) (s and we denote ( ) [ ] s x

i
by ) (
i
. so that ) (t x
i
) (s
i
we have
equality

,
_
2
1
,
t
t
dt
dt
dx
x F
=

2
1
) , (
s
s
ds F
where
ds
ds
i
i

and ) (
1 1
s t and ). (
2 2
s t
Proof: Suppose that k is an arbitary positive number and put t = ks so that t
1
=ks
1
and t
2
=ks
2
. Then
i
x C: = ) (t x
i
becomes
) ( : ks x C
i
= ) (t
i
and ) (s
i
=
dt
ks dx
k
ds
ks dx
i i
) ( ) (
Substituting these values in
,
_
dt
dx
x F s
t
t
,
2
1
dt we get
s =
( )
( )
kds
dt
ks dx
ks x F
s
s
1
]
1
,
2
1
or s =
[ ]ds s s F
s
s
) ( ), (
2
1

We must have the relation F F ) , (

. , ,
,
_

,
_
dt
dx
x kF
dt
dx
k x
Conversely, if this relation is true
for every line element of C and each k > 0 then the equality of integrals is assumed for every choice of
parameter
2 1
1
, 0 ) ( ), ( s s s s s t > with and ). (
2 2
s t
Note: (i) Here take those curves for which
) (t x
i
and
dt
dx
i
are continuous functions in .
2 1
t t t
(ii) A function
,
_
dt
dx
x F ,
satisfying the condition
,
_

,
_
dt
dx
x kF
dt
dx
k x F , ,
for every k > 0 is called
positively homogeneous of degree 1 in the .
dt
dx
i
EXAMPLE 1
What is meant, consider a sphere S of radius a, immersed in a three-dimensional Euclidean
manifold ,
3
E with centre at the origin (0, 0, 0) of the set of orthogonal cartesian axes
3 2 1
X X X O
.
Solution
Let T be a plane tangent to S at (0, 0,a) and the points of this plane be referred to a set of orthogonal
cartesian axes O Y
1
Y
2
as shown in figure. If we draw from 0) 0, (0, O a radial line , OP interesting
the sphere S at ) , , (
3 2 1
x x x P and plane T at ) , , (
2 1
a x x Q then the points P on the lower half of the
sphere S are in one-to-one correspondence with points ) , (
2 1
x x of the tangent plane T. .
Fig. 7.1
If ) , , (
3 2 1
x x x P is any point on the radial line OP,, then symmetric equations of this line is
0
0
1
1
x
x
=

0
0
0
0
3
2
2
a
x
x
x
or
1
x
=
,
1
x

,
2 2
x x

a x
3
...(6)
Since the images Q of points P lying on S, the variables x
i
satisfy the equation of S,
2 3 2 2 2 1
) ( ) ( ) ( x x x + + =
2
a
or
( ) ( )
1
]
1
+ +
2
2
2
2
1 2
a x x
=
2
a
Y
2
Y
1
X
1
X
3
X
2
Q
2
Q
1
K
O
O
C
P
1
P
2
Geometry 119
Solving for
and substituting in equation (6), we get

1
x
=
,
) ( ) (
2 2 2 2 1
1
a x x
x a
+ +

2 3 2 2 2 1
2
2
) ( ) ( ) ( x x x
x a
x
+ +
and
3
x
=
2 3 2 2 2 1
2
) ( ) ( ) ( x x x
a
+ +
...(7)
These are the equations giving the analytical one-to-one correspondence of the points Q on T and
points P on the portion of S under consideration.
Let ) , , (
3 2 1
1
x x x P and ) , , (
3 3 2 2 1 1
2
dx x dx x dx x P + + + be two close points on some curve C lying
on S. The Euclidean distance
2 1
P P along C, is given by the formula
2
ds
=
,
i i
dx dx
(i = 1, 2, 3) ...(8)
Since
i
dx
=
,
p
p
i
x d
x
x
(P =1, 2)
Thus equation (8) becomes
2
ds =
q p
q
i
p
i
x d x d
x
x
x
x
= , ) (
q p
pq
x d x d x g (p,q = 1, 2)
where ) (x g
pq
are functions of
i
x
and
.
q
i
p
i
pq
x
x
x
x
g
If the image K of C on T is given by the equations
'
2 1
2 2
1 1
), (
) (
:
t t t t x x
t x x
K
then the length of C can be computed from the integral
s =

2
1
t
t
q p
pq
dt
dt
x d
dt
x d
g
A straight forward calculation gives
ds
2
=
{ }
2
2 2 2 1
2
2 1 2 2 1
2
2 2 2 1
) ( ) (
1
1
) (
1
) ( ) (
1
]
1
+ +
+ +
x x
a
x d x x d x
a
x d x d
...(9)
and
s =
{ }
+ +
,
_
,
_
,
_
2
1 2 2 2 1
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
) ( ) (
1
1
1
t
t
dt
x x
a
dt
x d
x
dt
x d
x
a dt
x d
dt
x d
So, the resulting formulas refer to a two-dimensional manifold determined by the variables ) , (
2 1
x x in
the cartesian plane T and that the geometry of the surface of the sphere imbeded in a three-dimensional
Euclidean manifold can be visualized on a two-dimensional manifold
2
R with metric given by equation (9).
If the radius of S is very large then in equation (9) the terms involving
2
1
a
can be neglected. Then
equation (9) becomes
2
ds
= . ) ( ) (
2 2 2 1
x d x d + ...(10)
Thus for large values of a, metric properties of the sphere S are indistinguishable from those of
the Euclidean plane.
The chief point of this example is to indicate that the geometry of sphere imbedded in a Euclidean
3-space, with the element of arc in the form equation (8), is indistinguishable from the Riemannian
geometry of a two-dimensional manifold
2
R with metric (9). the latter manifold, although referred to
a cartesian coordinate system Y, is not Euclidean since equation (9) cannot be reduced by an admissible
transformation to equation (10).
7.2 CURVILINEAR COORDINATES IN
3
E
Let ) (x P be the point, in an Euclidean 3-space
3
E , referred to a set of orthogonal Cartesian coordinates Y. .
Consider a coordinate transformation
i
x T :
=
) 3 , 2 , 1 ( ), , , (
3 2 1
i x x x x
i
Such that
0
j
i
x
x
J
in some region R of
3
E . The inverse coordinate transformation
i
x T :
1
= ) 3 , 2 , 1 ( ), , , (
3 2 1
i x x x x
i
will be single values and the transformations T and
1
T establish one-to-one correspondence
between the sets of values ) , , (
3 2 1
x x x and ). , , (
3 2 1
x x x
The triplets of numbers ) , , (
3 2 1
x x x is called curvilinear coordinates of the points P in R.
If one of the coordinates
3 2 1
, , x x x is held fixed and the other two allowed to vary then the point
P traces out a surface, called coordinate surface.
If we set constant
1
x in T then
) , , (
3 2 1 1
x x x x = constant ...(1)
defines a surface. If constant is allowed to assume different values, we get a one-parameter family of
surfaces. Similarly, ) , , (
3 2 1 2
x x x x = constant and ) , , (
3 2 1 3
x x x x = constant define two families of
surfaces.
The surfaces
Geometry 121
X
2
X
3
X
1
Y
3
Y
2
Y
1
O
1
x
= ,
1
c
3
3
2
2
, c x c x (2)

P
Y
1
Y
2
X
3
X
2
X
Y
3
Fig. 7.2
intersect in one and only one point. The surfaces defined by equation (2) the coordinate surfaces
and intersection of coordinate surface pair-by pair are the coordinate lines. Thus the line of intersection
of
1
1
c x and
2
2
c x is the coordinate
3
x line because along this the line the variable
3
x
is the only
one that is changing.
EXAMPLE 2
Consider a coordinate system defined by the transformation
Fig. 7.3
1
x =
3 2 1
cos sin x x x ...(3)
2
x =
3 2 1
sin sin x x x ...(4)
3
x =
2 1
cos x x ...(5)
1
The surfaces constant
1
x are spheres, constant
2
x are circluar cones and x
3
= constant are
planes passing through the Y
3
-axis (Fig. 7.3).
The squaring and adding equations (3), (4) and (5) we get,
2 3 2 2 2 1
) ( ) ( ) ( x x x + + =
2 2 1 2 3 2 1 2 3 2 1
) cos ( ) sin sin ( ) cos sin ( x x x x x x x x + +
On solving
2
+ + ) ( ) ( ) (
3 2 2 2 1
x x x =
2 1
) (x
1
x
=
2 3 2 2 2 1
) ( ) ( ) ( x x x + + ...(6)
Now, squaring and adding equations (3) and (4), we get
2 2 2 1
) ( ) ( x x + =
2 3 2 1 2 3 2 1
) sin sin ( ) sin sin ( x x x x x x +
2 2 2 1
) ( ) ( x x + =
2 2 2 1
) (sin ) ( x x
2 1
sin x x
=
2 2 2 1
) ( ) ( x x + ...(7)
Divide (7) and (5), we get
2
tanx =
3
2 2 2 1
) ( ) (
x
x x +
or
2
x =
,
_
3
2 2 2 1
1
) ( ) (
tan
x
x x
...(8)
Divide (3) and (4), we get
1
2
x
x
=
3
tanx
3
x
=

,
_
1
2
1
tan
x
x
...(9)
So, the inverse transformation is given by the equations (6), (8) and (9).
If . 2 0 , 0 , 0
3 2 1
< < < > x x x This is the familiar spherical coordinate system.
7.3 RECIPROCAL BASE SYSTEMS
Covariant and Contravariant Vectors
Let a cartesian coordinate system be determined by a set of orthogonal base vectors ,
1
b
r

3 2
,b b
r r
then the
position vector
r
r
of any point ) , , (
3 2 1
x x x P can be expressed as
r
r
=
i
i
x b
r
(i = 1, 2, 3) ...(1)
Geometry 123
Since the base vectors
i
b
r
are independent of the position of the point ) , , (
3 2 1
x x x P . Then from (1),
r d
r
=
i
i
x d b
r
...(2)
If ) , , (
3 2 1
x x x P and ) , , (
3 3 2 2 1 1
x d x x d x x d x Q + + + be two closed point. The square of the
element of arc ds between two points is
2
ds
=
r d r d
r r
from equation (2),

2
ds =
j
j
i
i
x d b x d b
r r
=
j i
j i
x d x d b b
r r
2
ds = ;
j i
ij
x d x d since
ij j i
b b
r r
Fig. 7.4.
) 0 & 1 vector base orthogonal are , , (
2 1 1 1 3 2 1
b b b b i.e., b b b
r r r r r r r
.
2
ds =
;
i i
x d x d

j i
j i
ij

, 0
, 1 as
a familiar expression for the square of element of arc in orthogonal cartesian coordinates.
Consider the coordinate transformation
i
x = ), , , (
3 2 1
x x x x
i
(i = 1, 2, 3)
define a curvilinear coordinate system X. The position vector r
r
is a function of coordinates .
i
x
i.e.,
r
r
= ), (
i
x r
r
(i = 1, 2, 3)
Then
r d
r
=
i
i
dx
x
r
r
...(3)
Y
1
Y
2
X
3
X
2
X
1
Y
3
O
b
3
a
1
a 2
a
3
b1
b2
P
r
and
2
ds =
r d r d
r r
=
j i
j i
x d x d
x
r
x
r
r r
2
ds =
j i
ij
dx dx g
where
ij
g =
j i
x
r
x
r
r r
...(4)
The vector
i
x
r
r
is a base vector directed tangentially to X
i
- coordinate curve.
Put
i
x
r
r
=
i
a
r
...(5)
Then from (3) and (4)
r d
r
=
i
i
x d a
r
and
j i ij
a a g
r r
...(6)
Now, from equations (2) and (6), we get
j
j
dx a
r
=
i
i
x d b
r
j
j
dx a
r
=
j
j
i
i
x d
x
x
b
r
j
a
r
=
arbitrary are as ,
j
j
i
i
x d
x
x
b
r
So, the base vectors
j
a
r
transform according to the law for transformation of components of
covariant vectors.
The components of base vectors ,
i
a
r
when referred to X-coordinate system, are
), 0 , 0 , ( :
1 1
a a
r
), 0 , , 0 ( :
2 2
a a
r
). , 0 , 0 ( :
3 3
a a
r
...(7)
and they are not necessarily unit vectors.
In general,
11
g
= , 1
1 1
a a
r r
, 1
2 2 22
a a g
r r

. 1
3 3 33
a a g
r r
...(8)
If the curvilinear coordinate system X is orthogonal. Then
ij
g
=
, 0 cos
ij j i j i
a a a a
r r r r
if . j i ...(9)
Any vector
A
r
are can be written in the form
r d k
r
r
A
where k is a scalar..
Geometry 125
Since
i
i
x d
x
r
r d
r
r
we have
A
r
= ) (
i
i
kdx
x
r
r
A
r
=
i
i
A a
r
where
i i
kdx A
. The numbers
i
A
are the contravariant components of the vector
A
r
Consider three non-coplanar vectors
1
a
r
=
[ ]
,
3 2 1
3 2
a a a
a a
r r r
r r

[ ]
,
3 2 1
1 3 2
a a a
a a
a r r r
r r
r

[ ]
3 2 1
2 1 3
a a a
a a
a r r r
r r
r
...(10)
where ,
3 2
a a
r r
etc. denote the vector product of
2
a
r
and
3
a
r
and [ ]
3 2 1
a a a
r r r
is the triple scalar
prduct .
3 2 1
a a a
r r r

Now,
1
1
a a
r r
=
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
. 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
1 3 2

a a a
a a a
a a a
a a a
r r r
r r r
r r r
r r r
2
1
a a
r r
=
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
. 0
3 2 1
3 2 2
3 2 1
2 3 2

a a a
a a a
a a a
a a a
r r r
r r r
r r r
r r r
Since [ ] . 0
3 2 2
a a a
r r r
Similarly,
3
1
a a
r r
= 0
1
2
a a
r r
2
2
a a
r r
= 1, 1
3
3
a a
r r
Then we can write
j
i
a a
r r
=
i
j
EXAMPLE 3
To show that [ ] g a a a
3 2 1
r r r
and
[ ]
g
a a a
1
3 2 1
r r r
where g =
ij
g
.
Solution
The components of base vectors
i
a are
), 0 , 0 , ( :
1 1
a a
r
) 0 , , 0 ( :
2 2
a a
r
) , 0 , 0 ( : and
3 3
a a
r
Then
[ ]
3 2 1
a a a
r r r
= 3 2 1
3
2
1
0 0
0 0
0 0
a a a
a
a
a
...(11)
and
g=
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
g g g
g g g
g g g
g
ij

from equations (8) and (9), we have
11
g =
11
2
1 1 1
g a a a
r r
Similarly
2
2
a = ,
22
g
33
2
3
g a
and
12
g
= , 0
2 1
a a
r r
0
3 1 13
a a g
r r
etc.
So,
g =
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
3
2
2
2
1
0 0
0 0
0 0
a a a
a
a
a
g =
3 2 1
a a a ...(12)
from eqn. (11) and (12), we have
[ ]
3 2 1
a a a
r r r
= g
Since the triple products .
1
] [
3 2 1
g
a a a
r r r
Moreover,,
1
a
r
=
,
] [
3 2 1
3 2
a a a
a a
r r r
r r

] [
,
] [
3 2 1
2 1
3
3 2 1
1 3
2
a a a
a a
a
a a a
a a
a
r r r
r r
r
r r r
r r
r
The system of vectors

3 2 1
, , a a a
r r r
is called the reciprocal base system.
Hence if the vectors
3 2 1
, , a a a
r r r
are unit vectors associated with an orthogonal cartesian coordinates
then the reciprocal system of vector defines the same system of coordinates. Solved.
The differential of a vector r
r
in the reciprocal base system is .
i
i
x d a r d
r r
where
i
dx are the components of
. r d
r
Then
2
ds = r d r d
r r
= ) ( ) (
j
j
i
i
dx a dx a
r r
=
j i
j i
dx dx a a
r r
2
ds =
j i
ij
dx dx g
where
ij
g =
ji j i
g a a
r r
...(13)
Geometry 127
The system of base vectors determined by equation (10) can be used to represent an arbitrary
vector A in the form ,
i
i
A a A
r
r
where
i
A are the covariant components of
. A
r
Taking scalar product of vector
i
i
a A
r
with the base vector ,
j
a
r
we get
j
i
i
a a A
r r
=
j
i
j i
A A as .
i
j j
i
a a
r r
7.4 ON THE MEANING OF COVARIANT DERIVATIVES
THEOREM 7.2 If
A
r
is a vector along the curve in
3
E . Prove that
a A
x
A
j
j
r
r
,
Also, prove that .

,
j
i
i
j
x
A
A
Where
i
A
are component of
. A
r
Proof: A vector
A
r
can be expressed in the terms of base vectors
i
a
r
as
A
r
=
i
i
a A
r
where
i
i
x
r
a
r
r
and
i
A
are components of
. A
r
The partial derivative of
A
r
with respect to
j
x
is
j
x
A
r
=
j
i i
i
j
i
x
a
A a
x
A
r
r
...(1)
Since .
j i ij
a a g
r r

Differentiating partially it w.r.t.
,
k
x
we have
k
ij
x
g
=
i
k
j
j
k
i
a
x
a
a
x
a r
r
r
r
Similarly,
i
jk
x
g
=
j i
k
k i
j
a
x
a
a
x
a
r
r
r
r
and
j
ik
x
g
= i
j
k
k
j
i
a
x
a
a
x
a r
r
r
r
Since
A
r
can be written as
A
r
=
i
i i
i
A a A a
r r
Taking scalar product with ,

j
a
r
we have
i
j i
A a a
r r
=
i j
i
A a a
r r
i
ij
A g =
j i
j
i
A A
As
i
j j
i
ij j i
a a g a a
r r r r
, and .
j
i
i
j
A A
We see that the vector obtained by lowering the index in
i
A is precisely the covariant vector .
i
A
The two sets of quantities
i
A and
i
A are represent the same vector A
r
referred to two different
base systems.
EXAMPLE 4
Show that .
j
i
j
i
g g
Solution
Since we know that
i
g
=

a a
i
r r
and

a a g
j j
r r
Then
j
i
g g = ) ( ) (

a a a a
j
i
r r r r
= ) ( ) (

a a a a
j
i
r r r r
=

j
i
as
j
i
j
i
a a
r r
j
i
g g =
j
i
as . 1
But
i
a
r
=
i
x
r
r
j
i
x
a
r
=
i
j
j i i j
x
a
x x
r
dx x
r
r
r r
2 2
So,
j
i
x
a
r
=
i
j
x
a
r
Now,
] , [ k ij =

,
_
k
ij
i
jk
j
ik
x
g
x
g
x
g
2
1
, Christoffels symbol
Substituting the value of , and ,
k
ij
i
jk
j
ik
x
g
x
g
x
g
we get
[ij, k] =
k
j
i
a
x
a r
r
2
2
1
[ij, k] =
k
j
i
a
x
a r
r
or
j
i
x
a
r
= , ] , [
k
a k ij
r
as
k
k
a
a
r
r
1
Hence
a
x
a
j
i
r
r
=

a a k ij
k
r r
] , [
Geometry 129
= , ] , [
k
g k ij Since

a a g
k k
r r
a
x
a
j
i
r
r
. = ,
'

j i
as
'

j i
g k j i
k
] , [
j
i
x
a
r
=

'

a
j i
r
...(2)
Substituting the values of
j
i
x
a
r
in equation (1), we get
j
x
A
r
=

'

+
a A
j i
a
x
A
i
i
j
i
r r
=

'

+
a A
j i
a
x
A
i
j
r r
j
x
A
r
=
1
]
1
'

+
a A
j i x
A
i
j
r
j
x
A
r
=

a A
j
r
, since
i
j
j
A
j i x
A
A
'

+
,
Thus, the covariant derivative
j
A, of the vector
A is a vector whose components are the

components of
j
x
A
r
referred to the base system .
i
a
r
If the Christoffel symbols vanish identically i.e., 0
'

j i
the , 0
j
i
x
a
r
from (2).
Substituting this value in equation (1), we get
j
x
A
r
=
i
j
i
a
x
A r
But
i
j
A
,
=

'
A
j
i
x
A
j
i
i
j
A
,
=
j
i
x
A
as
. 0
'
j
i
Proved.
THEOREM 7.3 If
A
r
is a vector along the curve in
3
E . Prove that
j
k j
a A
r
,
where e
j
A are components
of
. A
r
.
Proof: If
A
r
can be expressed in the form
A
r
=
i
i
a A
r
where
i
A are components of . A
r
The partial derivative of A
r
with respect to
k
x is
k
x
A
r
=
k
i
i
i
k
i
x
a
A a
x
A
r
r
...(1)
Since
,
i
j j
i
a a
r r
we have,
Differentiating it partially w.r. to ,
k
x we get
k
j i
j
k
i
x
a
a a
x
a
r
r r
r
= 0
j
k
i
a
x
a r
r
=
k
j i
x
a
a

r
r
= ,
'

k j
a a
i
r r
Since
'

a
k j x
a
k
j
r
r
But .
i i
a a

r r
Then
j
k
i
a
x
a r
r
'

k j
i
j
k
i
a
x
a r
r
'
k j
i
k
i
x
a
r
=
,
j
a
k j
i r
'
as
j
j
a
a
r
r

1
substituting the value of
k
i
x
a
r
k
x
A
r
=
j
i
i
k
i
a
k j
i
A a
x
A r r
'
=
j
i
j
k
i
a
k j
i
A a
x
A r r
'
k
x
A
r
=
j
i
k
i
a
k j
i
A
x
A r
1
]
1
'
k
x
A
r
= ,
,
j
k j
a A
r
Since
'
k j
i
A
x
A
A
i
k
j
k j,
Proved.
Geometry 131
7.5 INTRINSIC DIFFERENTIATION
Let a vector field ) (x A
r
and
i
x C:
= ), (t x
i

2 1
t t t
be a curve in some region of .
3
E The vector ) (x A
r
depend on the parameter t and if ) (x A is a
differentiable vector then
dt
A d
r
=
dt
dx
x
A
j
j

r
dt
A d
r
=
dt
dx
a A
j
j
r
,
Since we know
j
x
A
r
=

1
1
]
1
'

+
a
j i
x
A
a A
j
j
r r
,
(See Pg. 127, Theo. 7.2)
So,
dt
A d
r
=
dt
dx
a A
j i x
A
j
i
j

1
]
1
'

+
r
dt
A d
r
=

1
]
1
'

+ a
dt
dx
A
j i dt
dA
j
i
r
The formula
dt
dx
A
j i dt
dA
j
i
'

+
is called the absolute or Intrinsic derivative of
A with respect
to parameter t and denoted by
.
t
A

So,
dt
dx
A
j i dt
dA
t
A
j
i
'

+

is contravariant vector. If A is a scalar then, obviously,
.
t
A
t
A
Some Results
(i) If
i
A be covariant vector
t
A
i
=
dt
dx
A
i dt
dA
i

'
(ii)
dt
dx
A
j
dt
dx
A
i
dt
A
t
A
i j
ij ij
'
'
(iii)
dt
dx
A
i dt
dx
A
i
dt
A
t
A
i
j
i
j
i
j

'
'

(iv)
dt
dx
A
k dt
dx
A
j dt
dx
A
i
dt
A
t
A
i
j
i
k jk
i
jk
i
jk

'
'
'
EXAMPLE 5
If
ij
g be components of metric tensor, show that
. 0
t
g
ij
Solution
The intrinsic derivative of
ij
g is
t
g
ij
=
dt
dx
g
j dt
dx
g
i dt
dg
i j
ij

'
'
=
dt
dx
g
j dt
dx
g
i dt
dx
x
g
i j
ij

'
'
=
dt
dx
g
j
g
i
x
g
i j
ij

1
1
]
1
'
'
t
g
ij
=
[ ] [ ]
dt
dx
i j j i
x
g
ij

'
, ,
as
j
g
i

'
= [ ] i j g
j
j i
i
, and ] , [
'

.
But

x
g
ij
= ]. , [ ] , [ i j j i +
So,
t
g
ij
= 0.
EXAMPLE 6
Prove that
dt
A A g d
j i
ij
) (
=
t
A
A g
i
i
ij
2
Solution
Since
j i
ij
a A g is scalar..
Then
dt
A A g d
j i
ij
) (
=
t
A A g
j i
ij
) (
Geometry 133
= ,
) (
t
A A
g
j i
ij
since
ij
g is independent of t.
= 1
]
1
t
A
A A
t
A
g
j
i j
i
ij
Interchange i and j in first term, we get
dt
A A g d
j i
ij
) (
= 1
]
1
t
A
A
t
A
A g
j
i
j
i
ij as
ij
g is symmetric.
dt
A A g d
j i
ij
) (
=
t
A
A g
j
i
ij
2
Proved.
EXAMPLE 7
Prove that if A is the magnitude of
i
A
then
j
A,
=
A
A A
i
j i
,
Solution
Given that A is magnitude of
i
A
. Then
Since
k i
ik
A A g =
i i
A A
k i
ik
A A g =
2
A
Taking covariant derivative w.r. to ,
j
x we get
k
j
i
ik
k i
j ik
A A g A A g
, ,
+ =
j
AA
,
2
Interchange the dummy index in first term, we get
k
j
i
ik
i k
j ki
A A g A A g
, ,
+ = j
AA, 2
k
j
i
ik
A A g
,
2 = j
AA, 2
k
j
i
ik
A A g
,
= j
AA,
( )
k
j ik
i
A g A
,
=
j
AA,
j
i
i
A A
,
=
j
AA
,
since
j i
k
j ik
A A g
, ,

j
A
,
=
A
A A
i
j i
,
Proved.
7.6 PARALLEL VECTOR FIELDS
Consider a curve
i
x C: = ), (t x
i
,
2 1
t t t (i = 1, 2, 3)
in some region of
3
E and a vector A
r
localized at point P of C. If we construct at every point of C a
vector equal to A in magnitude and parallel to it in direction, we obtain a parallel field of vector along the
curve C.
if A
r
is a parallel field along C then the vector A
r
do not change along the curve and we can write
. 0
dt
A d
r
It follows that the components
i
A
of
A
r
satisfy a set of simultaneous differential equations
0
t
A
i
or
dt
dx
A
i
dt
dA
i
'

+
= 0
This is required condition for the vector field
i
A
is parallel.
7.7 GEOMETRY OF SPACE CURVES
Let the parametric equations of the curve C in
3
E be
i
x C: = ), (t x
i

2 1
t t t (i = 1, 2, 3).
The square of the length of an element of C is given by
2
ds =
j i
ij
dx dx g ...(1)
and the length of arc s of C is defined by the integral
s =

2
1
t
t
j i
ij
dt
dt
dx
dt
dx
g ...(2)
from (1), we have
ds
dx
ds
dx
g
j i
ij
= 1 ...(3)
P
C
Y
1
Y
2
X
3
X
2
X
Y
3
O
1
Geometry 135
Put
.
i
i
ds
dx

j i
ij
g = 1 ...(4)
The vector
r
, with components ,
i
is a unit vector. Moreover, ,
r
is tangent to C, since its
components
i
, when the curve C is referred to a rectangular Cartesian coordinate Y, , becomes .
ds
x d
i
i

These are precisely the direction cosines of the tangent vector to the curve C.
Consider a pair of unit vectors
r
and
r
(with components
i
and
i
respectively) at any point
P of C. Let
r
is tangent to C at P Fig. (7.6).
Fig. 7.6
The cosine of the angle
between
r
and
r
is given by the formula
cos
=
j i
ij
g ...(5)
and if
r
and
r
are orthogonal, then equation (5) becomes
j i
ij
g = 0 ...(6)
Any vector
r
satisfying equation (6) is said to be normal to C at P. .
Now, differentiating intrinsically, with respect to the are parameter s, equation (4), we get
i
j
ij
j
i
ij
s
g
s
g
= 0 (7)
as
ij
g is constant with respect to s.
Interchange indices i and j in second term of equation (7) we get
j
i
ij
j
i
ij
s
g
s
g
= 0
Since
ij
g is symmetric. Then
s
g
j
i
ij
2
= 0
O
P x ( )
(Q(x + dx)

+ d
r + dr
r
C
s
g
j
i
ij
= 0
we see that the vector
s
j
either vanishes or is normal to C and if does not vanish

we denote the unit vector co-directional with
s
j
by
j
and write
j
=
,
1
s K
j

s
j
K
...(8)
where K > 0 is so chosen as to make
j
a unit vector..
The vector
j
is called the Principal normal vector to the curve C at the point P and K is the
curvature of C.
The plane determined by the tangent vector
r
and the principal normal vector
r
is called the
osculating plane to the curve C at P.
Since
r
is unit vector
j i
ij
g = 1 ...(9)
Also, differentiating intrinsically with respect to s to equation (6), we get
s
g
s
g
j
i
ij
j
j
ij
= 0
or
s
g
j
i
ij
=
j
i
ij
s
g
=
j i
ij
Kg Since
i
i
K
s

s
g
j
i
ij
= , K since . 1
j i
ij
g
K
s
g
j
i
ij
+
= 0
K g
s
g
j i
ij
j
i
ij
+
= 0 as 1
j i
ij
g
,
_
j
j
i
ij
K
s
g
= 0
This shows that the vector
j
j
K
s
+
is orthogonal to
.
i
Geometry 137
Now, we define a unit vector , v
r
with components
,
j
v
by the formula
i
v
=

,
_
j
j
K
s
1
...(10)
where
i
i
K
s
+
the vector
v
r
will be orthogonal to both
r
and
r
.
To choose the sign of in such a way that
k j i
ijk
v e g = 1 ...(11)
so that the triad of unit vectors
r
,
r
and
r
forms a right handed system of axes.
Since
ijk
e is a relative tensor of weight
1
and
2
j
i
x
x
g
it follows that
ijk ijk
e g is an
obsolute tensor and hence left hand side of equation (11) is an invariant
k
v in equation (11) is determined
by the formula
k
v
=
j i
ijk
...(12)
where
i
and
j
are the associated vectors
i
g and
i
g
and
ijk ijk
e
g
1
is an absolute tensor..
The number appearing in equation (10) is called the torsion of C at P and the vector
v
r
is the
binormal.
We have already proved that in Theorem 7.2, Pg. 127.
i
x
A
r
=

a A
i
r
,
if the vector field
A
r
is defined along C, we can write
s
x
x
A
i
i

r
=

a
s
x
A
i
i
r
,
...(13)
Using definition of intrinsic derivative,
s
A

=
ds
dx
A
i
i
,
ds
A d
r
=
;
a
s
A r
as
ds
A d
ds
dx
x
A
i
i
r r
...(14)
Let r
r
be the position vector of the point P on C then the tangent vector
r
is determined by
ds
r d
r
=
r
r
i
i
a
from equation (14), we get
2
2
ds
r d
r
=
c a
s ds
d r r
r
...(15)
where
c
r
is a vector perpendicular to .
r
With each point P of C we can associate a constant K , such that
r r
K c is a unit vector..
Since
K
c
r
=
r
r
=
,
1
a
s K
r
from (15)
r
= ,
a
r
since
s K
1
7.8 SERRET-FRENET FORMULA
The serret-frenet formulas are given by
(i)
i
=
s K
i
1
or
s
i
=
s
K K K
i
i
> where 0 ,
(ii)
i
,
_
i
i
K
s
1
or
s
i
=
i i
K
where =
i
i
K
s
+
(iii)
s
k
=
k
First two formulas have already been derived in article (7.7), equation (8) and (10).
Proof of (iii)
From equation (12), article (7.7), we have
j i
ijk
=
k
where
k i i
, , are mutually orthogonal.
Taking intrinsic derivative with respect to s, we get
s s
j
i
ijk
j
i ijk
=
s
k
From formulas (i) and (ii), we get

) (
j j i
ijk
j i
ijk
K K + =
s
k
) (
j j i
ijk
K =
s
k
, Since
j i
ijk
= 0
i j
ijk
j i
ijk
K =
s
k
Geometry 139
Since
j i
ijk
= 0

j i
ijk
=
s
k
Since
k
j i
ijk
, but
ijk
are skew-symmetric.
Then
j i
ijk
=
k

So,

k
=
s
k
or
s
k
=
k

s
i
=
i

This is the proof of third Serret-Frenet Formula
Expanded form of Serret-Frenet Formula.
(i)
ds
dx
k j
i
ds
d
k
j
i
'
=
i
K or
ds
dx
ds
dx
k j
i
ds
x d
k j i
'
+
2
2
=
i
K
(ii)
ds
dx
jk
i
ds
d
k
j
i
'
=
i i
K
(iii)
ds
dx
jk
i
ds
dv
k
j
i
'
+
=
i

EXAMPLE 8
Consider a curve defined in cylindrical coordinates by equation
'
0
) (
3
2
1
x
s x
a x
This curve is a circle of radius a.
The square of the element of arc in cylindrical coordinates is
2
ds
=
2 3 2 2 2 1 2 1
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( dx dx x dx + +
so that g
11
= 1, g
22
=
2 1
) (x , g
33
= 1, g
ij
= 0, j i
It is easy to verify that the non-vanishing Christoffel symbols are (see Example 3, Page 61)
'
22
1
=
1
x
,
'
12
2
=
'
21
2
=
1
1
x
.
The components of the tangent vector to the circle C are
i
=
ds
dx
i
so that
1
= 0,
2
=
ds
d
,
3
= 0.
Since is a unit vector, g
ij
j
= 1 at all points of C and this requires that
( )
2
2
1
,
_

ds
d
x
=
2
2
,
_

ds
d
a
= 1
So,
2
2
1
a
ds
d

,
_

and by Serret-Frenet first formula (expanded form), we get
1
K =
ds
dx
k j ds
d
k
j
'
+
1
1
=
ds
dx
2
2
2 2
1
'
=
a
1
2
K =
ds
dx
k j ds
d
k
j
'
+
2
2
=
ds
dx
1
2
1 2
2
'
= 0
3
K =
ds
dx
k j ds
d
k
j
'
+
3
3
= 0
Since is unit vector,
j i
ij
g = 1 and it follows that K =
a
1
,
1
= 1,
2
= 0,
3
= 0
Similarly we can shows that = 0 and . 1 , 0 , 0
3 2 1

7.9 EQUATIONS OF A STRAIGHT LINE
Let
i
A
be a vector field defined along a curve C in
3
E such that
i
x C :
= ) (s x
i
. s
1
s s
2
, (i = 1, 2, 3).
s being the arc parameter.
If the vector field
i
A
is parallel then from article 7.6 we have
s
A
i
= 0
or
ds
dx
A
i
ds
dA
i
'

+
= 0 (1)
We shall make use of equation (1) to obtain the equations of a straight line in general curvilinear
coordinates. The characteristic property of straight lines is the tangent vector
r
to a straight line is
directed along the straight line. So that the totality of the tangent vectors
r
forms a parallel vector field.
Geometry 141
Thus the field of tangent vector
s d
x d
i
i

must satisfy equation (1), we have
s
i
=
ds
dx
ds
dx i
ds
x d
i
'

+
2
2
= 0
The equation
s d
x d
s d
x d i
ds
x d
i
'

+
2
2
= 0 is the differential equation of the straight line.
EXERCISE
1. Show that
dt
B A g d
j i
ij
) (
= g
ij

t
B
A g B
t
A
i
i
ij
j
i
2. Show that
i j j i
A A
, ,
=
i
j
j
i
x
A
x
A
3. If
j
ij i
A g A show that
k i k i
A g A
, ,

4. Show that
k
j i
ij
dx
B A g d ) (
=
i
k i
i
k i
A B B A
, ,
+
5. Show that
2
2
ds
i

= ) (
i i i
K K
ds
dK

2
2
s
i

=
i i i
ds
dK
K
ds
d
+
) (
2 2
2
2
s
i

=
i i i
ds
d
v K
) (
6. Find the curvature and tension at any point of the circular helix C whose equations in cylindrical
coordinates are
, :
1
a x C

,
2
x
3
x
Show that the tangent vector at every point of C makes a constant angle with the direction of 3
X
-
axis. Consider C also in the form y
1
= a cos, y
2
= a sin, y
3
= . Where the coordinates y
i
are
rectangular Cartesion.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Analytical mechanics is concerned with a mathematical description of motion of material bodies subjected
to the action of forces. A material body is assumed to consist of a large number of minute bits of matter
connected in some way with one another. The attention is first focused on a single particle, which is
assumed to be free of constraints and its behaviour is analyzed when it is subjected to the action of
external forces. The resulting body of knowledge constitutes the mechanics of a particle. To pass from
mechanics of a single particle to mechanics of aggregates of particles composing a material body, one
introduces the principle of superposition of effects and makes specific assumptions concerning the
nature of constraining forces, depending on whether the body under consideration is rigid, elastic,
plastic, fluid and so on.
8.2 NEWTONIAN LAWS
1. Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line, except in so
far as it is compelled by impressed forces to change that state.
2. The change of motion is proportional to the impressed motive force and takes place in the
direction of the straight line in which that force is impressed.
3. To every action there is always an equal and contrary reaction; or the mutual actions of two
bodies are always and oppositely directed along the same straight line.
The first law depends for its meaning upon the dynamical concept of force and on the kinematical
idea of uniform rectilinear motion.
The second law of motion intorduces the kinematical concept of motion and the dynamical idea
of force. To understand its meaning it should be noted that Newton uses the term motion in the sense
of momentum, i.e., the product of mass by velocity, this, "change of motion" means the time of change
of momentum.
In vector notation, the second law can be stated as
F
r
=
dt
v m d ) (
r
(1)
ANALYTICAL MECHANICS
CHAPTER 8
Analytical Mechanics 143
If we postulate the invariance of mass then equation (1) can be written as
F
r
=
a m
r
(2)
from (1) if
F
r
= 0 then
dt
v m d ) (
r
= 0.
So that
v m
r
= constant.
hence
v
r
is constant vector..
Thus the first law is a consequence of the second.
The third law of motion states that accelerations always occur in pairs. In term of force we may
say that if a force acts on a given body, the body itself exerts an equal and oppositely directed force on
some other body. Newton called the two aspects of the force of action and reaction.
8.3 EQUATIONS OF MOTION OF A PARTICLE
THEOREM 8.1 The work done in displacing a particle along its trajectory is equal to the change in
the kinetic energy of particle.
Proof: Let the equation of path C of the particle in E
3
be
i
x C:
= ) (t x
i
(1)
and the curve C the trajectory of the particle. Let at time t, particle is at P )}. ( { t x
i
If v
i
be the component of velocity of moving particle then
v
i
=
dt
dx
i
(2)
and if a
i
be the component of acceleration of moving particle then
a
i
=
t d
x d
v
k j
i
dt
dv
t
v
k
j
i i
'
a
i
=
dt
dx
dt
dx
k j
i
dt
x d
k j i
'
+
2
2
(3)
where
t
v
i
is the intrinsic derivative and the
'
k j
i
are the Christoffel symbols calculated from the
metric tensor g
ij
If m be the mass of particle. Then by Newtons second law of motion
F
i
=
i
i
ma
t
v
m
(4)
We define the element of work done by the force
F
r
in producing a displacement
r d
r
by invariant
dW =
r d F
r
r
.
.
Since the components of
F
r
and
r d
r
are F
i
and dx
i
respectively..
Then
dW= g
ij
F
i
dx
j
(5)
= F
j
dx
j
where F
j
= g
ij
F
i
The work done in displacing a particle along the trajectory C, joining a pair of points P
1
and P
2
, is
line integral
W=
2
1
P
P
i
i
dx F
(6)
using equation (4) then equation (6) becomes
W=

2
1
P
P
j
i
ij
dx
t
v
g m
=

2
1
P
P
j i
ij
dt
dt
dx
t
v
g m
W=

2
1
P
P
j
i
ij
dt v
t
v
g m
(7)
Since g
ij
v
i
v
j
is an invariant then
t
v v g
j i
ij
) (
=
) (
j i
ij
v v g
dt
d
or
) (
j i
ij
v v g
dt
d
= 2
j
i
ij
v
t
v
g
j
i
ij
v
t
v
g
=
) (
2
1
j i
ij
v v g
dt
d
using this result in equation (7), we get
W=
2
1
) (
2
P
P
j i
ij
dt v v g
dt
d m
W=
2
1
] [
2
P
P
j i
ij
v v g
m
Let T
2
and T
1
is kinetic energy at P
2
and P
1
respectively.
W= T
2
T
1
where T =
2 2
2
v m
v v g
m
j i
ij

is kinetic energy of particle.
We have the result that the work done by force F
i
in displacing the particle from the point P
1
to
the point P
2
is equal to the difference of the values of the quantity T =
2
1
mv
2
at the end and the
beginning of the displacement.
8.4 CONSERVATIVE FORCE FIELD
The force field F
i
is such that the integral W =
2
1
P
P
i
i
dx F
is independent of the path.
Therefore the integrand F
i
dx
i
is an exact differential
dW= F
i
dx
i
(8)
of the work function W. The negative of the work function W is called the force potential or
potential energy.
We conclude from equation (8) that
F
i
=
i
x
V
(9)
where potential energy V is a function of coordinates x
i
. Hence, the fields of force are called conservative
if F
i
= .
i
x
V
THEOREM 8.2 A necessary and sufficient condition that a force field F

i
, defined in a simply
connected region, be conservative is that F
i,j
= F
j,i
.
Proof: Suppose that F
i
conservative. Then F
i
=
i
x
V
Now,
F
i,j
= k
j
i
F
j i
k
x
F
'
F
i,j
=
k
j
i
F
j i
k
x
x
V
'
,
_

=
k
i j
F
i j
k
x x
V
'
2
(1)
and
F
j,i
= k
i
j
F
i j
k
x
F
'
Similarly,
F
j,i
=
k
j i
F
i j
k
x x
V
'
2
(2)
From equation (1) and (2), we get
F
i,j
= F
j,i
conversely, suppose that F
i,j
= F
j,i
Then
k
j
i
F
j i
k
x
F
'
= k
i
j
F
i j
k
x
F
'
j
i
x
F
'
j i
k
x
F
i
j
as
due to symmetry..
Take F
i
=
i
x
V
Then
j
i
x
F
=
i j
x x
V

2
=
j i
x x
V

2
=
,
_
j i
x
V
x
j
i
x
F
=
i
j
x
F
So, we can take F

i
=
.
i
x
V
Hence, F
i
is conservative.
8.5 LAGRANGEAN EQUATIONS OF MOTION
Consider a particle moving on the curve
i
x C: = ) (t x
i
At time t, let particle is at point P (x
i
).
The kinetic energy T =
2
1
mv
2
can be written as
T =
j i
ij
x x g m & &
2
1
Since
i
x&
= v
i
.
or T =
k j
jk
x x g m & &
2
1
(1)
Differentiating it with respect to
i
x& , we get
i
x
T
&
,
_
i
k
j k
i
j
jk
x
x
x x
x
x
g m
&
&
& &
&
&
2
1
=
( )
j k
i
k j
i jk
x x g m & & +
2
1
=
j k
i jk
k j
i jk
x g m x g m & & +
2
1
2
1
=
( )
j
ji
k
ik
x g x g m & & +
2
1
= ji ij
j
ij
j
ij
g g x g x g m + as ) (
2
1
& &
i
x
T
&
=
j
ij
x g m &
or
i
x
T
&
=
k
ik
x g m & (2)
Differentiating equation (2) with respect to t, we get
,
_
i
x
T
dt
d
&
=
( )
k
ik
x g
dt
d
m &
=
1
]
1
+
k
ik
k
ik
x g x g
dt
d
m & & &
= 1
]
1
k
ik
k
j
j
ik
x g x
dt
dx
x
g
m & & &
i
x
T
dt
d
&
=
k
ik
k j
j
ik
x g m x x
x
g
m & & & & +
(3)
Since T =
k j
jk
x x g m & &
2
1
Differentiating it with respect to x
i
, we get
i
x
T
=
k j
i
jk
x x
x
g
m & &
2
1
(4)
Now,
i i
x
T
x
T
dt
d

,
_
&
=
k j
i
jk k
ik
k j
j
ik
x x
x
g
m x g m x x
x
g
m & & & & & &
2
1
=
k j
i
jk k j
ik
k j
j
ik k
ik
x x
x
g
m x x g m x x
x
g
m x g m & & & & & & & &
+
2
1
2
1
2
1
=
k j
i
jk j k
k
ij k j
j
ik k
ik
x x
x
g
m x x
x
g
m x x
x
g
m x g m & & & & & & & &
+
2
1
2
1
2
1
=
k j
i
jk
k
ij
j
ik k
ik
x x
x
g
x
g
x
g
m x g m & & & &
1
]
1
+
2
1
=
k j k
ik
x x i jk m x g m & & & & ] , [ +
=
k j
il
il k
ik
x x i jk g g m x g m & & & & ] , [ +
=
k j
il
il l
il
x x i jk g g m x g m & & & & ] , [ +
= [ ]
k j il l
il
x x i jk g x g m & & & & ] , [ +
= ,
1
]
1
'
+
k j l
il
x x
k j
l
x g m & & & &
'
k j
l
i jk g
il
] , [ as
i i
x
T
x
T
dt
d

,
_
&
= ,
l
il
a g m Since
k j l l
x x
k j
l
x a & & & &
'
+
where a
l
is component of acceleration
or
i i
x
T
x
T
dt
d

,
_
&
= m a
i
i i
x
T
x
T
dt
d

,
_
&
= F
i
(5)
where F
i
= m a
i
, component of force field. The equation (5) is Lagrangean equation of Motion.
For a conservative system, F
i
=
.
i
x
V

i i
x
T
x
T
dt
d

,
_
&
=
i
x
V
or
i i
x
V T
x
T
dt
d

,
_
) (
&
= 0 (6)
Since the potential V is a function of the coordinates x
i
alone. If we introduce the Lagrangean
function
L = T V
i i
x
L
x
L
dt
d

,
_
&
= 0 (7)
EXAMPLE 1
Show that the covariant components of the acceleration vector in a spherical coordinate system
with
ds
2
=
2 3 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 1
) ( sin ) ( ) ( ) ( dx x x dx x dx + + are
a
1
=
2 2 3 1 2 2 1 1
) sin ( ) ( x x x x x x & & & &
a
2
=
[ ]
2 3 2 2 2 1 2 2 1
) ( cos sin ) ( ) ( x x x x x x
dt
d
& &
and a
3
=
[ ]
3 2 2 1
) sin ( x x x
dt
d
&
Solution
In spherical coordinate system, the metric is given by
ds
2
=
2 3 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 1
) ( sin ) ( ) ( ) ( dx x x dx x dx + +
If v is velocity of the paiticle then
v
2
=
2
3
2 2 1
2
2
2 1
2
1
2
) sin ( ) (

,
_
,
_
,
_

,
_
dt
dx
x x
dt
dx
x
dt
dx
dt
ds
v
2
=
2 3 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 1
) ( ) sin ( ) ( ) ( ) ( x x x x x x & & & + +
If T be kinetic energy then
T =
2
2
1
mv
T =
[ ]
2 3 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 1
) ( ) sin ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2
1
x x x x x x m & & & + +
(1)
By Lagrangean equation of motion
i i
x
T
x
T
dt
d

,
_
&
= F
i
and m a
i
= F
i
where F
i
and a
i
are covariant component of force field and acceleration vector respectively.
So,
i i
x
T
x
T
dt
d

,
_
&
= m a
i
(2)
Take i = 1,
m a
1
=
1 1
x
T
x
T
dt
d

,
_
&
from (1), we get
m a
1
=
[ ]
2 3 2 2 1 2 2 1 1
) ( ) (sin 2 ) ( 2
2
) 2 (
2
1
x x x x x
m
x
dt
d
m & & & +
a
1
=
[ ]
2 3 2 2 1 2 2 1
1
) ( ) (sin ) ( x x x x x
dt
x d
& &
&
+
a
1
=
2 2 3 1 2 2 1 1
) sin ( ) ( x x x x x x & & & &
Take i = 2,
m a
2
=
2 2
x
T
x
T
dt
d

,
_
&
m a
2
=
[ ]
2 3 2 2 2 1 2 2 1
) ( cos sin ) ( 2
2
1
2 ) (
2
1
x x x x m x x
dt
d
m & &
a
2
=
[ ]
2 3 2 2 2 1 2 2 1
) ( cos sin ) ( ) ( x x x x x x
dt
d
& &
Take i = 3
m a
3
=
3 3
x
T
x
T
dt
d

,
_
&
m a
3
=
[ ] 0 ) sin ( ) ( 2
2
1
2 2 1 3
x x x
dt
d
m &
a
3
=
[ ]
2 2 2 1 3
) (sin ) ( x x x
dt
d
&
EXAMPLE 2
Use Lagrangean equations to show that, if a particle is not subjected to the action of forces then
its trajectory is given by y
i
= a
i
t + b
i
where a
i
and b
i
are constants and the y
i
are orthogonal cartesian
coordinates.
Solution
If v is the velocity of particle. Then we know that,
v
2
=
j i
ij
y y g & &
where y
i
are orthogonal cartesian coordinates.
Since
g
ij
= 0, j i
g
ij
= 1, i = j
So,
v
2
=
2
) (
i
y&
But,
T =
,
2
1
2
mv
T is kinetic energy..
T =
2
) (
2
1
i
y m &
The Lagrangean equation of motion is
i i
y
T
y
T
dt
d
,
_
&
= F
i
Since particle is not subjected to the action of forces.
So, F
i
= 0
Then

,
_
i
y m
dt
d
& 2
2
1
0 = 0
dt
y d
m
i
&
= 0
or
dt
y d
i
&
= 0
i
y& = a
i
y
i
= a
i
t + b
i
where a
i
and b
i
are constant.
EXAMPLE 3
Prove that if a particle moves so that its velocity is constant in magnitude then its acceleration
vector is either orthogonal to the velocity or it is zero.
Solution
If v
i
be the component of velocity of moving particle then
v
i
=
dt
dx
i
or v
i
=
i
x&
given |v| = constant.
Since
2
| | v v v g
j i
ij
= constant
Taking intrinsic derivative with respect to t, we get
) (
j i
ij
v v g
t
= 0
,
_
t
v
v v
t
v
g
j
i j
i
ij = 0
t
v
v g v
t
v
g
j
i
ij
j
i
ij
= 0
t
v
v g v
t
v
g
i
j
ji
j
i
ij
= 0, (Interchange dummy index i and j in second term)

j
i
ij
v
t
v
g
2
= 0 as g
ij
= g
ji
j
i
ij
v
t
v
g
= 0
This shows that acceleration vector
t
v
i
is either orthogonal to v
i
or zero i.e.,
. 0
t
v
i
8.6 APPLICATIONS OF LAGRANGEAN EQUATIONS
(i) Free-Moving Particle
If a particle is not subjected to the action of forces, the right hand side of equation (5), 148, vanishes.
Then we have
i i
x
T
x
T
dt
d

,
_
&
= 0 (1)
If x
i
be rectangular coordinate system, then T =
.
2
1
i i
y y m & &
Hence, the equation (1) becomes m
i
y& & = 0. Integrating it we get y
i
= a
i
t + b
i
, which represents
a straight line.
(ii) Simple Pendulum
Let a pendulum bob of mass m be supported by an extensible string. In spherical coordinates, the
metric is given by
ds
2
=
2 2 2 2 2 2
sin + + d r d r dr
If T be the kinetic energy, then
T =
) sin (
2
1
2
1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
+ +
& &
& r r r m mv
(1)
Fig. 8.1.
from Lagrangean equation of motion
i i
x
T
x
T
dt
d

,
_
&
= F
i
i = 1, 2, 3
x
1
= . , ,
3 2
x x r
So, take x
1
= r
Y
2
R
Y
3
Y
1
O
mg cos
mg sin
mg
P
r
T
r
T
dt
d

,
_
&
= mg cos R
from (1), we have
2 2 2
sin
& &
& & r r r = g cos
m
R

(2)
Take x
2
= , we have
2
cos sin 2 +
& &
&
& &
r r r = g sin (3)
and take x
3
= , we have
) sin (
2 2

&
r
dt
d
= 0 (4)
If the motion is in one plane, we obtain from equations (2), (3), and (4), by taking
. 0
&
2

&
& & r r = g cos
m
R

+
&
&
& &
r r 2 = g sin
If
r& = 0, we get,
,
_

r
g
& &
sin which is equation of simple pendulum supported by an
inextensible string. For small angles of oscillation the vibration is simple harmonic. For large vibration
the solution is given in the term of elliptic functions.
8.7 HAMILTONS PRINCIPLE
If a particle is at the point P
1
at the time t
1
and at the point P
2
at the time t
2
, then the motion of the
particle takes place in such a away that
dt x F T
t
t
i
i
+
2
1
) (
= 0
where x
i
= x
i
(t) are the coordinates of the particle along the trajectory and x
i
+
i
x
are the coordinates
along a varied path beginning at P
1
at time t
1
and ending at P
2
at time t
2
.
Proof: Consider a particle moving on the curve
i
x C:
= ), (t x
i
2 1
t t t
At time t, let particle is at P(x
i
). If T is kinetic energy. Then
T =
j i
ij
x x g m & &
2
1
or T = T ) , (
i i
x x & i.e, T is a function of x
i
and
i
x&
. Let C
'
be another curve, joining t
1
and t
2
close
to be C is
) , ( : t x C'
i
= ) ( ) ( t x t x
i i
+
At t
1
and t
2
x
i
=
i i i
x x x +
) (
1
t x
i
= 0 and 0 ) (
2
t x
i
But T = T ). , (
i i
x x &
If
T
be small variation in T. . Then
T
=
i
i
i
i
x
x
T
x
x
T
&
&
Now,
{ }
+
2
1
) (
t
t
i
i
dt x F T =
dt x F x
x
T
x
x
T
t
t
i
i
i
i
i
i

,
_
2
1
&
&
=
dt x F dt x
x
T
dt x
x
T
t
t
t
t
i
i
i
i
t
t
i
i
+
2
1
2
1
2
1
&
&
Integrating second term by taking
i
x
T
&
as 1st term
=

+
,
_
1
]
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
t
t
t
t
i
i
i
i
t
t
t
t
i
i
i
i
dt x F dt x
x
T
dt
d
x
x
T
dt x
x
T
& &
Since . 0 ) ( , 0 ) (
2 1
t x t x
i i
then
. 0
2
1

,
_
t
t
i
i
x
x
T
&
So,
( )dt x F T
t
t
i
i
+
2
1

=

,
_
2
1
2
1
t
t
t
t
i
i
i
i
dt x
x
T
dt
d
dt x
x
T
&
+
2
1
t
t
i
i
dt x F
( )
+
2
1
t
t
i
i
dt x F T
=

1
]
1
+
,
_
2
1
t
t
i
i
i i
dt x F
x
T
dt
d
x
T
&
since particle satisfies the Lagrangean equation of motion. Then
i i
x
T
x
T
dt
d

,
_
&
= F
i
or
,
_
i i
x
T
dt
d
x
T
&
= F
i
So,
dt x F T
t
t
i
i
) (
2
1
+
=
+
2
1
] [
t
t
i
i i
dt x F F
+
2
1
) (
t
t
i
i
dt x F T
= 0 Proved.
8.8 INTEGRAL OF ENERGY
THEOREM 8.3 The motion of a particle in a conservative field of force is such that the sum of its
kinetic and potential energies is a constant.
Proof: Consider a particle moving on the curve
C : x
i
= ), (t x
i
2 1
t t t
At time t, let particle is at P (x
i
). If T is kinetic energy. Then
T =
j i
ij
x x g m & &
2
1
or T =
j i
ij
v v g m
2
1
As T is invariant. Then
Taking intrinsic derivative with respect to t, we get
dt
dT
=
t
T
=
,
_
j i
ij
v v g m
t 2
1
=

,
_
t
v
v v
t
v
g m
j
i j
i
ij
2
1
=

,
_
i
j
ij
j
i
ij
v
t
v
g v
t
v
g m
2
1
=

,
_
j
i
ji
j
i
ij
v
t
v
g v
t
v
g m
2
1
, Since i and j are dummy indices.
=
j
i
ij
v
t
v
g m
2
2
1
as
ji ij
g g
dt
dT
=
j
i
ij
v
t
v
g m
or
dt
dT
=
i
j
ij
v
t
v
g m

=
j
j
i j
ij
a
t
v
v a g m
as
dt
dT
= m a
i
v
i
, since g
ij
a
j
= a
i
dt
dT
= F
i
v
i
,
Since F
i
= m a
i
is a covariant component of force field.
But given F
i
is conservative, then
F
i
=
,
i
x
V
where V is potential energy..

So,
dt
dT
=
i
i
v
x
V
=
dt
dx
x
V
i
i
dt
dT
=
dt
dV
dt
dV
dt
dT
+
= 0
0 ) ( + V T
dt
d
T + V = h, where h is constant.
Proved.
8.9 PRINCIPLE OF LEAST ACTION
Let us consider the integral
A =
2
1
.
P
p
ds mv
(1)
evaluated over the path
i
x C:
= ), (t x
i
2 1
t t t
where C is the trajectory of the particle of mass m moving in a conservative field of force.
In the three dimensional space with curvilinear coordinates, the integral (1) can be written as
A =
j
i
P
p
ij
dx
dt
dx
g m
2
1
=
dt
dt
dx
dt
dx
g m
j
P t
P t
i
ij
) (
) (
2
1
Since T =
dt
dx
dt
dx
g m
j i
ij
2
1
, we have
A =

) (
) (
2
1
2
P t
P t
dt T
This integral has a physical meaning only when evaluated over the trajectory C, but its value can
be computed along any varied path joining the points P
1
and P
2
.
Let us consider a particular set of admissible paths C' along which the function T + V, for each
value of parameter t, has the same constant value h. The integral A is called the action integral.
The principle of least action stated as of all curves C' passing through P
1
and P
2
in the
neighbourhood of the trajectory C, which are traversed at a rate such that, for each C', for every value
of t, T + V = h, that one for which the action integral A is stationary is the trajectory of the particle.
8.10 GENERALIZED COORDINATES
In the solution of most of the mechanical problems it is more convenient to use some other set of
coordinates instead of cartesian coordinates. For example, in the case of a particle moving on the
surface of a sphere, the correct coordinates are spherical coordinates r, , where
and are only

two variable quantities.
Let there be a particle or system of n particles moving under possible constraints. For example, a
point mass of the simple pendulum or a rigid body moving along an inclined plane. Then there will be
a minimum number of independent coordinates required to specify the motion of particle or system of
particles. The set of independent coordinates sufficient in number to specify unambiguously the system
configuration is called generalized coordinates and are denoted by
n
q q q ... , ,
2 1
where n is the total
number of generalized coordinates or degree of freedom.
Let there be N particles composing a system and let ) ,... 2 , 1 ( ), 3 , 2 , 1 ( ,
) (
N i x
i

be the positional
coordinates of these particles referred to some convenient reference frame in E
3
. The system of N free
particles is described by 3N parameters. If the particles are constrained in some way, there will be
certain relations among the coordinates
i
x
) (
and suppose that there are r such independent relations,
) ;... , , ; , , (
3
) (
2
) (
1
) (
3
) 2 (
2
) 2 (
1
) 2 (
3
) 1 (
2
) 1 (
1
) 1 ( N N N
i
x x x x x x x x x f = 0, (i = 1, 2, ..., r) (1)
By using these r equations of constraints (1), we can solve for some r coordinates in terms of the
remaining 3N r coordinates and regard the latter as the independent generalized coordinates q
i
. It is
more convenient to assume that each of the 3N coordinates is expressed in terms of 3N r = n
independent variables q
i
and write 3N equations.
i
x
) (
=
i
x
) (
) , ,..., , (
2 1
t q q q
n
(2)
where we introduced the time parameter t which may enter in the problem explicitly if one deals with
moving constraints. If t does not enter explicitly in equation (2), the dynamical system is called a
natural system.
The velocity of the particles are given by differentiating equations (2) with respect to time. Thus
i
x
) (
& =
t
x
q
q
x
i
j
j
i
) ( ) (
&
(3)
The time derivatives
i
q& of generalized coordinates q
i
the generalized velocities.
For symmetry reasons, it is desirable to introduced a number of superfluous coordinates q
i
and
describe the system with the aid of k > n coordinates q
1
, q
2
,..., q
k
. In this event there will exist certain
relations of the form
) , ...., (
1
t q q f
k j
= 0 (4)
Differentiating it we get
t
f
q
q
f
j
i
i
j
&
= 0 (5)
It is clear that they are integrable, so that one can deduce from them equations (4) and use them
to eliminate the superfluous coordinates .
In some problems, functional relations of the type
) , ,..., ; ,..., , (
1 2 1
t q q q q q F
k k j
& & = 0, ( j = 1, 2, 3, ..., m) (6)
arise which are non-integrable. If non-integrable relations (6) occurs in the problems we shall say that
the given system has k m degrees of freedom, where m is the number or independent non-integrable
relations (6) and k is the number of independent coordinates. The dynamical systems involving non-
integrable relations (6) are called non-holonomic to distinguish them from holonomic systems in which
the number of degrees of freedom is equal to the number of independent generalized coordinates.
In other words, a holonomic system is one in which there are no non-integrable relations involving
the generalized velocities.
8.11 LAGRANGEAN EQUATIONS IN GENERALIZED COORDINATES
Let there be a system of particle which requires n independent generalized coordinates or degree of
freedom to specify the states of its particle.
The position vectors x
r
are expressed as the function of generalized coordinates ) ,..., 2 , 1 ( , n i q
i
and the time t i.e.,

x
r
= x
r ); , ,..., , (
2 1
t q q q
n
) , 3 , 2 , 1 ( r
The velocity
r
x&
of any point of the body is given by
r
x&
=
t
x
dt
dq
q
x
r j
j
r
=
,
t
x
q
q
x
r
j
j
r
&
( j = 1, 2, ..., n)
where
j
q& are the generalized velocities.
Consider the relation, with n degree of freedom,
x
r
= x
r ) ,..., , (
2 1 n
q q q
(1)
involve n independent parameters q
i
. The velocities
r
x&
in this case are given by
r
x&
=
,
j
j
r
q
q
x
&
(r = 1, 2, 3; j = 1, 2, ..., n) (2)
where
j
q& transform under any admissible transformation,
k
q = ), ,..., (
1 n k
q q q (k = 1, 2, ..., n) (3)
in accordance with the contravariant law.
The kinetic energy of the system is given by the expression of the form
T =
,
2
1
s r
rs
x x g m & &
(r,s = 1,2,3,) (4)
where m is the mass of the particle located at the point x
r
. The g
rs
are the components of the metric
tensor.
Substituting the value of
r
x&
from equation (2), then equation (4) becomes
T =
j i
j
s
i
r
rs
q q
q
x
q
x
g m & &
2
1
T =
j i
ij
q q a & &
2
1
(5)
where
ij
a =
,
j
s
i
r
rs
q
r
q
x
g m
(r, s = 1, 2, 3), (i, j = 1, ..., n)

Since T =
j i
ij
q q a & &
2
1
is an invariant and the quantities
ij
a are symmetric, we conclude that the
ij
a
are components of a covariant tensor of rank two with respect to the transformations (3) of generalized
coordinates.
Since the kinetic energy T is a positive definite form in the velocities . 0 | | , >
ij
i
a q& Then we
construct the reciprocal tensor
ij
a
.
Now, from art. 8.5, Pg. 146, by using the expression for the kinetic energy in the form (5), we
obtain the formula,
i i
q
T
q
T
dt
d
,
_
&
=

,
_
'
+
k j l
il
q q
k j
l
q a & & & &
(6)
where the Christoffel symbol
'
k j
l
are constructed from the tensor a
kl
.
Put
k j l
q q
k j
l
q & & & &
'
+
= Q
l
so, the equation (6), becomes
i i
q
T
q
T
dt
d
,
_
&
= a
il
Q
l
= Q
i
(i = 1, 2, ..., n) (7)
Now, from the realtions
j
j i
r
i
r
j
r
j
r
q
q x
x
q
x
q
x
q
x
&
&
&
&

2
,
and
,
_
i
r
i
r
q
x
dt
d
q
x&
and using equations
(2) and (4).
Then by straightforward calculation, left hand member of equation (7) becomes
i i
q
T
q
T
dt
d
,
_
&
=

i
r
r
q
x
a m
(8)
in which a
j
= g
ij
a
i
is acceleration of the point P.
Also, Newton's second law gives
m a
r
= F
r
(9)
where
s
r
F
'
are the components of force F acting on the particle located at the point P. .
From the equation (9), we have
i
r
r
q
x
a m
=

i
r
r
q
x
F
and equation (8) can be written as
i i
q
T
q
T
dt
d
,
_
&
=
i
r
r
q
x
F
(10)
comparing (7) with (8), we conclude that
i
Q =

i
r
r
q
x
F
where vector Q
i
is called generalized force.
The equations
i i
q
T
q
T
dt
d
,
_
&
= Q
i
(11)
are known as Lagrangean equations in generalized coordinates.
They give a system of n second order ordinary differential equations for the generalized coordinates q
i
.
The solutions of these equations in the form
i
q C : = q
i
(t)
Represent the dynamical trajectory of the system.
If there exists a functions ) ,..., , (
2 1
q" q q V such that the system is said to be conservative and for
such systems, equation (11) assume the form
i i
q
L
q
L
dt
d
,
_
&
= 0 (12)
where L = T V is the kinetic potential.
Since L (q, q& ) is a function of both the generalized coordinates and velocities.
dt
dL
=
i
i
i
i
q
q
L
q
q
L
& & &
&
(13)
from (12), we have
i
q
L
=
.
,
_
i
q
L
dt
d
&
Then equation (13), becomes
dt
dL
=
i
i
i
i
q
q
L
dt
d
q
q
L
&
&
& &
&

,
_
,
_
i
i
q
q
L
dt
d
&
&
(14)
since L = T V but the potential energy V is not a function of the
i
q&
i
i
q
q
L
&
&
=
T q
q
T
i
i
2
&
&
since T=
.
2
1
j i
ij
q q a & &
Thus, the equation (14) can be written in the form
dt
T L d ) 2 (
=
0
) (

+
dt
V T d
which implies that T + V = h (constant).
Thus, along the dynamical trajectory, the sum of the kinetic and potential energies is a constant.
8.12 DIVERGENCE THEOREM, GREEN'S THEOREM, LAPLACIAN OPERATOR AND
STOKE'S THEOREM IN TENSOR NOTATION
(i) Divergence Theorem
Let
F
r
be a vector point function in a closed region V bounded by the regular surface S. Then
V
F
r
div
=

S
ds n F
r
(1)
where
n is outward unit normal to S.
Briefly the theorem states that the integral with subscript V is evaluated over the volume V while
the integral in the right hand side of (1) measures the flux of the vector quantity
F
r
over the surface S.
In orthogonal cartesian coordinates, the divergence of
F
r
is given by the formula
div
F
r
=
3
3
2
2
1
1
x
F
x
F
x
F
(2)
If the components of F
r
relative to an arbitrary curvilinear coordinate system X are denoted by
F
i
then the covariant derivative of F
i
is
i
j
F, =
k
j
i
F
j k
i
x
F
'
The invariant
i
j
F
,
in cartesian coordinates represents the divergence of the vector field
F
r
.
Also,
n F
r
=
i
i j i
ij
n F n F g since
i
j
ij
n n g
Hence we can rewrite equation (1) in the form
V
i
i
dV F
,
=

S
i
i
dS n F
(3)
(ii) Symmetrical form of Green's Theorem
Let ) , , (
3 2 1
x x x and ) , , (
3 2 1
x x x be two scalar function in V. . Let
i
and
i
be the gradients of
and
respectively, so that
=
i
i
x

and =
i
i
x

Put F
i
=
i
and from the divergence of we get
j
i
F
,
= ) (
, , j i j i
ij
j i
ij
g F g +
Substituting this in equation (3), we get
+
V
j i j i
ij
dV g ) (
,
=
dS n
i
S
i
(4)
Since ,
i
then
j i
ij
g
,
=
2
(5)
Also, the inner product
j i
ij
g can be written as
j i
ij
g = .
where
denote the gradient and

2
denote the Laplacian operator..

Hence the formula (4) can be written in the form
+
V
J i
ij
j i
ij
dV g g ) . (
,
=

S
dS n
+
V
dV ) (
2
=

S
dS n

V
dV
2
=

V S
dV n
(6)
where
.
n
n n
i
i

Interchanging and

V
dV
2
=

V S
dV n
(7)
Subtracting equation (5) from equation (6), we get

V
dV ) (
2 2
=

,
_
S
dS
n n
(8)
This result is called a symmetric form of Green's theorem.
(iii ) Expansion form of the Laplacian Operator
The Laplacian of
is given by

2
=
j i
ij
g
,
from (5)
when written in the terms of the christoffel symbols associated with the curvilinear coordinates
x
i
covering E
3
,

2
=

,
_
'

k j i
ij
x j i
k
x x
g
2
(9)
and the divergence of the vector F
i
is
i
i
F
,
=
j
i
i
F
i j
i
x
F
'
(10)
But we know that
'
i j
i
=
g
x
j
log

i
i
F
,
=
j
j i
i
F g
x x
F
,
_
log
or
i
i
F
,
=
i
i
x
F g
g
) ( 1
(11)
If putting F
i
= j
ij
j
ij
g
x
g

i j
ij
g
,
=
i
j
ij
x
x
g g
g
,
_
1
(12)
But from equation (5), we know that

2
=
i j
ij
g
,

Hence equation (12) becomes

2
=
i
j
ij
i j
ij
x
x
g g
g
g
,
_

1
,
It is expansion form of Laplacian operator.
(iv) Stoke's Theorem
Let a portion of regular surface S be bounded by a closed regular curve C and let
F
r
be any vector point
function defined on S and on C. The theorem of Stokes states that
S
ds F n
r
curl .
=

C
ds F
.
r
(13)
where
is the unit tangent vector to C and curl

F
r
is the vector whose components in orthogonal
cartesian coordinates are determined from
curl
F
r
=
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
F F F
x x x
e e e
= F
r
(14)
where e
i
being the unit base vectors in a cartesian frame.
We consider the covariant derivative F
i,j
of the vector F
i
and form a contravariant vector
G
i
=
k j
ijk
F
,
(15)
we define the vector G to be the curl of
F
r
.
Since
n . curl
F
r
=
i k j
ijk i
i
n F G n
,
and the components of the unit tangent vector
and
ds
dx
i
.
Then equation (13) may be written as

S
i k j
ijk
ds n F
,
=

C
i
i
ds
ds
dx
F
(16)
The integral
c
i
i
dx F
is called the circulation of
F
r
along the contour C.
8.13 GAUSS'S THEOREM
The integral of the normal component of the gravitational flux computed over a regular surface S
containing gravitating masses within it is equal to
m 4
where m is the total mass enclosed by S.
Proof: According to Newton's Law of gravitation, a particle P of mass m exerts on a particle Q of unit
mass located at a distancer r from P. Then a force of magnitude
.
2
r
m
F
Consider a closed regular surface S drawn around the point P and let
be the angle between the

unit outward normal to n to S and the axis of a cone with its vertex at P. . This cone subtends an
element of surface dS.
The flux of the gravitational field produced by m is
S
dS n F .
r
=

S
dw r
r
m
cos
cos
2
2
where dS =
cos
2
dw r
and dw is the solid angle subtended by dS.
Thus, we have,
S
dS n F .
r
=

S
m dw m 4
(1)
Fig. 8.2.
If there are n discrete particles of masses m
i
located within S, then
n F .
r
=
n
i i
i i
r
m
1
2
cos
and total flux is
dS n F
S
.
r
=
n
i
i
m
1
4
(2)
The result (2) can be easily generalized to continuous distributions of matter whenever such
distribution no where melt the surface S.
The contribution to the flux integration from the mass element
dV contained within V, is
dS n F
S
.
r
=

S
dS
r
dV
2
cos
and the contribution from all masses contained easily within S is
dS n F
S
.
r
=

,
_

S V
dS
r
dV
2
cos
(3)
d
n
F
dS
r
P
m
S
where
V
denotes the volume integral over all bodies interior to S. Since all masses are assumed to be
interior to S,r never vanishes. So that the integrand in equation (3) is continuous and one can interchange
to order of integration to obtain
dS n F
S
.
r
=

,
_
V
s
dV
r
dS
2
cos
(4)
But
S
r
dS
. 4
cos
2
Since it represents the flux due to a unit mass contained within S.
Hence
dS n F
S
.
r
=

V
m dV 4 4
(5)
where m denotes the total mass contained within S. Proved.
Gauss's theorem may be extended to cases where the regular surface S cuts the masses, provided
that the density S is piecewise continuous.
Let S cut some masses. Let S' and S" be two nearby surfaces, the first of which lies wholly within
S and the other envelopes S. Now apply Gauss's theorem to calculate the total flux over S" produced by
the distribution of masses enclosed by S since S" does not intersect them.
We have
dS n F
i
S"
) . (
r
= m 4
where the subscript i on
n F
r
refers to the flux due to the masses located inside S and m is the total
mass within S. On the other hand, the net flux over S' due to the masses outside S, by Gauss's theorem
is

'
) (
S
o
ds n F
r
= 0
where the subscript o on n F
r
refers to the flux due to the masses located outside S.
Now if we S' and S" approach S, we obtain the same formula (5) because the contribution to the
total flux from the integral

'
) (
S
o
dS n F
r
is zero.
8.14 POISSON'S EQUATION
By divergence theorem, we have
S
ds n F .
r
=

V
dV F
r
div
and by Gauss's Theorem,
S
ds n F .
r
=

V
dV 4
from these, we have

v
dV F ) 4 div (
r
= 0
Since this relation is true for an arbitrary V and the integrand is piecewise continuous, then
div F
r
= 4
By the definition of potential function V, we have
F
r
=
V
and V div =
V
2
So,
div
F
r
= 4
div (
V
) = 4
V
2
= 4
which is equation of poisson.
If the point P is not occupied by the mass, then
= 0. Hence at all points of space free of matter

the potential function V satisfies Laplace's equation
V
2
= 0
8.15 SOLUTION OF POISSONS EQUATION
We find the solution of Poissons Equation by using Greens symmetrical formula. We know that
Green's symmetrical formula

V
dV ) (
2 2
=
dS
n n
S

,
_
(1)
where V is volume enclosed by S and and
are scalar point functions.

Put
r
1

where r is the distance between the points ) , , (
3 2 1
x x x P and ) , , (
3 2 1
y y y Q and V is
the gravitational potential.
Fig. 8.3.
n
P x ( )
Q y ( )
r
S
n
Since
r
1
has a discontinuity at ,
i i
y x delete the point P(x) from region of integration by
surrounding it with a sphere of radius and volume V'. Apply Greens symmetrical formula to the
region V V' within which
r
1
and V possess the desired properties of continuity..
In region
. 0
1
,
2 2

r
V' V

V' V
dV
r
2
1
=
,
_
,
_

S S'
r r
ds
n n r
dS
n n r
1 1
1 1
(2)
where
n is the unit outward normal to the surface S + S' bounding V V' . S' being the surface of the
sphere of radius and
.
r n
Now
dS
n n r
S
r

,
_

'
1
1
=
dS
r r r
S
r

,
_
'
1
1
=
dw r
r r r
S
2
'
2
1

,
_
=
dw
r
r
S

,
_
'
( )

,
_

'
1
1
S
r
n n r
=

,
_

S'
r
dw
r
4
(3)
where is the mean value of V over the sphere S' and w denote the solid angle.
Let
) ( ) , , (
3 2 1
P x x x
as 0 r then as 0 from (3), we have

,
_

S'
r
n n r
1
1
= ) ( 4 P

V
dV
r
2
1
=
) ( 4
1
1
P dS
n n r
S
r

,
_
Since
0
then

V'
dV
r
2
1
= 0.
) (P =

V S S
r
dS
n
dS
n r
dV
r
1
2
4
1 1
4
1 1
4
1
(4)
This gives the solution of Poisson's equation at the origin.
If
is regular at infinity, i.e., for sufficiently large value of r,
is such that
r
m
) ( and
2
r
m
r

(5)
where m is constant.
If integration in equation (4) is extended over all space, so that r . Then, using equation (5),
) (P =

dV
r
2
4
1
(6)
But
is a potential function satisfying the Poisson's equation i.e. . 4

2

Hence, from (6), we get
) (P =
r
dV
This solution is Unique.
EXERCISES
1. Find, with aid of Lagrangian equations, the trajectory of a particle moving in a uniform gravitational
field.
2. A particle is constrained to move under gravity along the line y
i
= c
i
s (i = 1, 2, 3). Discuss the motion.
3. Deduce from Newtonian equations the equation of energy T + V = h, where h is constant.
4. Prove that
S
i
i
dS n
=
dV
V

2
where .
i
i
x

5. Prove that the curl of a gradient vector vanishes identically.
9.1 CURVATURE OF CURVE: PRINCIPAL NORMAL
Let C be a curve in a given
n
V and let the coordinates
i
x
of the current point on the curve expressed
as functions of the arc length s. Then the unit tangent t to the curve the contravariant components
i
t
=
ds
dx
i
...(1)
The intrinsic derivative (or desired vector) of
i
t
along the curve C is called the first curvaturee
vector of curve C relative to
n
V and is denoted by p
r
. The magnitude of curvature vector
p
r
is called
first curvature of C relative
n
V and is denoted by K:
So,
K=
j i
ij
p p g
where
i
P
are contravariant components of p
r
so that
i
P
=
ds
dx
j t
j
i
,
=
ds
dx
j
i
t
x
t
i
j
i
,
_
'
'

j
i
ds
dx
t
ds
dx
x
t
j j
j
i
=
'
j
i
ds
dx
ds
dx
ds
dt
j i
=
,
2
2
'
+
j k
i
ds
dx
ds
dx
ds
x d
k j i
Replacing dummy index by k
CURVATURE OF CURVE, GEODESIC
CHAPTER 9
Curvature of Curve, Geodesic 171
i
p =
'
+
k j
i
ds
dx
ds
dx
ds
x d
k j i
2
2
as
'
'
j k
i
k j
i
If
n is a unit vector in the direction of , p
r
then we have
p
r
= n k
The vector
n is called the Unit principal normal.
9.2 GEODESICS
Geodesics on a surface in Euclidean three dimensional space may be defined as the curve along which
lies the shortest distance measured along the surface between any two points in its plane.
But when the problem of find the shortest distance between any two given points on a surface is
treated properly, it becomes very complicated and therefore we define the geodesics in
3
V as follows:
(i) Geodesic in a surface is defined as the curve of stationary length on a surface between any
two points in its plane.
(ii) In
3
V geodesic is also defined as the curve whose curvature relative to the surface is
everywhere zero.
By generalising these definitions we can define geodesic in Riemannian
n
V as
(i) Geodesic in a Riemannian
n
V is defined as the curve of minimum (or maximum) length
joining two points on it.
(ii) Geodesic is the curve whose first curvature relative to
n
V is zero at all points.
9.3 EULER'S CONDITION
THEOREM 9.1 The Euler condition for the integral
1
) , (
t
t
i i
o
dt x x f &
to be staionary are
,
_
i i
x
f
dt
d
x
f
&
= 0
where
i
x&
=
dt
dx
i
i = 1, 2, 3,...
Proof: Let C be a curve in a
n
V and A, B two fixed points on it. The coordinates
i
x
of the current point
P on C are functions of a single parameter t. Let
0
t and
1
t be the values of the parameter for the points
A and B respectively.
To find the condition for the integral
1
0
) , (
t
t
i i
dt x x f &
...(1)
to be stationary.
Let the curve suffer an infinitesimal deformation to , C the points A and B remaining fixed while
the current points P(x
i
) is displaced to P' (x
i
+
i
) such that
i
= 0 at A and B both.
Fig. 9.1
In this case the value of integral (1) becomes
I
So,
I =
( )
+ +
1
0
,
t
t
i i i i
dt x x F & &
By Taylor's theorem
) , ( k y h x F + +
=
+
,
_
+
y
f
k
x
f
h y x f ) , (
Then
I =

1
]
1
+
,
_
+
1
0
) , (
t
t
i
i
i
i
i i
dt
x
F
x
F
x x F & &
I
=

,
_
+
1
0
1
0
) , (
t
t
i
i
i
i
t
t
i i
dt
x
F
x
F
dt x x F &
&
&
(Neglecting higher order terms in small quantities
i
)
I
=

,
_
+
1
0
t
t
i
i
i
i
dt
x
f
x
F
I &
&
I =

,
_

1
0
t
t
i
i
i
i
dt
x
F
x
F
I I &
&
...(2)
where
j
j
i
i
x
x
z
& &

Now,
1
0
t
t
i
i
dt
x
F
&
&
=

,
_
1
]
1
1
0
1
0
t
t
i
i
t
t
i
i
dt
x
F
dt
d
x
F
& &
=

,
_
1
0
t
t
i
i
dt
x
F
dt
d
&
...(3)
A B
P
P'
C
C
1
1
]
1

1
]
1
0 ) ( ) ( , 0 ) ( since
0 1
1
0
t t t
x
F
i i
t
t
i
i
&
I =

1
]
1
,
_
i
t
t
i
i i
dt
x
F
dt
d
x
F
0 &
...(4)
The integral I is stationary if . 0 I
i.e., if

1
]
1
,
_
1
0
t
t
i
i i
dt
x
F
dt
d
x
F
&
= 0
Since
i
are arbitrary and hence the integrand of the last integral vanishes, so that
,
_
i i
x
F
dt
d
x
F
&
= 0, (i = 1, 2,..., n) (5)
Hence the necessary and sufficient condition for the integral (1) to be stationary are
,
_
i i
dx
F
dt
d
x
F
= 0, (i = 1, 2, , n)
These are called Euler's conditions for the integral I to be stationary.
9.4 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF GEODESICS
To obtain the differential equations of a geodesic in a ,
n
V using the property that it is a path of minimum
(or maximum) length joining two points A and B on it.
Proof: Consider a curve C in
n
V joining two fixed points A and B on it and ) (t x
i
be the coordinates of
point P on it.
The length of curve C is
s =

B
A
j i
ij
dt
dt
x d
dt
x d
g ...(1)
dt
ds
=
dt
x d
dt
x d
g
j i
ij
Put
dt
ds
= (say) F
dt
x d
dt
x d
g
j i
ij
...(2)
or s& = F x x g
j i
ij
& &
s =

B
A
dt F
...(3)
Since curve C is geodesic, then the integral (3) should be stationary, we have from Euler's
condition
,
_
i i
x
F
dt
d
x
F
&
= 0 ...(4)
Differentiating equation (2) with respect to
k
x
and
k
x&
we get,
k
x
F
=
j i
k
ij
x x
x
g
s
& &
&

2
1
and
k
x
F
&
=
i
ik
i
ik
x g
s
x g
s
&
&
&
&
1
2
1
2
,
_
,
_
k
x
F
dt
d
&
=
i
ik
i j
j
ik i
ik
x g
s
x x
x
g
s
x g s
s
& &
&
& &
&
& & &
&
1 1 1
2
+
+
Putting these values in equation (4), we get
1
]
1
i
ik
i j
j
ik i
ik
j i
k
ij
x g
s
x x
x
g
s
x g s
s
x x
x
g
s
& &
&
& &
&
& & & & &
&
1 1 1
2
1
2
= 0
j i
k
ij
j
ik i
ik
i
ik
x x
x
g
x
g
x g
s
s
x g & & &
&
& &
& &
,
_
+
2
1
= 0
[ ]
j i i
ik
i
ik
x x ij k x g
s
s
x g & & &
&
& &
& & , +
= 0
multiplying it by ,
km
g we get
[ ]
j i km i
ik
km i
ik
km
x x ij k g x g g
s
s
x g g & & &
&
& &
& & , +
= 0
But
m
i ik
km
g g and
[ ]
'
j i
m
ij k g
km
,
j i m m
x x
j i
m
x
s
s
x & & &
&
& &
& &
'
+
= 0
dt
dx
dt
dx
k j
m
dt
dx
s
s
dt
x d
k j m m
'
+
&
& &
2
2
= 0
,
_
k i by index
dummy Replacing
...(5)
This is the differential equation for the geodesic in parameter t.
Taking . 0 , 1 , s s t s & & & Then equation (5) becomes
ds
dx
ds
dx
k j
m
ds
x d
k j m
'
+
2
2
= 0 ...(6)
which may also written as
k
m k
ds
dx
ds
dx
,
,
_
= 0
Then the intrinsic derivative (or derived vector) of the unit tangent to a geodesic in the direction of the
curve is everywhere zero. In otherwords, a geodesic of
n
V is a line whose first curvature relative to
n
V is identically zero.
THEOREM 9.2 To prove that one and only one geodesic passes through two specified points lying in
a neighbourhood of a point O of a .
n
V
OR
To prove that one and only one geodesic passes through a specified point O of
n
V in a prescribed
direction.
Proof: The differential equations of a geodesic curve in a
n
V are
ds
dx
ds
dx
k j
m
ds
x d
k j m
'
+
2
2
= 0
These equations are n differential equations of the second order. Their complete integral involves 2n
arbitrary constants. These may be determined by the n coordinates of a point P on the curve and the n
components of the unit vector in the direction of the curve at P. Thus, in general, one and only one
geodesic passes through a given point in a given direction.
9.5 GEODESIC COORDINATES
A cartesian coordinate system is one relative to which the coefficients of the fundamental form are
constants. Coordinates of this nature do not exists for an arbitrary Riemannian V
n
.. It is, however,
possible to choose a coordinate system relative to which the quantities g
ij
are locally constant in the
neighbourhood of an arbitrary point P
0
of V
n
. Such a cartesian coordinate system is known as geodesic
coordinate system with the pole at P
0
.
The quantities
ij
g are said to be locally constants in the neighbourhood of a point
0
P if
k
ij
x
g
= 0 at
0
P
and
k
ij
x
g
0 elsewhere
This shows that
[ ]
'
j i
k
k ij , 0 ,
= 0 at
0
P .
Since the covariant derivative of A
ij
with respect to x
k
is written as
k ij
A
,
=
j h ih
k
ij
A
k i
h
A
k j
h
x
A
'
'
, see pg. 71
The covariant derivative of
ij
A at
0
P with respect to
k
x
reduces to the corresponding ordinary
derivatives. Hence
k ij
A
,
=
k
ij
x
A
at
0
P
THEOREM 9.3 The necessary and sufficient condition that a system of coordintes be geodesic with
pole at P
0
are that their second covariant derivatives with respect to the metric of the space all vanish
at P
0
.
Proof: We know that (equation 8, Pg. 65)
j j
s
x x
x

2
=
'
'
q p
s
x
x
x
x
j i
k
x
x
j
q
i
p
k
s
or

,
_
i
s
j
x
x
x
=
'
'
q p
s
x
x
x
x
j i
k
x
x
j
q
i
p
k
s
...(1)
Interchanging the coordinate system
i
x
and
i
x
,
_
i
s
j
x
x
x
=
'
'
q p
s
x
x
x
x
j i
k
x
x
j
q
i
p
k
s
'
q p
s
x
x
x
x
j
q
i
p
=
'
,
_
j i
k
x
x
x
x
x
k
s
i
s
j
=
( )
0 , , ,
at since P x
x
x
j i
k
x x
x
s
k
k
s
s
k
s
i
j

'
=
j
s
i
x
,
) , ( since 0
at 0 P
j i
k
'
Thus,
s
ij
x
,
=
'
q p
s
x
x
x
x
j
q
i
p
...(2)
Necessary Condition
Let
s
x
be a geodesic coordinate system with the pole at
0
P so that
'
q p
s
= 0 at
0
P
Hence from (2), we have
s
ij
x
,
= 0 at
0
P
Conversely suppose that 0
,

s
ij
x at
0
P .
j
q
i
p
x
x
x
x
q p
s
'
= 0
'
q p
s
= , at 0
0
P as
0
i
p
x
x
and
0
at 0 P
x
x
j
q
So,
s
x is a geodesic coordinate system with the pole at P
0
.
9.6 RIEMANNIAN COORDINATES
A particular type of geodesic coordinates introduced by Riemann and known as Riemannian coordinates.
Let C be any geodesic through a given point
0
P , s the length of the curve measured from
0
P and
i
the
quantities defined by
i
=
o
i
ds
dx
,
_
...(1)
the subscript zero indicating as usual that the function is to be evaluated at
0
P . The quantities
i
represents that only one geodesic will pass through P
0
in the direction of
i
in V
n
. Let y
i
be the
coordinates of a point P on the geodesic C such that
y
i
= s
i
...(2)
where s is the arc length of the curve from
0
P to P . The coordinates y
i
are called Riemannian
coordinates.
The differential equation of geodesic C in terms of coordinates
i
y relative to
n
V is given by
ds
dy
ds
dy
k j
i
ds
y d
j i i
'
+
2
2
= 0 ...(3)
where
'
k j
i
is a christoffel symbol relative to the coordinates .
i
y
The differential equation (3) will be satisfied by (2), we have,
j i
k j
i

'
+ 0
= 0 since
i
i
ds
dy

or
j i
k j
i

'
= 0 ...(4)
using equation (2), equation (4) becomes
s
y
s
y
k j
i
j i
'
= 0 as
i
i
s
y

or
j i
y y
k j
i
'
= 0 ...(5)
The equation (5) hold throughout the Riemannian
n
V .
Since , 0 , 0
j i
y y from (5) we get
'
k j
i
= 0 at
0
P
Hence the Riemannian coordinates are geodesic coordinate with the pole at
0
P .
THEOREM 9.4 The necessary and sufficient condition that the coordinates
i
y be Riemannian coordinates
is that
0
'
j i
y y
k j
i
hold throughout the Riemannian
n
V .
Proof: If
i
y are Riemannian coordinates then the condition
j i
y y
k j
i
'
= 0 (from equation 5) throughout

the Riemannian
n
V .
Conversely if
0
'
j i
y y
k j
i
hold then
ds
dy
ds
dy
k j
i
ds
y d
j i
'
+
2
2
= 0 are saitsfied by .
i i
s y
Hence y
i
are Riemannian coordinates.
9.7 GEODESIC FORM OF A LINE ELEMENT
Let be a scalar invariant whose gradiant is not zero. Let the hypersurface = 0 be taken as coordinates
hypersurface
0
1
x
and the geodesics which cut this hypersurface orthogonally as the coordinate
lines of parameter
,
1
x
this parameter measuring the length of arc along a geodesic from the hypersurface
0
1
x
.
Since
1
dx
is the length of the vector
i
is given by
2
u =
j i
ij
u u g
i.e., ( )
2
1
dx =
1 1
11
dx dx g
11
g
= 1 ...(1)
Now, if v
i
is the tangent vector to the hypersurface x
1
= 0 then we have
i
v = ) ,..., , , 0 (
3 2 n
dx dx dx
since the vectors u
i
and v
i
are orthogonal vectors.
Then,
j i
ij
v u g = 0
j
j
v u g
1
1
= 0, ] ..., , 3 , 2 , 0 [ n i u
i

j
j
v g
1
= 0, as
. 0
1
u
j
g
1 = 0, for j = 2, 3, , n. ...(2)
Again the coordinate curves of parameter x
1
are geodesics. Then s = x
1
.
If t
i
is unit tangent vector to a geodesic at any point then
t
1
= 1 and t
i
= 0, for i = 2, 3, , n.
Now,
i
t =
1
x d
x d
ds
x d
i i
1
1
dx
dx
= 1 and
0
1

dx
dx
i
for 1 i
and
2
2
ds
x d
i
=
0
12
2
dx
x d
i
for i = 1, 2,..., n
Also, the differential equation of geodesic is
ds
dx
ds
dx
k j
i
ds
x d
k j i
'
+
2
2
= 0
using above results, we have
ds
dx
ds
dx i
1 1
1 1

;
'
= 0
'
1 1
i
= 0
[ ] j g
ij
, 11
= 0
[ ] j , 11 = 0 as
0
ij
g
,
_
j i
j
x
g
x
g
11
1
2
2
1
= 0, since
0
11
11

j
x
g
i g
So,
1
1
x
g
j
= 0 for 1 j ...(3)
from equations (1), (2), and (3), we have
11
g
= 1, g
1j
= 0; ( j = 2, 3, , n),
1
1
x
g
j
= 0, ( j = 2, 3, , n)
The line element is given by
2
ds =
j i
ij
dx dx g
2
ds =
k j
jk
dx dx g dx dx g +
1 1
11
2
ds = ; ) (
2 1 k j
jk
dx dx g dx + ( j = 2, 3, , n, k = 2, 3, , n) ...(4)
The line element (4) is called geodesic form of the line element.
Note 1: We note that the coordinate curves with parameter x
1
are orthogonal to the coordinate curve
x
i
= c
i
(i = 1, 2, ..., n) at all points and hence to the hypersurfaces x
1
= c at each point.
Note 2: The existence of geodesic form of the line element proves that the hypersurfaces = x
1
= constant form a
system of parallels i.e., the hypersurfaces = x
1
= constant are geodesically parallel hypersurfaces.
THEOREM 9.5 The necessary and sufficient condition that the hypersurfaces constant form a
system of parallel is that ()
2
= 1.
Proof: Necessary Condition
Suppose that hypersurface = constant form a system of parallels then prove that (
2
) = 1.
Let us take the hypersurface = 0 as the coordinate hypersurface x
1
= 0. Let the geodesics
cutting this hypersurface orthogonally, be taken as coordinate lines of parameter x
1
. Then the parameters
x
1
measures are length along these geodesics from the hypersurface x
1
= 0. This implies the existence
of geodesic form of the line element namely
2
ds
=
j i
ij
dx dx g dx +
2 1
) ( ...(1)
where i, j = 2, 3,..., n.
From (1), we have
11
g
= 1, . 1 for 0
1
i g
i
from these values, it follows that
11
g = 1, 1 for , 0
1
i g
i
Now,
()
2
=
j i
ij
dx x
g

=
1 1
1 1
j i
ij
j i
ij
g
x
x
x
x
g
so ()
2
= 1
11
g
()
2
= 1
Suppose that ()
2
= 1 then prove that the hypersurface = constant from a system of parallels.
Let us taken = x
1
and orthogonal trajectories of the hypersurfaces = x
1
constant as the
coordinate lines of parameter x
1
. Then the hypersurfaces
x
1
= constant
x
i
= constant (i 1) are orthogonal to each other. The condition for this g
1i
= 0 for . 1 i
Now, given that
2
) ( = 1
j i
ij
x x
g

= 1
j i
ij
x
x
x
x
g
1 1
= 1
1 1
j i
ij
g = 1
11
g = 1
Thus
11
g = 1 and . 1 for 0
1
i g
i
Consequently
11
g
= 1, . 1 for , 0
1
i g
i
Therefore, the line element
2
ds =
j i
ij
dx dx g
is given by
2
ds = ; ) (
2 1 k i
ik
dx dx g dx + (i, k = 2, 3, , n)
which is geodesic form of the line element. It means that the hypersurfaces = x
1
= constant
form a system of parallels.
9.8 GEODESICS IN EUCLIDEAN SPACE
Consider an Euclidean space
n
S for n-dimensions. Let y
i
be the Euclidean coordinates. The differential
equation of geodesics in Euclidean space is given by
ds
dy
ds
dy
k j
i
ds
y d
k j i
'
+
2
2
= 0 ...(1)
In case of Euclidean coordinates the fundamental tensor
ij
g is denoted by
ij
a and
ij
g
=
'

j i
j i
a
i
j ij
if , 0
if , 1
k
ij
x
g
=
0
k
ij
x
a
This implies that
0 ] , [ , 0
'
k ij
j i
k
relative to .
n
S
2
2
ds
y d
i
= 0
Integrating it, we get
ds
dy
i
= a
i
, where a
i
is constant of integration.
Again Integrating, we get
i
y = a
i
s + b
i
, where b
i
is constant of integration ...(2)
The equation (2) is of the form . c mx y +
Hence equation (2) represents a straight line. Since equation (2) is a solution of equation (1) and
therefore the geodesic relative to
n
S are given by equation (2). Hence geodesic curves in Euclidean
space
n
S are straight lines.
THEOREM 9.6 Prove that the distance l between two points P (y
i
) and Q (y'
i
) in S
n
is given by
l =
( )

n
i
i i
y y
1
2
Proof: We know that geodesics in
n
S are straight line. Then equation of straight line in
n
S may be
taken as
y
i
= a
i
s + b
i
...(1)
Let ) (
i
y P and Q ( y'
i
) lie on equation (1). Then
y
i
= a
i
s + b
i
,
i i i
b s a y +
i i
y y
= ) ( s s a
i

...(2)
i i
y y =
l a
i
n
i
i
a l
1
2 2
) (
=

n
i
i i
y y
1
2
) (
But
i
a
is the unit tangent vector to the geodesics. Then
n
i
i
a
1
2
) (
= 1
So,
2
l
=

n
i
i i
y y
1
2
) (
l =

n
i
i i
y y
1
2
) (
EXAMPLE 1
Prove that Pythagoras theorem holds in
n
S .
Solution
Consider a triangle ABC right angled at A i.e.,
o
90 BAC
.
Fig. 9.2
A ( y )
1
C (y )
3
B ( y )
2
i
i
i
Then the lines AB and AC are orthogonal to each other. So,
AC AB
= 0
or ) ( ) (
1 3 1 2
i i i i
ij
y y y y a = 0
or
) ( ) (
1 3
1
1 2
i i
n
i
i i
y y y y
= 0 ...(1)
By distance formula, we have
2
) (AB =
n
i
i i
y y
1
2
1 2
) (
...(2)
2
) (AC =
n
i
i i
y y
1
2
1 3
) (
...(3)
2
) (BC =
n
i
i i
y y
1
2
2 3
) (
...(4)
Now, equation (4) can be written as
2
) (BC =
+
n
i
i i i i
y y y y
1
2
2 1 1 3
)] ( ) [(
=
+ +
n
i
i i i i i i i i
y y y y y y y y
1
2 1 1 3
2
2 1
2
1 3
] ) ( ) ( 2 ) ( ) [(
=

+ +
n
i
n
i
i i i i
y y y y
1 1
2
2 1
2
1 3
, 0 2 ) ( ) ( [from (1)]
=

+
n
i
n
i
i i i i
y y y y
1 1
2
2 1
2
1 3
) ( ) (
2
) (BC =
2 2
) ( ) ( AB AC +
Hence Pythagoras theorem holds in
n
S .
EXAMPLE 2
Prove that if is any solution of the differential equation ()
2
= f () then the hypersurfaces =
constant constitute a system of parallels.
Solution
Given that
()
2
= f () ...(1)
Then prove that the hypersurfaces = constant form a system of parallel.
Suppose
=

,
) ( f
d
Then, d
) (
f
d
or
d
d
=
) (
1
f
Now, =
i
x

=
i
x

=

) (
1
f
2
) ( =
2
) (
1
,
_

f
=
2
) (
) (
1

f
=
); (
) (
1
f
f
from (1)
()
2
= 1
This proves that the hypersurfaces = constant form a system of parallels and therefore the
hypersurfaces = constant.
EXAMPLE 3
Show that it is always possible to choose a geodesic coordinates system for any
n
V with an
arbitrary pole P
0
.
Solution
Let
0
P be an arbitrary pole in a
n
V . Let us consider general coordinate system
i
x . suppose the
value of
i
x and
0
P are denoted by .
0
i
x Now consider a new coordinate system
j
x defined by the
equation.
j
x =
) ( ) (
2
1
) (
0 0 0
m m l i j
h
m m j
m
x x x x
m l
h
a x x a
'
+
...(1)
The coefficients
j
m
a being constants and as such that their determinant do not vanish.
Now we shall prove that this new system of coordinated
j
x
defined by equation (1) is a geodesic
coordinate system with pole at
0
P i.e., second covariant derivative of
j
x
vanishes at P. .
,
m
x
we get
m
j
x
x
=
) ( 2
2
1
0
l i j
h
j
m
x x
m l
h
a a
'
+
...(2)
0
,
_
m
j
x
x
=
0
at P a
j
m
...(3)
Now, the Jacobian determinant
0
,
_
m
j
x
x
=
0
j
m
a
and therefore the transformation given by equation (1) is permissible in the neighbourhood of
0
P .
,
j
x
we get
0
2
,
_
m j
j
x x
x
=
0
'
m l
h
a
j
h ...(4)
But we know that
( )
0
,
j
lm
x =
0
0
0
2
,
_
'
,
_
h
j
m l
j
x
x
m l
h
x x
x
=
,
0
j
h
j
h
a
lm
h
m l
h
a
'
'
(from (3) and (4))

( )
0
,
j
lm
x = 0
Hence equation (1) is a geodesic coordinate system with pole at
0
P .
EXAMPLE 4
If the coordinates x
i
of points on a geodesic are functions of arc lengths s and is any scalar
function of the x's show that
p
p
ds
d
=
ds
dx
ds
x d
ds
x d
l j i
l ij

...
,
...(1)
Solution
Since the coordinates
i
x lie on a geodesic. Then
ds
dx
ds
dx
k j
i
ds
x d
k j i
'
+
2
2
= 0 ...(2)
Here the number of suffices i j...l is p.
We shall prove the theorem by mathematical induction method.
Since xs are functions of s and is a scalar function of x s , we have
ds
d
=
ds
dx
x
i
i

or
ds
d
=
ds
dx
i
i
,
...(3)
2
2
ds
d
=
2
2
,
,
ds
x d
ds
dx
x
i
i
j
j
i
+

=
,
,
,
ds
x d
ds
x d
k j
i
ds
dx
ds
dx
x
k j
i
j i
j
i
'

from (2)
=
ds
dx
ds
dx
k j
m
ds
dx
ds
dx
x
k j
m
j i
i
i
'

,
,
=
ds
dx
ds
dx
j i
m
ds
dx
ds
dx
x
j i
m
j i
j
i
'

,
,
(adjusting the dummy index.)
=
ds
dx
ds
dx
j i
m
x
j i
m
j
i
,
_
'

,
,
...(4)
Equations (3) and (4) imply that the equation (1) holds for p = 1 and p = 2.
Suppose that the equation (1) holds for p indices
p
r r r ,..., ,
2 1
so that
p
p
ds
d
=
ds
dx
ds
dx
ds
dx
p
p
r r r
r r r

1 1
2 1
..., , ,
, ...(5)
Differentiating the equation (5) with respect to s, we get
1
1
+
+
p
p
ds
d
=
ds
dx
ds
dx
ds
dx
x
p p
p
p
r r r
r
r r r
1 1
1
2 1
... ,
+
+

+ +
ds
dx
ds
dx
ds
x d
p
p
r r r
r r r
2 1
2 1 2
2
...
,
2
2
...
1
2 1
,
ds
x d
ds
dx
p
p
r
r
r r r
+ ...(6)
substituting value of
2
2
1
ds
x d
r
etc. from (2) in (6) and adjusting dummy indices, we have
1
1
+
+
p
p
ds
d
=
,
_
'
'

+ +
+
1
... ,
1 1
... ,
... ,
2 1 2 1
2 1
p p
m r r
p
r r m
r
r r r
r r
m
r r
m
x
p p
p
ds
dx
ds
dx
ds
dx
p
r
r r 1
2 1
+

=
ds
x d
ds
x d
ds
x d
p
p p
r r r
r r r r
1
2 1
1 2 1
.. ,
+
+

This shows that the equation (1) holds for next values of p. But equation (1) holds for p = 1, 2,
... Hence equation (1) holds for all values of p.
EXERCISES
1. Prove that at the pole of a geodesic coordinate system, the components of first covariant derivatives
are ordinary derivatives.
2. If
i
x are geodesic coordinates in the neighbourhood of a point if they are subjected to the
transformation
i
x =
l k j i
jkl
i
x x x c x
6
1
+
where
s
C are constants then show that
i
x
are geodesic coordinates in the neighbourhood of O.
3. Show that the principal normal vector vanishes identically when the given curve is geodesic.
4. Show that the coordinate system
i
x
defined by
i
x =
k j i
x x
k j
i
x
'
+
2
1
is geodesic coordinate system with the pole at the origin.
5. Obtain the equations of geodesics for the metric
2
ds =
2 2 2 2 2
) ( dt dz dy dx e
kt
+ + +
6. Obtain the differential equations of geodesics for the metric

2
ds =
2 2 2 2
) (
1
) ( dt
x f
dz dy dx x f + + +
1
1
]
1
+
,
_
0
) (log
; 0 ; 0 ; 0 ) (log
2
1
) (log
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
ds
dt
ds
dx
dx
f d
ds
t d
ds
z d
ds
y d
ds
dt
f
dx
d
f ds
dx
f
dx
d
ds
x d
: Ans
7. Find the differential equations for the geodesics in a cylindrical and spherical coordinates.
8. Find the rate of divergence of a given curve C from the geodesic which touches it at a given point.
10.1 PARALLELISM OF A VECTOR OF CONSTANT MAGNITUDE (LEVI-CIVITAS
CONCEPT)
Consider a vector field whose direction at any point is that of the Unit Vector t
i
. In ordinary space, the
field is said to be parallel if the derivative of t
i
vanishes for all directions u
i
(say) and at every point of
the field i.e.,
j
j
i
u
x
t
= 0
Similarly in a Riemannian V
n
the field is said to be parallel if the derived vector of t
i
vanishes at
each point for every direction u
i
at each point of V
n
. i.e.,
i
j
t
, =
0
j
u
It can be shown that it is not possible for an arbitrary V
n
. Consequently we define parallelism of
vectors with respect to a given curve C in a V
n
.
A vector u
i
of constant magnitude is parallel with respect to V
n
along the curve C if its derived
vector in the direction of the curve is zero at all points of C i.e.,
i
j
j
u
ds
dx
,
= 0 (1)
where s is arc-length of curve C.
The equation (1) can be written in expansion form as
ds
x d
j m
i
u
x
u
j
m
j
i
1
]
1
'
= 0
ds
x d
j m
i
u
ds
x d
x
u
j
m
j
j
i
'
= 0
ds
dx
j m
i
u
ds
du
j
m
i
'
+
= 0 (2)
PARALLELISM OF VECTORS
CHAPTER 10
Parallelism of Vectors 189
This concept of parallelism is due to Levi-Civita. The vector u
i
is satisfying the equation (1) is
said to a parallel displacement along the curve
Now, multiplying equation (1) by g
il
, we get
,
_
ds
dx
u g
j
i
j il , = 0
ds
x d
u g
j
i
j il
) (
,
= 0
ds
dx
u g
j
j
i
il ,
) (
= 0
ds
dx
u
j
j l ,
= 0
or
ds
dx
u
j
j i,
= 0
ds
dx
j i
m
u
x
u
j
m
j
i
1
]
1
'
= 0
ds
dx
j i
m
u
ds
du
j
m
i
'
= 0 (3)
The equation (2) and (3) can be also written as
du
i
=
j m
x d
j m
i
u
'
(4)
and du
i
=
j
m
x d
j i
m
u
'
(5)
The equation (4) and (5) give the increment in the components u
i
and u
i
respectively due to
displacement dx
j
along C.
THEOREM 10.1 If two vectors of constant magnitudes undergo parallel displacements along a given
curve then they are inclined at a constant angle.
Proof: Let the vectors u
i
and v
i
be of constant magnitudes and undergo parallel displacement along a
curve C, we have (from equation (1), Pg. 188.)
0
0
,
,
s d
x d
v
ds
x d
u
j
i
j
j
i
j
(1)
at each point of C.
Multiplying (1) by g
il
, we get
ds
dx
u g
j
i
j il
) (
,
= 0
ds
dx
u
j
j l ,
= 0
or
ds
dx
u
j
j i,
= 0 (2)
Similarly,
ds
dx
v
j
j i ,
= 0 (3)
Let be the angle between u
i
and v
i
then
u
i
.v
i
= uv cos
Differentiating it with respect to arc length s, we get
ds
d
(uv cos ) =
ds
v u d
i
i
) (
=
ds
dx
v u
j
j i
i
,
) (
ds
d
uv

sin
=
ds
dx
v u v
ds
dx
u
j
j i
i
i
j
i
j , ,
+
(4)
Using equation (1) and (3), then equation (4) becomes
ds
d
uv

sin
= 0
ds
d
sin
= 0, as 0 , 0 v u
Either sin = 0 or
ds
d
= 0
Either = 0 or = constant.

is constant. Since 0 is also a constant.
THEOREM 10.2 A geodesic is an auto-parallel curve.
Proof: The differential equation of the geodesic is given by (See Pg. 174, eqn. 6)

ds
dx
ds
dx
k j
m
ds
x d
k j m
'
+
2
2
= 0
ds
x d
ds
x d
k j
m
ds
x d
ds
d
k j m
'
,
_
= 0
ds
x d
ds
x d
k j
m
ds
x d
ds
dx
x
k j j m
j
'
,
_
= 0
ds
dx
ds
dx
k j
m
ds
dx
x
j k m
j
1
1
]
1
'
,
_
= 0
ds
x d
ds
x d
j
j
m
,
,
_
= 0 or
0
,

ds
dx
t
j
m
j
This shows that the unit tangent vector
ds
dx
m
suffer a parallel displacement along a geodesic curve.This
confirms that geodesic is an auto-parallel curve. Proved.
10.2 PARALLELISM OF A VECTOR OF VARIABLE MAGNITUDE
Two vectors at a point are said to be parallel or to have the same direction if their corresponding
components are proportional. Consequently the vector v
i
will be parallel to u
i
at each point of curve C
provided
v
i
= u
i
(1)
where is a function of arc length s.
If u
i
is parallel with respect to Riemannian V
n
along the curve C. Then,
ds
dx
u
j
i
j
,
= 0 (2)
The equation (1) shows that v
i
is of variable constant and parallel with respect to Riemannian V
n
so that
ds
x d
v
j
i
j
,
=
ds
x d
u
j
j
i
,
) (
=
ds
x d
u u
j
i
j
i
j
) (
, ,
+
=
ds
x d
u u
ds
x d
j
i
j
i
j
j , ,
+
=
i
j
j
u
ds
x d
,
Since
0
,

ds
x d
u
j
i
j
=
i
j
j
u
ds
x d
x

ds
x d
v
j
i
j ,
=
i
u
s d
d
=

i
v
s d
d
from (1)
=
ds
d
v
i
) (log
ds
dx
v
j
i
j ,
= v
i
f (s) where f (s) =
ds
d ) (log
(3)
Hence a vector v
i
of variable magnitude will be parallel with respect to V
n
if equation (3) is satisfied.
Conversely suppose that a vector v
i
of variable magnitude such that
i
j
v, =
) (s f v
ds
dx
i
j
to show that v
i
is parallel, with respect to V
n
.
Take
u
i
= v
i

(s) (5)
Then
ds
x d
u
j
i
j
,
=
ds
dx
v
j
j
i
), (
=
i
j
j
j
i
j
v
ds
dx
ds
dx
v ,
,
+
=
i
j
j
i
v
ds
dx
x
s f v

+ ) (
ds
dx
u
j
i
j ,
=
1
]
1

+
ds
d
s f v
i
) (
(6)
Select
such that
. 0 ) (
+
ds
d
s f
ds
dx
u
j
i
j ,
= 0
This equation shows that the vector u
i
is of constant magnitude and suffers a parallel displacement
along curve C. The equation (5) shows that v
i
is parallel along C.
Hence necessary and sufficient condition that a vector v
i
of variable magnitude suffers a parallel
displacement along a curve C is that
ds
dx
v
j
i
j ,
= ). (s f v
i
EXAMPLE 1
Show that the vector v
i
of variable magnitude suffers a parallel displacement along a curve C if
and only if
ds
dx
v v v v
k
l
k
i i
k
i
) (
, ,

= 0, i = 1, 2, ..., n.
Solution
From equation (4), we have
ds
dx
v
j
i
j
,
= ) (s f v
i
(1)
Multiplying by v
l
, we get
ds
dx
v v
j
i
j
l
,
= ) (s f v v
i l
Interchange the indices l and i, we get
ds
dx
v v
j
l
j
i
,
= v
i
v
l
f (s) (2)
Subtract (1) and (2), we get
ds
dx
v v u v
k
l
k
i i
k
l
) (
, ,

= 0 by interchanging dummy indices j and k.
10.3 SUBSPACES OF A RIEMANNIAN MANIFOLD
Let V
n
be Riemannian space of n dimensions referred to coordinates x
i
and having the metric
ds
2
= g
ij
dx
i
dx
j
. Let V
m
be Riemannian space of m dimensions referred to coordinates
y and having
the metric ds
2

= a
x
dy

dy
,
where m > n. Let Greek letters , , take the values 1, 2, ..., m and Latin
indices i, j, k ... take the values 1, 2, n.
If the n independent variables x
i
are such that the coordinates (

y ) of points in V
m
are expressed
as a function of x
i
then V
n
is immersed in V
m
i.e. V
n
is a subspace of V
m
. Also V
m
is called enveloping
space of V
n
.
Since the length ds of the element of arc connecting the two points is the same with respect to V
n
or V
m
. it follows that
g
ij
dx
i
dx
j
=

dy dy a
g
ij
dx
i
dx
j
=
j i
j i
dx dx
x
y
x
y
a
g
ij
=
j i
x
y
x
y
a
(1)
As dx
i
and dx
j
are arbitrary.
This gives relation between g
ij
and a
.
THEOREM 10.3 To show that the angle between any two vectors is the same whether it is calculated
with respect to V
m
or V
n
.
Proof: Consider two vectors dx
i
and x
j
defined at any point of V
n
and suppose that the same vectors
in V
m
are represented by
dy and
y respectively. If
is the angle between dx

i
and
i
x
then
cos =
j i
ij
j i
ij
j i
ij
x x g dx dx g
x dx g

(1)
If is the angle between the vectors dy
and y
then
cos =

y y a dy dy a
y dy a
=
.
j
j
i
i
j
j
i
i
j
j
i
i
x
x
y
x
x
y
a x d
x
y
x d
x
y
a
x d
x
y
x d
x
y
a
=
.
j i
j i
j i
j i
j i
j i
x x
x
y
x
y
a dx dx
x
y
x
y
a
dx dx
x
y
x
y
a

cos =
j i
ij
j i
ij
j i
ij
x x g dx dx g
dx dx g

(2)
Since
j i
ij
x
y
x
y
a g
(from equation (1), art. 10.3)

from (1) & (2)
cos = cos = . Proved.
THEOREM 10.4 If U
and u
i
denote the components of the same vector in Riemannian V
m
and V
n
respectively then to show that
U
=
i
i
x
y
u

Proof: Let the given vector be unit vector at any point P of V
n
. Let the component of the same vector
x's and y's be a
i
and A
respectively. Let C be curve passing through s in the direction of the given

vector then
A
=
i
i
i
i
a
x
y
ds
dx
x
y
s
y

(1)
But the components of a vector of magnitude a are a times the corresponding components of the
Unit vector in the same direction. Then
U
= aA
, u
i
= aa
i
(2)
Multiplying (1) by a, we get
aA
=
) (
i
i
aa
x
y

Or

U
=
,
i
i
u
x
y

using (2) Proved.
THEOREM 10.5 To show that there are m-n linearly vector fields normal to a surface V
n
immersed in
a Riemannian V
m
.
Proof: Since V
n
is immersed in V
m
, the coordinates y
of points in V
m
are expressible as functions of
coordinates x
i
in V
n
.
Now,
ds
dy
=
ds
dx
x
y
i
i

...(1)
for the curve x
i
= s, we have
ds
dy
=
i
x
y

...(2)
Since
ds
dy
is a vector tangential to the curve in V

m
. Then from equation (2) it follows that
i
x
y

in V
m
is tangential to the coordinate curve of transmeter x
i
in V
n
. Let the Unit vectors N
in V
m
be
normal to each of the above vector fields of V
n
then
N
x
y
a
i
= 0
i
x
y
N a
) (
= 0

i
y N a
,
= 0 ...(3)
i
x
y
N
= 0, i = 1, 2, , n & = 1, 2, , m
The equation (3) are n equations in m unknowns
N
(m > n). The coefficient matrix
,
_

i
x
y
is
of order m n and the rank of this matrix is n.
It means that there will be only m n linearly independent solution of
N . This shows that there

are m n linearly independent normals to V
n
to V
m
.
EXAMPLE 2
Show that
[ij, k] =
k j i k j i
x
x
x x
y
a
x
y
x
y
x
y
2
] , [
where [, ] and ] , [ k j i are the Christoffels symbols of first kind relative to metrics
dy dy a
a
and
.
j i
ij
dx dx g
Solution
Since relation between
a and
ij
g is given by
ij
g =
j i
x
y
x
y
a
Differentiating it with respect to x

k
, we get
k
ij
x
g
=
k j i j k i k j i
x x
y
x
y
a
x
y
x x
y
a
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
a

2 2
(1)
Similarly
i
jk
x
g
=
i k j k i j k j i
x x
y
x
y
a
x
y
x x
y
a
x
y
x
y
x
y
y
a

2 2
(2)
and
j
ki
x
g
=
j i k i j k k j i
x x
y
x
y
a
x
y
x x
y
a
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
a

2 2
(3)
But we know that
] , [ k ij =

,
_
k
ij
j
ki
i
jk
x
g
x
g
x
g
2
1
(4)
and, ] , [ =

,
_
y
g
y
g
y
g
2
1
(5)
Substituting the value of (1), (2), (3) in equation (4) and using (5) we get,
] , [ k ij =
. ] , [
2
k j i k j i
x
y
x x
y
a
x
y
x
y
x
y

10.4 PARALLELISM IN A SUBSPACE
THEOREM 10.6 Let T
and t
i
be the components of the same vector t relative to V
m
and V
n
respectively. Let the vector t be defined along a curve C in V
n
. If p
i
and q
are derived vectors of t

along C relative to V
n
and V
m
respectively. Then
i
x
y
q
= p
i
Proof: Since from equation (1), theorem, (10.4), Pg. 194 we have
T
=
i
i
x
y
t

(1)
ds
dT
=
ds
dx
x x
y
t
x
y
ds
dt
j
j i
i
i
i

2
(2)
Now,
i
p =
ds
dx
t
j
i
j ,
(3)
q =
ds
dy
T

,
=
ds
dy
T
x
T

,
_
'
=
ds
dy
T
ds
dy
x
T

'
q =
ds
dy
T
ds
dT

'
+
(4)
Putting the value of
ds
dT
and
T
from (2) and (1) in equation (4), we get
q =
'

ds
dy
dx
y
t
ds
dx
x x
y
t
x
y
ds
dt
i
i
j
j i
i
i
i 2
=
'

ds
dy
x
y
t
ds
dx
x x
y
t
ds
dx
x
y
x
t
i
i
j
j i
i
j
i j
i 2
=
'

ds
dx
x
y
x
y
t
ds
dx
x x
y
t
ds
dx
x
y
x
t
j
j i
i
j
j i
i
j
i j
i
.
2
q =

,
_
'
+ +

i j j i
j
i
j
i j
i
x
y
x
y
x x
y
ds
x d
t
ds
x d
x
y
x
t
2
(5)
But we know that
] , [ k ij =
k j i k j i
x
y
x x
y
a
x
y
x
y
x
y
2
] , [
] , [ k ji =
k j i k i j
x
y
x x
y
a
x
y
x
y
x
y
2
] , [
=
k j i k i j
x
y
x x
y
a
x
y
x
y
x
y
a
'
2
=

,
_
'
j i i j k
x x
y
x
y
x
y
x
y
a
2
(6)
Multiplying (5) by
k
x
y
a
, we get, using (6),
q
x
y
a
k
=
] , [ k ij
ds
dx
t
x
y
a
x
y
ds
dx
x
t
j
i
k i
j
j
i
+
Or
k
x
y
q
,
_
'
pk
i
ik
j
i j
g
j i
p
t g
x
t
ds
dx
, since
j i
ij
x
y
x
y
a g
,
_
'
ik
a
ik
j
i j
g
j a
i
t g
x
t
ds
dx
=
i
j
j
ik
t
ds
dx
g ,
=
ds
dx
t g
j
j
i
ik
), (
=
ds
dx
t
j
j k,
k
x
y
q
=
ds
dx
t
j
j k,
or
k
x
y
q
= p
k
(7)
Proved.
Properties of V
m
(i) If a curve C lies in a subspace V
n
of V
m
and a vector field in V
n
is parallel along the curve C
with regard to V
m
, then to show that it is also a parallel with regard to V
n
.
Proof: If a vector field t is a parallel along C with respect to V
m
. then its derived vector q
vanishes i.e.,
q
= 0, = 1, 2,... m.
Hence equation (7) becomes p
k
= 0, k = 1, 2, ..., n. This shows that the vector field t is also
parallel along C with respect to V
n.
(ii) To show that if a curve C is a geodesic in a V
n
it is a geodesic in any subspace V
n
of V
m
.
Proff : Science,
i
x
y
q

= p
i
Let t be unit tangent vector to the curve C them
T
is unit tangent vector to C relative to V
m
and t
i
is unit tangent vector to C relative to V
n
.
Now, p
i
= 0 curve C is a geodesic in V
n
q = 0 curve C is a geodesic in V
m
Also,

q = 0,
p
i
= 0, i
This shows that if a curve C in V
n
is a geodesic relative to V
m
then the same curve is also a geodesic
relative to V
n
.
(iii) A necessary and sufficient condition that a vector of constant magnitude be parallel with
respect to V
n
along C in that subspace, is that its derived vector relative to V
m
for the
direction of the curve be normal to V
n
.
Proof: Let t be a vector of constant magnitude. This vector t is parallel along C relative to Vn iff p
i
=
0, i
iff
i
x
y
q
= 0
But
i
x
y
q
= 0 implies that
q is normal to V
n
.
For
i
i
y
x
y
,
lying in V
m
is tangential to a coordinate curve of parameter x
i
in V
n
.
These statements prove that a necessary and sufficient condition that a vector of constant
magnitude be parallel along C relative to V
n
is that its derived vector i.e., q
along C relative
to V
m
be normal to V
n
.
(iv) A necessary and sufficient condition that a curve be a geodesic in V
n
is that its principal
subnormal relative to V
m
the enveloping space be normal to V
n
at all points of the curve.
Proof: In particular let the vector t be unit tangent vector to the curve C. In this case
q is
called principal normal the curve C. Also p
i
= 0, i implies that the curve C is a geodesic
relative to V
n
.
Using result (iii), we get at once the result (iv).
(v) To prove that the tendency of a vector is the same whether it is calculated with respect to
V
m
.
Proof: Since, we have
i
x
y
q
= p
i
ds
dx
x
y
q
i
i
=
ds
dx
p
i
i
ds
dy
q

=
ds
dx
p
i
i
ds
dy
ds
dy
T

,
=
ds
dx
ds
dx
t
i j
j i,
i.e., tendency of
T along C = tendency of t
i
along C.
i.e., tendency of t along C relative to V
m
= tendency of t along C relative to V
n
.
10.5 THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF RIEMANNIAN GEOMETRY
STATEMENT
With a given Riemannian metric (or fundamental tensor) of a Riemannian manifold there is associated
a symmetric affine connection with the property that parallel displacement (or transport) preserves
scalar product.
Proof: Let C be a curve in V
n
. Let p
i
and q
i
be two unit vectors defined along C. Suppose that the unit
vectors p
i
and q
i
suffer parallel displacement along the curve C in V
n
, then we have
ds
dx
p
j
i
j ,
= 0 (1)
and
ds
dx
q
j
i
j
,
= 0 (2)
Let g
ij
be the given fundamental tensor of a Riemannian manifold. Hence, the scalar product of
vectors p
i
and q
i
is g
ij
p
i
q
j
.
Now,
ds
dx
q p g
k
k
j i
ij
), (
= 0
j i
k
k ij
k
j
k
i
ij
j
k
i
k ij
q P
ds
dx
g
ds
dx
q p g q
ds
dx
p g

,
_
,
_
,
_
, , , = 0 (3)
Using equation (1) and (2), the equation (3) becomes,
j i
k
k ij
q p
ds
dx
g

,
_
, = 0
g
ij, k
= 0
(Since p
i
and q
i
are unit vectors and
) 0
ds
dx
k
'
'
k j
m
g
k i
m
g
x
g
im mj
k
ij
= 0
] , [ ] , [ i jk j ik
x
g
k
ij

= 0
k
ij
x
g
= ] , [ ] , [ i jk j ik + (4)
Now, using equation (4), we have
k
ij
j
ki
i
jk
x
g
x
g
x
g
= ]) , [ ] , ([ ] , [ ] , [ ] , [ ] , [ i jk i ik k ij i kj j ki k ji + + + +
since ]. , [ ] , [ k ji k ij
So,
k
ij
j
ki
i
jk
x
g
x
g
x
g
= ] , [ 2 k ij
[ij,k] =

,
_
k
ij
j
ki
i
jk
x
g
x
g
x
g
2
1
(5)
But we know that
] , [ l ij g
j i
k
lk
'
from (5), we have
'
j i
k
=

,
_
l
ij
j
li
i
jl
lk
x
g
x
g
x
g
g
2
1
Proved.
EXAMPLE 3
If t
i
and T
are contravariant components in x's and y's respectively, of n vector field in V

n
immersed in V
m
. Show that
j
T
,
=
i
j i
i
ij
t y t y
, , ,

+
Solution
Since we know that
T
=
i
i
x
y
t

T
= .
,
j
i
y t
Taking covariant differentiation of both sides, we get
j
T
,
=
j i
i
y t
, ,
) (

=
j i
i
i
i
j
y t y t
, , , ,
) (

+
j
T
,
=

+
i
i
j ij
i
y t y t
, , ,
EXAMPLE 4
Show that
ds
dx
ds
dx
g
j i
ij
remains constant along a geodesic.
Solution
Let
ds
dx
t
i
i
. Then
ds
dx
ds
dx
g
j i
ij
=
2
t t t g
j i
ij

Since we know that geodesics are autoparallel curves. Then
ds
dx
t
j
i
j ,
= 0
or
j i
j
t t
,
= 0 (1)
Now,
ds
dt
2
=
) ( ) (
i
i
j i
ij
t t
ds
d
t t g
ds
d

=
j
j
i
i
j
j
i
i
t t t
ds
dx
t t
, ,
) ( ) (
ds
dt
2
= , 0 ) ( ) (
, ,
+
i
i i
j
i i
j i
t t t t t t from (1)
Integrating it we get
t
2
= constant.
So,
ds
dx
ds
dx
g
j i
ij
remains constant along a geodesic.
EXAMPLE 5
If t
i
are the contravariant components of the unit tangent vector to a congruence of geodesics.
Show that
) (
, , i j j i
i
t t t + = 0
and also show that . 0 | |
, ,
+
i j j i
t t
Solution
Let t
i
denote unit tangent vector to a congruence of geodesic so that
j i
j
t t
,
= 0 (1)
Since geodesics are auto-parallel curves. Then to prove that
(i) 0 ) (
, ,
+
i j j i
i
t t t
(ii) 0 | |
, ,
+
i j j i
t t
Since
i
i
t t =
1
2
t
i
i
t t = 1
Taking covariant derivative of both sides, we get
j i
i
t t
,
) ( = 0
or
j i
i
i
i
j
t t t t
, ,
+ = 0
Since t is a free index. Then we have
i
j i
i i
j
t t t t
, ,
+ = 0
i i
j
t t
,
2 = 0
i
j i
t t
,
= 0 (2)
from (1)
j i
j ik
t t g
,
= 0
or
j
j k
t t
,
= 0
i
i k
t t
,
= 0 0
,

i
i j
t t 0
,

i j
i
t t
Thus
i j
i
t t
,
= 0 (3)
Adding (2) and (3), we get
) (
, , i j j i
i
t t t + = 0
Also, since t
i

0, i.
Taking determinants of both sides we get
| ) ( |
, , i j j i
i
t t t + = 0
| |
, , i j j i
t t + = 0
Solved.
EXAMPLE 6
When the coordinates of a V
2
are chosen so that the fundamental forms is
2 2 2 1
12
) ( 2 ) ( dx dx dx g ' x d + + & , prove that the tangent to either family of coordinate curves suffers a
parallel displacement along a curve of the other family.
Solution
The metric is given by
2
ds
=
j i
ij
dx dx g i,j = 1,2.
Comparing it with
2
ds
=
2 2 2 1
12
2 1
) ( 2 ) ( dx dx dx g dx + + (1)
We have,
g
11
= 1, g
22
= 1.
In this case, we have coordinate curves of parameters x
1
and x
2
respectively. The coordinate x
1
curve is defined by
x
i
= c
i
, i, except i = 1. (2)
and the coordinate x
2
curve is defined by
x
i
= d
i
, i, except i = 2 (3)
where c
i
and d
i
are constants.
Let p
i
and q
i
be the components of tangents vectors to the curves (2) and (3) respectively. Then
we have
p
i
= dx
i
= 0, i, except i = 1
and q
i
= dx
i
= 0, i, except i = 2
So,
p
i
= (dx
i
, 0) and q
i
= (0,dx
i
)
Let t be the unit tangent vector to the curve (2).
Hence
ds
dx
i
=
) 0 , 1 (
p
p
t
i
i
where
i
dx p
So, we have
ds
dx
p
j
i
j ,
= 0
Hence the tangent to the family of coordinates curves (2) suffers a parallel displacement along a
curve of the family of curves (3).
EXERCISES
1. Explain Levi-Civita's concept of parallelism of vectors and prove that any vector which undergoes a
parallel displacement along a geodesic is inclined at a constant angle to the curve.
2. Show that the geodesics is a Riemannian space are given by
ds
dx
ds
dx
k i
m
ds
x d
k i m
'
+
2
2
= 0
Hence prove that geodesics are auto-parallel curves.
3. Establish the equivalence of the following definitions of a geodesic.
(i) It is an autoparallel curve.
(ii) It is a line whose first curvature relative to V
n
identically zero.
(iii) It is the path extremum length between two points on it.
4. If u and v are orthogonal vector fields in a V
n
, prove that the projection on of the desired vector of
u in its own direction is equal to minus the tendency of v in the direction of u.
5. If the derived vector of a vector u
i
is zero then to show that vector u
i
has a constant magnitude along
curve.
6. Prove that any vector which undergoes a parallel displacement along a geodesic is inclined at a
constant angle to the curve.
7. Prove that there are m n linearly independent vector fields normal to a surface V
n
immersed in a
Riemannian V
m
and they may be chosen in a multiply infinite number of ways. But there is only one
vector field normal to the hyperface.
8. Show that the principal normal vector vanishes identically when the given curve in geodesic.
9. Show that if a curve is a geodesic of a space it is a geodesic of any subspace in which it lies.
10. Define parallelism in a subspace of Riemannian manifold. If a curve C lies in a subspace V
n
of V
m
and
a vector field in V
n
is parallel along C with respect to V
m
. Then show that it is also parallel with
respect to V
n
.
11.1 RICCI'S COEFFICIENTS OF ROTATION
Let
i
h
e
|
(h=1, 2, n) be the unit tangents to the n congruences
h
e
, of an orthogonal ennuple in a
Riemannian V
n
, . The desired vector of e
l|i
in the direction of
e
k
e
| has components
j
k j i l
e e
| , |
and the
projection of this vector on
i
h
e
|
is a scalar invariant, denoted by
lhk,
so that
lhk
=
j
k
i
h j i l
e e e
| | , |
(1)
The invariants
lhk
are Ricci's Coefficients of Rotation.
Since i being a dummy index, has freedom of movement. Then equation (1) may be written as
lhk
=
j
k i h j i l
e e e
| | , |
(2)
The indices l, h and k are not tensor indices. But these indices in
lhk
are arranged in proper way,
the first index l indicates the congruence whose unit tangent is considered, the second h indicates the
direction of projection and the third k is used for differentiation.
THEOREM 11.1 To prove thast the Riccie's coefficients of rotation are skew-symmetric in the first
two indices i.e.,
lhk
=
lhk
Proof: If
i
h
e
|
(h = 1, 2, , n) be n unit tangents to n congruences
| h
e of an orthgonal ennuple in a
n
V
then
i
l i h
e e
| |
= 0
convariant differentiation with respect to x
j
, we get
i
l i h
e e
| |
,j = 0
i h
i
j l
i
l j i h
e e e e
| |, | , |
+ = 0
RICCI'S COEFFICIENTS OF ROTATION AND
CONGRUENCE
CHAPTER 11
multiplying by
j
k
e
|
and summing for j, we get
j
k i h
i
j i
i
k
i
l j i h
e e e e e e
| | |, | | , |
+ = 0
hlk
+
lhk
= 0
or
hlk
=
lhk
(1)
Note: Put l = h in equation (1), we get
llk
=
llk
or 2
llk
= 0
or
llk
= 0
h
i h lhk
e
|
=
j
k j i l
e e
| , |
Proof: since we know that
lhk
=
j
k
i
h j i l
e e e
| | , |
Multiplying by e
h|m
and summing for h.
h
m h lhk
e
|
=
m h
h
j
k
i
h j i l
e e e e
| | | , |
=
( )
h
i j
k j i l
m h h
e e e e
| |
| , |
=
i
m
j
k j i l
e e
| , |
since m h
h
i
h
e e
| | =
i
m
=
j
k
i
m j i l
e e
| , |
) (
h
m h lhk
e
|
=
j
k j m l
e e
| , |
Replacing m by i, we get
h
m i lhk
e
|
=
j
k j i l
e e
| , |
11.2 REASON FOR THE NAME "COEFFICIENTS OF ROTATION"
Let C
m
be a definite curve of the congruence whose unit tangent is
i
m
e
|
and P
0
a fidxed point on it. Let
u
1
be a unit vector which coincides with the vector
i
l
e
|
at P
0
and undergoes a parallel displayment along
the curve C
m
.
Thus
i
u =
i
l
e
|
at P
0
(1)
and
j
h
i
j
e u
| ,
= 0 (2)
Ricci's Coefficients of Rotation and Congruence 207
If is the angle between the vectors u
i
and
i
h
e
|
, we have
cos = u
i
i h
e
|
Differentiating it with respect to arc length s
m
along C
m
, we get
m
ds
d
sin
=
j
m i h
i
e j e u
| |
), (
=
j
m i h
i
j j i h
i
e e u e u
| | , , |
) ( +
m
ds
d
sin
=
j i
j
j
m j i h
i
m
e u e e u
|
, | , |
+
(3)
at the point P
0
,
2
, we have
m
ds
d
=
j
m j i h
i
e e u
| , |
=
j
m j i h
i
e e u
| , |
= ;
| , | |
j
m j i h
i
l
e e e from (1)
=
j
m
i
l j i h
e e e
| | , |
m
ds
d
=
hlm
m
ds
d
=
hlm
(4)
In Eucliden space of three dimensions,
m
ds
d
is the arc-rate of rotation of the vector
i
h
e
|
about the
curve C
m
. Hence the quantities
hlm
are called coefficients of rotation of the ennuple. Since it was
discovered by Ricci and hence it is called Ricci's coefficient of rotation.
11.3 CURVATURE OF CONGRUENCE
The first curvature vector p
l|
of curve of the congruence is the derived vector of
i
h
e
|
in its own
direction. Where
i
h
e
|
(h = 1, 2, , n) be unit tangents to n congruence e
h|
of an orthogonal ennuple in
a .
n
V
If
i
h
p
|
be the contravariant component of first curvature vector p
l|
. Then by definition, we have
i
h
p
|
=
j
h
i
j h
e e
| ,
from theorem (11.2), we have
i
h
p
|
=
i
l
l
hlh
e
|
(1)
The magnitude of
i
h
p
|
is called curvature of the curve of congruence
| h
e and denoted by
| h
K .
Now,
2
| h
K =
j
h
i
h ij
p p g
| |
=

,
_
,
_

i
m
m
hmh
i
l
l
hlh ij
e e g
| |

=

l m
hmh hlh
i
m
i
l ij
e e g
| |
=

l m
hmh hlm
l
m ,
Since
i
m
i
l ij
e e g
| |
=
l
m
=

m
hmh hmh
2
| h
K =

m
hmh
2
) (
This is the required formula for K
h|
.
11.4 GEODESIC CONGRUENCE
If all the curves of a congruence are geodesics then the congruence is called a geodesic congruence.
THEOREM 11.3 A necessary and sufficient condition that congruence C of an orthogonal ennuple
be a geodesic congruence is that the tendencies of all the other congruences of the ennuple in the
direction of C vanish indentically.
Or
To obtain necessary and sufficient conditions that a congruence be a geodesic congruence.
Proof: From equation (1), Pg. 207, we have
i
h
p
| =
i
l
l
hlh
e
|
Since 0
|

i
l
e ,
h
and hence
i
h
p
|
= 0 iff
hlh
= 0,
h
. But
i
l
p
|
= 0 iff the congruence C is geodesic
congruence.
Hence C is a geodesic congruence iff
hlh
= 0,
h
.
But
hlh
=
lhh
So, C is a geodesic congruence iff
lhh
= 0,
h
.
or C is a geodesic congruence iff
lhh
= 0.
Hence
lhh
= 0 are the necessary and sufficient conditions that congruence with unit tangents
i
h
e
|
be geodesic congruence. Again
lhh
is the tendency of the vector
i
l
e
|
in the direction vector
i
h
e
|
.
Thus a congruence C of an orthogonal ennuple is a geodesic congruence iff the tendency of all
other congruences in the direction of C vanish identically.
11.5NORMAL CONGRUENCE
A normal congruence is one which intersects orthogonally a family of hypersurfaces.
THEOREM 11.4 Necessary and sufficient conditions that the congruence
| h
e of an orthogonal ennuple
be normal is that
nqp
=
npq
Proof: Consider a congruence C of curves in a V
n
. Let ) , , , (
2 1 n
x x x = constant be a family of
hypersurfaces. To determines a normal congruence whose tangent vector is grad or
.
Let t
i
be the convariant components of unit tangent vector to C. The congruence C is a normal
congruence to a family of hypersurface ) , , , (
2 1 n
x x x = constant if
1
1
,
t
=
y
t t
n
n

, ,
2
2
(say) (1)
In order that ) 1 (n differential equations given by equation (1) admit a solution which is not
constant, these must constitute a complete system.
From (1)
i
i
t
,
= y or ,
i
= yt
i
i
yt =
i
x

Differentiating it with respect to
j
x
, we get
j
i
i
j
x
t
y t
x
y
=
j i
x x

2
(2)
Interchanging indices i and j, we get
i
j
j
i
x
t
y t
x
y
=
i j
x x

2
(3)
Subtracting (2) and (3) we get
,
_
,
_
j
i
j
i j
i
i
j
dx
t
y t
x
y
x
t
y t
dx
y
= 0
,
_
,
_
i
j
j
i
i
j
j
i
x
y
t
x
y
t
x
t
x
t
y = 0
Multiplying by t
k
,
yt
k i
i k
j
k i
i
j
j
i
dx
y
t i
x
y
t t
x
t
dx
t
,
_

= 0 (4)
By cyclic permutation of i, j, k in (4), we get
j
i k
k
i j
j
k
k
j
i
x
y
t i
x
y
t t
x
t
x
t
yt
,
_
= 0 (5)
and

k
j i
i
j k
k
i
i
k
i
x
y
t t
x
y
t t
x
t
x
t
yt
+
,
_
= 0 (6)
On adding (4) , (5) and (6) we get
1
1
]
1
,
_
,
_
,
_
k
i
i
k
j
j
k
k
j
i
i
j
j
i
k
x
t
x
t
t
x
t
x
t
t
x
t
x
t
t y
= 0
or
( )
k i i k j j k k j i i j j i k
t t t t t t t t t
, , , , , ,
) ( ) ( + + = 0 (7)
as 0 y , where i, j, k = 1, 2, , n.
These are the necessary and sufficient conditions that the given congruence be a normal congruence.
Now suppose that the congruence is one of an orthogonal ennuple in V
n
. Let e
n|i
be the unit
tangents of given congruence C so that t
i
= e
n|i
e
n|k
(e
n| i,j
e
n| j,i
) + e
n| i
(e
n| j,k
e
n| k,j
) + e
n| j
(e
n|k,i
e
n|i,k
) = 0 (8)
Now, multiplying equation (8) by
R
q
i
p
e e
| |
, we get
k
q
i
p k i n i k n j n
k
q
i
p j k n k j n i n
k
q
i
p i j n j i n k n
e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e
| | , | , | | | , | , | | | | , | , | |
) ( ) ( ) ( + +
where p and q are two new indices chosen from 1, 2, , n 1. i.e., p,q and n are unequal.
But
k
q k n
e e
| | =
q
h
= 0,
n q
k
p i n
e e
| |
=
p
h
= 0, n p
so, we have
k
q
i
p k j n i k n j n
e e e e e
| | , | , | |
) ( = 0
) (
| | , | | | , | |
k
q
i
p k j n
k
p
i
q i k n j n
e e e e e e e = 0
e
n|j
(
nqp

npq
) = 0
Since
k
q
i
p i k n
e e e
| | , |
=
npq

nqp

npq
= 0, e
n| j
0

npq
=
nqp
, (9)
Conversely if equation (9) in true then we get equation (8). Which implies that equation (7) are
satisfied bty e
n|i
Hence e
n|
is a normal congruence.
Thus necessary and sufficient conditions that the congruence e
n|
of an orthogonal ennuple be a
normal congruence are that
nqp
=
npq
(p, q = 1, 2, , n 1 such that p q)
THEOREM 11.5 Necessary and sufficient conditions that all the congruences of an orthogonal ennuple
be normal.
Proof: If all the congruences of a orthogonal ennuple are normal. Then
nqp
=
npq
(p, q = 1, 2, , n 1 such that p q)
If the indices h, k, l and unequal then
hkl
=
hlk
(1)
But due to skew-symmetric property i.e.,
hlk
=

lhk
.
So,
hkl
=
hlk
=
lhk
=
lkh
, from (1)
=
klh
(skew-symmetric property).
=
khl
, from (1)
hkl
=
hkl
, (skew-symmetric property).
hkl
+

hkl
= 0
2
hkl
= 0

hkl
= 0
where (l, h, k = 1, 2, , n such that h, k, kl are unequal).
11.6 CURL OF CONGRUENCE
The curl of the unit tangent to a congruence of curves is called the curl of congruence.
If e
n|
is a given congruence of curves then
Curl e
n|i
= e
n|i, j
e
n| j,i
If curl e
n| i
= 0 then congruence is irrotational.
THEOREM 11.6 If a congruence of curves satisfy two of the following conditions it will also satisfy
the third
(a) that it be a satisfy the third
(b) that it be a geodesic congruence
(c) that it be irrotational.
Proof: Consider an orthogonal ennuple and
i
h
e
|
(h = 1, 2, , n) be n unit tangent to n congruences of
this orthogonal ennnuple.
From theorem (11.2), we have
i h
h
lhk
e
|
=
j
k j i l
e e
| , |
Putting l = n and j = m, we have
i h
n
h
nhk
e
|
1
=
m
k m i n
e e
| , |
Now, multiplying by e
k| j
and summing with respect to k from 1 to n, we have
j k i h
n
k h
nhk
e e
| |
1 ,
=
j k
m
k m i n
e e e
| | , |
=
m
j m i n
e
, |
Since
m
j j k
m
k
e e
| |
n
k h
j k i h nhk
e e
1 ,
| |
=
j i n
e
, |
(2)
By definition of curl of congruence, we have
curl e
n|i
= e
n| i, j
e
n| j,i
=
; | |
1 ,
| |
1 ,
i k j h
n
k n
nhk j k i h
n
k h
nhk
e e e e

from (2)
curl e
n| i
= i h j k
n
k h
nkh j k i h
n
k h
nhk
e e e e
| |
1 ,
| |
1 ,

curl
i n
e
|
=
n
k h 1 ,
(
nhk

nkh
) e
h| i
e
k| j
(3)
This double sum may be separated into two sums as follows.
(i) Let h and k take the values 1, 2, , n 1.
(ii) Either h = n or k = n or h = k = n.
Now, the equation (3) becomes
curl e
n| i
= j n i h nnh nhn
n
h
j k i h nkh nhk
n
k h
e e e e
| |
1
1
| |
1
1 ,
) ( ) ( +

+ j n i n nnn nnn j n i n nkn nnk

n
k
e e e e
| | | |
1
) ( ) ( +
Since we know that

nnk
=
nnh
=
nnn
= 0.
So,
curl e
n|i
=
j k i n nkn
n
k
j n i h nhn
n
h
j k i h nkh nhk
n
k h
e e e e e e
| |
1
1
| |
1
1
| |
1
1 ,
) (

+
curl e
n|i
=
) ( ) (
| | | |
1
1
| |
1
,
j k i n j n i h nhn
n
h
j k i h nkh nhk
n
k h
e e e e e e +

(4)
The first term on R.H.S. of equation (4) vanishes
if
nhk

nkh
= 0
i.e.,
if
nhk
=
nkh
.
i.e., if the congruence
| n
e is normal.
Again the second term of R.H.S of equation (4) vanishes
if
nhn
= 0 i.e., if
hnn
= 0
i.e., if the congruence
| n
e is a geodesic congruence. Further, if first and second term on right
hand side of equation (4) both vanishes then
curl
i n
e
|
= 0
Hence we have proved that if the congruence
| n
e satisfies any two of the following conditions
then it will also satisfy the third.
(a)
| n
e is a normal congruence
(b)
| n
e is irrotational
(c)
| n
e is a geodesic congruence
11.7 CANONICAL CONGRUENCE
It has been shown that given a congruence of curves, it is possible to choose, in a multiply infinite
number of ways, n 1 other congruences forming with the given congruence an orthogonal ennuple.
Consider the system of n 1 congruence discovered by Ricci, and known as the system canonical with
respect to the given congruence.
THEOREM 11.7 Necessary and sufficient conditions that the n 1 congruences e
h|
of an orthogonal
ennuple be canonical with respect to e
n|
are
nhk
+
nkh
= 0; (h, k = 1, 2, , n 1, h k ).
Proof: Let the given congruence e
n|
be regarded as n
th

of the required ennuple. Let e
n|i
be unit tangent
to given congruence.
ij
X = (e
n| i, j
+ e
n| j,i
) (1)
Let us find a quantity and n quantities e
i
satisfying the n + 1 equations
j i
E e g X
e e
j n
i
ij ij
i
i n
,
0 (
0
|
|
= 1, 2, , n (2)
where is a scalar invariant.
Writing equation (2) in expansion form, we have
n
n n n n
e e e e e e
|
2
2 |
1
1 |
+ + + = 0 (3)
and
j n
n
nj nj j j
i
j j
e e g X e g X e g X
|
2
2 2 1 1
) ( ) ( ) ( + + + = 0
for j = 1, 2, , n.
1 | 1 1
2
21 21
1
11 11
) ( ) ( ) (
n
n
n n
e e g X e g X e g X + + + + = 0
2 | 2 2
2
22 22
1
12 12
) ( ) ( ) (
n
n
n n
e e g X e g X e g X + + + + = 0
M
n n
n
nn nn n n n n
e e g X e g X e g X
|
2
2 2
1
1 1
) ( ) ( ) ( + + + + = 0
from (3)
0 .
|
2
2 |
1
1 |
+ + +
n
n n n n
e e e e e e = 0
eliminating and the quantities e
1
, e
2
, e
n
, we have the equation
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
0

| 2 | 1 |
| 2 2 1 1
2 | 2 2 22 22 12 12
1 | 1 1 21 21 11 11
n n n n
n n nn nn n n n n
n n n
n n n
e e e
e g X g X g X
e g X g X g X
e g X g X g X

M
which is of degree n 1 in . Hence there will be n 1 roots of and these roots be
1
,
2
, ,
n 1
. All roots are real. Let
h
be one of these roots and let the corresponding values of and e
i
be
denoted by h and
i
h
e
|
respectively. Then
h
and
i
h
e
|
will satisfy the equation (2), we have
i
h i n
e e
| |
= 0 (4)
and
j n h
i
h ij ij
e e g X
| |
) ( + = 0 (5)
Similarly
k
be another root of these roots, we have
i
k i n
e e
| |
= 0 (6)
j n h
i
k ij ij
e e g X
| |
) ( + = 0 (7)
Multiplying (5) by
j
k
e
|
and (7)
j
h
e
|
and using (4) and (6), we get
j
k
i
h ij h ij
e e g X
| |
) ( = 0 (8)
j
h
i
k ij k ij
e e g X
| |
) ( = 0 (9)
Since
ij
X and
ij
g are symmetric tensor in i and j. Now, interchanging i and j in equation (9), we
get
j
k
i
h ij k ij
e e g X
| |
) ( = 0 (10)
Subtracting (10) and (8), we get
j
k
i
h ij k h
e e g
| |
) ( = 0 (11)
Since
k

k
0 as
h
h
.
j
k
i
h ij
e e g
| |
= 0 (12)
This shows that
i
h
e
|
and
j
k
e
|
unit vectors are orthogonal to each other and hence the congruence
| h
e and
| k
e (h k) are orthogonal to each other. Hence the n 1 congruence e
h
| (h = 1, 2, , n) thus
determined form an orthogonal ennuple with e
n|
.
Using equation (12), equation (10) becomes
j
k
i
h ij
e e X
| |
= 0
Since from (1),
( )
i j n j i n ij
e e X
, | , |
2
1
+
. Then we have,
( )
j
k
i
h i j n j i n
e e e e
| | , | , |
2
1
+
= 0
j
h
i
k i j n
j
k
i
h j i n
e e e e e e
, | | | , |
+ = 0
nhk
+
nkh
= 0; (h, k = 1, 2, , n 1 such that
k h
) (13)
Conversely if equation (13) is true then (n 1) congruences e
h|
of the orthogonal ennuple and
canonical with respect to
| n
e . Hence necessary and sufficient condition that the n 1 congruences
| h
e
of an orthogonal ennuple be canonical with respect to e
n|
are
nhk
+
nkh
= 0; (h, k = 1, 2, , n such that
k h
)
THEOREM 11.8 Necessary and sufficient conditions that n 1 mutually orthogonal congruences
| h
e
orthogonal to a normal congruence
| n
e , be canconical with respect to the later are
nhk
= 0 where k, h
= 1, 2,, n 1 such that h k.
Proof: By theorem (11.7), Necessary and sufficient conditions that (n 1) congruences
| h
e of an
orthogonal ennuple be canonical with respect to e
n|
are
nhk
+
nkh
= 0 (h, k = 1, 2, , n 1 such that h k).
If the congruence e
n|
is normal. Then
nhk
=
nkh
The given condition
nkh nhk
+ = 0 becomes
nhk
+
nhk
= 0
2
nhk
= 0
nhk
= 0 Proved.
EXAMPLE 1
If e
n|
are the congruences canonical with respect to e
n|
prove that (i)
h
=
nhk
(ii)
h
=
2
1
hnn,
(iii) If e
n|
is a geodesic congruence, the congruences canonical with respect to it are given by
0 ) (
i
ij ij
e g X = 0
Solution
Suppose (n 1) congruences e
h|
of an orthogonal ennable in a V
n
are canonical with respect to
the cougruence e
h|
then
i
h i n
e e
| |
= 0 (1)
and
j n h
i
h ij h ij
e e g X
| |
) ( + = 0 (2)
where
X
ij
=
2
1
(e
n| i,j
+ e
n| j,i
) (3)
Since
i
n
e
|
unit tangents then
j
h
i
h ij
e e g
|
|
= 0 (4)
(i) Multiplying equation (2) by
i
h
e
|
, we get
j
h j n h
j
h
i
h ij h ij
e e e e g X
| | | |
) ( + = 0
j
h
i
h ij h
j
h
i
h ij
e e g e e X
|
|
|
|
= 0 since
j
h
j n
e e
|
|
= 0 (from (1))
h
j
h
i
h ij
e e X
| |
= 0, since
j
h
i
h ij
e e g
|
|
= 1
h
j
h
i
h i j n j i n
e e e e + ) (
2
1
| | , | , | = 0; from (3)
h
j
h
i
h i j n
j
h
i
h j i n
e e e e e e + ) (
2
1
| | , | | | , | = 0
2
1
(
nhh
+
nhh
)
h
= 0
h
=
nhh
(ii) Multiplying (2) by
j
n
e
|
, we get
j
n j n h
j
n
i
h ij h ij
e e e e g X
| | | |
) ( + = 0
1
|
|
|
|
+
h
j
n
i
h ij h
j
n
i
h ij
e e g e e X = 0 from (1)
h
j
h
i
h i j n j i n
e e e e + +
| | , | , |
) (
2
1
= 0, since
j
h
i
h
e e
| |
= 0
h
j
h
i
h i j n
j
n
i
h j i n
e e e e e e + + ) (
2
1
| | , | | | , | = 0
2
1
(
nhn
+
nnh
) +
h
= 0
h
=
2
1
nhn
, since
nnh
= 0
or
h
=
2
1
hnn
(iii) If e
n|
is a geodesic congruence, then
hnn
= 0 from the result (ii), we have
h
= 0
2
1
h
= 0
j n
i
h ij h ij
e e g X
| |
0 ) ( + = 0 or
i
h ij h ij
e g X
|
) ( = 0
this gives
i
ij ij
e g X ) ( = 0 .
EXAMPLE 2
Prove that when a manifold admits an orthogonal systyem of n normal congruences then any of
these in canonical with respect to each other congruence of the system.
solution
Let
i
h
e
|
(h = 1, 2, , n) be unit tangents to n normal congruences of an orthogonal ennuple in a
V
n
. So that
lhk
= 0, where l, h, k = 1, 2,...n such that l, h, k being unequal.
It is required to show that a congruence e
h|
is canonical with respect to the congruence e
k|
(h, k = 1, 2,
, h k). We know that the n 1 congruence e
n|
of an orthogonal ennuple be canonical to e
n|
iff
nhk
+
nkh
= 0
This condition is satisfied by virtue of equation (1). Hence (n 1) congruences e
h|
of an orthogonal
ennuple are canonical to e
n|
.
Similarly we can show that any n 1 congruences are canonical to the remaining congruence.
It follows from the above results that any one congruence is canonical with respect to each other
congruence of the system.
EXERCISE
1. If is a scalar invariant
n
h
i
h
i
h ij
e e
1
| |
,
=
2
2. The coefficient of
n 1
in the expansion of the determinant |,
ij
g
ij
| is equal to
2
.
3. If e
h|
are the unit tangents to n mutually orthogonal normal congruences and e
11
+ be
21
is also a
normal congruence then ae
11
be
21
is a normal congruence.
4. Show that
h k k h
s
Q
s s s
=
l
l
lkh lhk
s
Q
) (
where S
h
denotes the arc length of a curve through a point P of an ennuple and Q is a scalar invariant.
5. If the congruence e
h|
(h = 1, 2, n 1) of an orthogonal ennuple are normal, prove that they are
canonical with respect to other congruence
| h
e .
12.1 INTRODUCTION
We have already studied (Art 10.3 chapter 10) that if m > n then we call V
n
to be a subspace of V
m
and
consequently V
m
is called enveloping space of V
n
. We also know that there are m n linearly independent
normals N
to V
n.
(Art 10.3 Theorem 10.5, chapter 10). If we take m = n + 1 then V
n
is said to be
hypersurface of the enveloping space V
n + 1
Let V
n
be Riemannian space of n dimensions referred to cordinates x
i
and having the metric ds
2
=
g
ij
dx
i
dx
j
. Let V
n
be Riemannian space of m dimensions referred to coordinates y
and having the metric

ds
2
= a

dy

dy
. Where m > n. Let Greek letters , , take the values 1, 2, , m and latin indices
i, j, k, take the values 1, 2, n. Then we have, the relation between a
and g
ij
g
ij
= a
j i
x
y
x
y

(1)
Since the function y
are invariants for transformations of the coordinates x

i
in V
n
, their first
covariant derivatives with respect to the metric of V
n
are the same as their ordinary derivatives with
respect to the variables x
i
.
i.e.,

i
y
,
=
i
x
y

Then equation (1) can be written as
g
ij
= a

j i
y y
, ,
(2)
The vector of V
n + i
whose contravariant components are
i
y
,
is tangential to the curve of
parameter x
i
in V
n
. Consequently if N
are the contravariant components of the unit vector normal to

V
n
. Then we have
a
N

i
y
,
= 0, (i = 1, 2, , n) (3)
and a
= 1 (4)
HYPERSURFACES
CHAPTER 12
Hypersurface 219
12.2GENERALISED COVARIANT DIFFERENTIATION
Let C be any curve in V
n
and s its arc length. The along this curve the x's and the y's may be expressed
as function of s only. Let u
and
be the components in the y's of two unit vector fields which are
m
. Similarly w
i
the components in x's of a unit vector field which is
n
. Now, u
is parallel along C relative to V

m
then we have,
ds
dy
u

,
= 0
ds
dy
u
y
u

1
]
1
'
= 0
ds
dy
u
ds
dy
y
u

'
= 0
ds
dy
u
ds
du

'
= 0
ds
du
=
ds
dy
u

'
(1)
similarly v

m
then
ds
dv
=
ds
dy
v

'
(2)
and w
i
n
then
ds
dw
i
=
ds
dx
k j
i
w
k
j
'
(3)
The Christoffel symbol with Greek indices being formed with respect to the a
and the y's and

christoffel symbol with Latin indices with respect to the g
ij
and the x's.
Let
i
A be a tensor field, defined along C, which is mixed tenser of the second order in the y's and
a covariant vector in the x's. Then the product u
w
i
i
A
is scalar invariant and it is a function of s
along c. Its derivative with respect to s is also a scalar invariant.
Differentiating u
w
i
i
A
with respect to s, we have
) (

i
i
A w v u
dt
d
=

+
i
i i i
A w v
ds
du
ds
dA
w v u +
+
i
i
i
i
A v u
ds
dw
A w u
ds
dv
=

+ +
i
i
i
i i i
A w u
ds
dv
A w v
ds
du
ds
dA
w v u +
j
j
A v u
ds
dw
=
ds
dy
w v u A
ds
dA
w v u
i
i
i i

'
+ .

ds
dy
w v u A
i
i

'
.

ds
x d
ik
j
w v u A
k
i
j
'
, by equation (1), (2) & (3).

=
1
1
]
1
'
'
'
ds
dx
k i
j
A
ds
dy
A
ds
dy
A
ds
dA
w v u
k
j i i
i i
. .
= Scalar, along C
Since the outer product u
w
i
is a tensor and hence from quotient law that the expression within
the bracket is tenser of the type
i
A and this tensor is called intrinsic derivative of
i
A with respect to
s.
The expression within the bracket can also be expressed as
1
1
]
1
'
'
'
ik
j
A y A y A
x
A
ds
dx
j
k
i
k
i
k
i
k

, ,
Since
ds
dx
k
is arbitrary..
So, by Quotient law the expression within the bracket is a tensor and is called tensor derivative of
i
A with respect to x
k
. It is denoted by
k i
A
;
. Then we have
k i
A
;
=
.
, ,
'
'
'
ik
j
A y A y A
dx
A
j
k
i
k
i
k
i
k i
A
;
is also defined as generalised covariant derivative
i
A with respect to x
k
.
Note: Semi-colon(;) is used to denote tensor differentiation.
12.3 LAWS OF TENSOR DIFFERENTIATION
THEOREM 12.1 Tensor differentiation of sums and products obeys the ordinary rules of differentiation.
Proof: Suppose
B A , and B
are tensors in V
m
.
(i) To prove that
k
B A
;
) (

+ =

+
k k
B A
; ;
Let the sum
+ B A be denoted by the tensor
C .
Now,
k
C
;
=
c
k a
c
k
k
y
c
C y
c a
C
x
C
, ,
'
'

+
Hypersurface 221
k
B A
;
) (

+ =
c
k
a
k
y
c a
A A
dx
B A
,
) (
) (
'

+ +
+

c
k a a
y
c
a
B A
,
) (
'
+

=
1
1
]
1
'
'
c
k a
c
k
a
k
y
c
a
A y
ac
A
x
A
, ,
+
1
1
]
1
'
'
c
k a
c
k
a
k
y
c
a
B y
ac
B
x
B
, ,
k
B A
;
) (

+ =
a
k
a
B A
; ;
+ Hence the result (i)
(ii) Prove that
k B A ); (

+ =
k k
B A B A
; ;
+
Let

B A =

D Then
D is a tensor
we have
k
D
;
=
'

+
ac
D
x
D
a
k
k
; y
c

c
k a
c
k a
y
c
a
D y
c
a
D
, ,
'
'
k
B A
;
) (

=
c
k
a
k
y
ac
B A
dx
B A
,
) (
'

+

c
k a
c
k a
y
c
a
B A y
c
a
B A
, ,
'
'
1
1
]
1
'
'
B y
c
a
A y
ac
A
dx
A
c
k a
c
k
k
, ,
+
1
1
]
1
'
c
k a
k
y
c
a
B
dx
B
A
,
k
B A
;
) (

=
k a k
B A B A
; ;
+
Hence the result (ii).
Note: , , , a, c take values from 1 to m while k take values from 1 to n.
j
a
;
= 0
or
To prove that the metric tensor of the enveloping space is generalised covariant constant with respect
to the Christoffel symbol of the subspace.
Proof: We have (see pg. 220)
i
a
;
=

'
'

i i
i
y a y a
dx
a
, ,

=
[ ] [ ] ( )

+
i i
y
dx
a
,
, ,
or
i
a
;
=

i
i
y
y
a
dx
a
,
or
i
a
;
=
i i
dx
y
y
a
dx
a

=
i i
x
a
x
a
= 0 Proved.
12.4 GAUSS'S FORMULA
At a point of a hypersurface V
n
of a Riemannian space V
n + 1
,

the formula of Gauss are given by
ij
y
;
=

N
ij
Proof: Since y
is an invariant for transformation of the x's and its tensor derivative is the same as its
covariant derivative with respect to the xs, so that
i
y
;
=

i
y
,
=
i
dx
dy
(1)
Again tenser derivative of equation (1) with respect to xs is
ij
y
;
=
j i
y
; ;
) (

= ) (
,
i
y
=
'
'

j i l i
j
y y
ij
l
y y
dx
, , , ,
) (
=
'
'
,
_
j i l
i j
y y
ij
l
y
x
y
x
, , ,
ij
y
;
=
'
'
j i l
j i
y y
ij
l
y
x x
y
, , ,
2
(2)
Interchanging j and i in (2), we have
ji
y
;
=
'
'
i j l i j
y y
ji
l
y
x x
y
, , ,
2
ji
y
;
=
'
'
j l l j i
y y
ij
l
y
x x
y
, , ,
2
(3)
[On interchanging and in third term of R.H.S. of (3) and using
'
'
].
On comparing equation (2) and (3), we have
ij
y
;
=

ji
y
;
So,
ij
y
;
is symmetrical with respect to indices i & j.
Hypersurface 223
Let g
ij
dx
i
dx
j
and

dy dy a be fundamental forms corresponding to V

n
and V
n + 1
respectively..
Then
g
ij
=
j i
x
y
x
y
a
or g
ij
=

j i
y y a
; ;
Taking tensor derivative of both sides with respect to x
k
g
ij;k
=

+ +
j ik jk i j i k
y y a y y a y y a
; ; ; ; ; ; ;
But g
ij;k
= 0 and
k
a
;
= 0.
we have,
0 =

+
j ik jk i
y y a y y a
; ; ; ;
or

+
jk i j ik
y y a y y a
; , , ;
= 0, using (1), Art. 12.4 (4)
By cyclic permutation on i, j, k in (4), we have

ki j k ji
y y a y y a
; , , ;
+ = 0 (5)
and

+
ij k i kj
y y a y y a
; , , ;
= 0 (6)
subtracting equation (4) from the sum of (5) and (6), we get.

k ij
y y a
, ;
2 = 0
or

k ij
y y a
, ;
= 0 (7)
This shows that
ij
y
;
is normal (orthogonal) to
k
y
,
. Since
k
y
,
is tangential to V
n
and hence
ij
y
;
is
normal to V
n
. Then we can write
ij
y
;
=
ij
N
(8)
where N
is unit vector normal to V

n
and
ij
is a symmetric covariant tensor of rank two. Since
ij
y
;
is a function of x's the tenser
ij
is also a function of x's.
The equation (8) are called Gausss formula.
From equation (8)
ij
y
;
=

N
ij
N a y
ij ;
=

N N a
ij
=
2
N
ij
N a y
ij ;
=
, ij
N = 1
or
ij = .
;

N a y
ij
The quadratic differential form
j i
ij
dx dx
is called the second fundamental form for the hypersurface V
n
of V
n + 1
. The components of tenser
ij
are said to be coefficient of second fundamental form.
Note: The quadratic differential form g
ij
dx
i
dx
j
is called first fundamental form.
12.5 CURVATURE OF A CURVE IN A HYPERSURFACE AND NORMAL CURVATURE
If U
and u
i
be the contravariant components of the vector u relative to V
n
and V
n + 1
respectively then
we have (from chapter 10, Theorem 10.4)
U
=
i
i
u
x
y

=
i
i
u y
,
(1)
Let the derived vector to vector u along C with respect to metric of V
n
and V
n + 1
are denoted by
p and q respectively. Then
p
i
=
s d
x d
u
j
i
j ,
and

q =
s d
y d
U

,
=
ds
dx
U
j
j
;
, (from equation 1, Art 12.4) (2)
Taking the tensor derivative of each side of equation (1) with respect to x's, we have
j
U
;
=
i
j i
i
ij
u y u y
, , ;

+
By Gauss's formula, we have

N y
ij ij ;
Then

j
U
;
=
i
j i
i
ij
u y u N
, ,

+
Putting the value of
j
u
;
in equation (2), we have
q =
ds
dx
u y u N
j
i
j i
i
ij
) (
, ,

+
or

q =
i
i
j
i
ij
p y N
ds
dx
u

+
,
_
, (3)
where
i
p =
ds
dx
u
j
i
j ,
Hypersurface 225
Now suppose that vector u is a the unit tangent t to the curve C. Then the derived vectors q and
p are the curvature vectors of a C relatively to V
n + 1
and V
n
respectively. Then equation (3) becomes.
q =
i
i
j i
ij
p y N
ds
dx
ds
dx

+
,
_
, (4)
Taking K
n
=
ds
dx
ds
dx
j i
ij
, we get
q = K
n
N

+

i
y
,
p
i
...(5)
K
n
is called Normal curvature of V
n
at any point P of the curve C and K
n
N
is called normal
curvature vector of V
n + 1
in the direction of C.
Meaunier's Theorem
If K
a
and K
n
are the first curvature of C relative to V
n + 1
and normal curvature of V
n
respectively
and w is the angle between N
r
and C
r
(C being the unit vector of V
n + 1
then the relation between K
a
, K
n
and w is given by
K
n
= cos
a
K
Proof: We know that
q =

+
i
i
n
y p N K
,
...(1)
where K
n
=
s d
x d
s d
x d
j i
ij
Let K
a
and K
g
be the first curvatures of C with respect V
n + 1
and V
n
respectively then
K
a
= ,

q q a K
g
=
j i
ij
p p g
Let be the angle between
N
r
and
C
r
.
Then
C N
r r
= cos C N
=
cos
as |N| = |C| = 1
C N
r r
.
= cos ...(2)
If b
r
is a unit vector of V
n + 1
in the direction principal normal of C
r
with respect to V
n
then
C K
a
r
= N K b K
n g
r r
+ (3)
Taking scalar product of equation (3) with
N
r
, we have
C N K
a
r r
. = N N K b N K
n g
r r r r
. . +
cos
a
K = ; 1 0 +
n g
K K from (2)
K
n
= cos
a
K (4)
Proved.
EXAMPLE 1
Show that the normal curvature is the difference of squares of geodesic curvatures.
Solution
We know that (from Meuriers Theorem, equation 3)
C K
a
r
= N K b K
n g
r r
+
Taking modulus of both sides, we get
2
a
K =
2 2
n g
K K +
or
2
n
K =
2 2
g a
K K .
Theorem 12.3 To show that the first curvature in V
n + 1
of a geodesic of the hypersurface V
n
is the
normal curvature of the hypersurface in the direction of the geodesic.
Proof: From, example 1, we have
2
a
K =
2 2
n g
K K +
If C is a geodesic of V
n
then 0 0
g
i
K p
Then we have
2
a
K =
2
n
K
K
a
= K
n
. Proved.
Dupin's Theorem
The sum of normal curvatures of a hypersurface V
n
for n mutually orthogonal directions is an
invariant and equal to
ij
g
ij
.
Proof: Let
i
h
e
|
(h = 1, 2, , n) be unit tangents to n congruences of an orthogonal ennuple in a V
n
. Let
K
nh
be normal curvature of the hypersurface V
n
in the direction of the congruence
| h
e . Then
K
nh
=
j
h
i
h ij
e e
| |
The sum of normal curvatures for n mutually orthogonal directions of an orthogonal ennuple is a
V
n
is
n
h
nh
K
1
=
n
h
j
h
i
h ij
e e
1
| |
=
n
h
j
h
i
h ij
e e
1
| |
=
ij
g
ij
= Scalar invariant Proved.
Hypersurface 227
12.6 DEFINITIONS
(a) First curvature (or mean curvature) of the hypersurface V
n
at point P.
It is defined as the sum of normal curvatures of a hypersurface V
n
form mutually orthogonal directions
at P and is denoted by M. Then
M=
ij
g
ij
(b) Minimal Hypersurface
The hypersurface V
n
is said to be minimal if M = 0
i.e.,
ij
g
ij
= 0
(c) Principle normal curvatures
The maximum and minimum values of K
n
are said to be the principle normal curvatures of V
n
at P.
Since these maximum and minimum values of K
n
correspond to the principal directions of the symmetric
tensor
ij
.
(d) Principal directions of the hypersurface at a point P.
The principal directions determined by the symmetric tensor
ij
at P are said to be principal directions
of the hypersurface at P.
(e) Line of curvature in V
n
A line of curvature in a hypersurface V
n
is a curve such that its direction at any point is a principal
direction.
Hence we have n congruences of lines of curvature of a V
n
.
THEOREM 12.4 To show that the mean curvature of a hypersurface is equal to the negative of the
divergence of the unit normal.
or
To show that the first curvature of a hypersurface is equal to the negative of the divergence of the unit
normal.
or
To show that the normal curvature of a hypersurface for any direction is the negative of the tendency
of the unit normal in that direction.
Proof: Let N be the unit normal vector to the hypersurface V
n
in y's and let N
be its covariant
components. Let t be the unit tangent vector to N congruences e
h|
(h = 1, 2, , n) of an orthogonal
ennuple in V
n
and let
| h
T be the contravariant components in V
n + 1
of t. Since t is orthogonal to N,
therefore
N T
h|
= 0 (1)
Taking covariant derivative of equation (1) with regard to
y provides

+
, | | ,
N T N T
h h
= 0 (2)
Multiplying equation (2) by
h
T , we get

+
, | | | | ,
N T T N T T
h h h h
= 0
N T T
h h
) (
| | ,
=

| | , h h
T T N (3)
Now

| |, h h
T T
is the first curvature of the curve e
h|
and
,
N .

| h
T
.

| h
T is the tendency of
N is the
direction of
| h
e . Hence equation (3) implies that the normal component of the first curvature of the
| h
e
relative to V
n + 1
or the normal curvature of V
n
in the direction of the curve
| h
e
= tendency of N in the direction of the curve
| h
e (4)
Taking summation of both of (3) and (4) for h = 1, 2, , n
we have
i.e., mean curvature or first curvature of a hypersurface = divergence of the unit normal.
Corollary: To prove that
M= div
n + 1
N
Proof: Since N is a vector of unit magnitude i.e., constant magnitude, its tendency is zero. also by
definition, the div
n + 1
N and div
n

N differ only by the tendency of the vector N in its direction. But the
tendency of N is zero hence it follows that
div
n
N = div
n + 1
N
Hence M= div
n
N = div
n + 1
N.
12.7 EULER'S THEOREM
Statement
The normal curvature K
n
of V
n
for any direction of a
r
in V
n
is given by
K
n
=
h h
n
h
K
2
1
cos
where K
h
are the principal curvature and
h
are the angles between direction of a
r
and the congruence
e
h|
Proof: The principal directions in V
n

determined by the symmetric covariant tensor teser
ij
are
given by
i
h ij h ij
p g K
|
) ( = 0 (1)
where K
h
are the roots of the equation
ij ij
Kg
= 0 (2)
and
i
h
p
|
are the unit tangents to n congruences of lines of curvature.
The roots of the equation (2) are the maximum and minimum values of the quality K
n
defined by
K
n
= i i
ij
j i
ij
p p g
p p
(3)
Hypersurface 229
i
k
p
|
, (K h), we get
i
k
i
h ij n ij
p p g K
| |
) ( = 0
The principal directions satisfy the equation
j
k
i
h ij
p p
| |
= 0 ( ) k h (4)
Let
| h
e be the unit tangents to the n congruences of lines of curvature. Then the principal curvatures
are given by
K
h
=
i
h
i
h ij
e e
| |
(h = 1, 2, , n) (5)
Any other unit vector a
r
in V
n
is expressible in the form
a
r
=
h h
h
e
cos
|
or a
i
= h
i
n
h
h
e cos
|
1
(6)
where
|
cos
h
=
| h
e a
r r
=
i h
i
e a
|
a
i
being the contravariant components of a
r
and
h
being the inclination of vector a to e
h|
. The
normal curvature of V
n
for the direction of a
r
is given by
K
n
=
j i
ij
a a
from (6), we get
K
n
=

,
_
,
_

h
h
j
k
h
h
i
h ij
e e cos cos
| |
= ) (
| |
1 ,
j
k
i
h ij
n
k h
e e

k h
cos cos
= h
j
h
i
h ij
n
h
e e
2
| |
1
cos ) (
K
n
=
h h
n
h
K
2
1
cos
(7)
This is a generalisation of Eulers Theorem.
12.8 CONJUGATE DIRECTIONS AND ASYMPTOTIC DIRECTIONS IN A HYPERSURFACE
The directions of two vector, a
r
and
b
r
, at a point in V
n
are said to be conjugate if
j i
ij
b a = 0 (1)
and two congruences of curves in the hypersurface are said to be conjugate if the directions of the two
curves through any point are conjugate.
A direction in V
n
which is self-conjugate is said to be asymptotic and the curves whose direction
are along asymptotic directions are called asymptotic lines.
Therefore the direction the vector a
r
at a point of V
n
be asymptotic if
j i
ij
a a = 0 (2)
The asymptotic lines at a point of a hypersurface satisfies the differential equation
j i
ij
dx dx = 0 (3)
THEOREM 12.5 If a curve C in a hypersurface V
n
has any two of the following properties it has the
third
(i) it is a geodesic in the hypersurface V
n
(ii) it is a geodesic in the enveloping space V
n + 1
(iii) it is an asymptotic line in the hypersurface V
n
.
Proof: Let C be a curve in the hypersurface V
n
. The normal curvature K
n
of the hypersurface V
n
in the
direction of C is given by
2
a
K =
2 2
n g
K K + (1)
where K
a
and K
g
are the first curvatures of C relative to enveloping space V
n + 1
and hypersurface V
n
respectively.
Suppose C is a geodesic in the hypersurface V
n
[i.e., (i) holds] then K
g
= 0.
If C is also a geodesic in the enveloping space V
n + 1
[i.e., (ii) holds] then K
a
= 0.
Now, using these values in equation (1), we have
2
n
K = 0
n
K = 0
Implies that C is an asymptotic line is the hypersurface V
n
i.e., (iii) holds.
Hence we have proved that (i) and (ii) (iii)
Similarly we have proved that
(ii) and (iii) (i)
and (i) and (iii) (ii)
12.9 TENSOR DERIVATIVE OF THE UNIT NORMAL
The function y
are invariants for transformations of the coordinates x

i
in V
n
their first covariant
derivatives with respect to the metric of V
n
are the same as their ordinary derivatives with respect to the
variables x
i
.
i.e.,

i
y
;
=
i
i
x
y
y
,
(1)
The unit Normal
N
be the contravariant vector in the ys whose tensor derivative with respect
to the xs is
i
N
;
=

'
i
i
y N
x
N
, (2)
Hypersurface 231
Since

N N a = 1 (3)
Tensor derivative of this equation with respect to x
i
gives

+ N N a N N a
i i ; ;
= 0
Interchanging and in Ist term, we get
or

+ N N a N N a
i i ; ;
= 0

+ N N a N N a
i i ; ;
= 0

i
N N a
;
2 = 0

i
N N a
;
= 0 (4)
which shows that
i
N
;
is orthogonal to the normal and therefore tangential to the hypersurface.
Thus
i
N
;
can be expressed in terms to tangential vectors
k
y
,
to V
n
so that
i
N
;
=

k i
y A
,
(5)
where
k
i
A is a mixed tensor of second order in V
n
to be determined.
Since unit normal N
is orthogonal to tangential vector
i
y
,
in V
n
. Then

i
y N a
,
= 0
Taking tensor derivative with respect to x
j
, we get

+
ij i j
y N a y N a
, , ;
= 0 since

N y
ij ij ,
or

+ N N a y N a
ij i j , ;
= 0
or ) (
, ;

+ N N a y N a
ij i j
= 0
from equation (3),

N N a = 1
or
ij i j
y N a +

, ;
= 0
or
ij
k
j ki
A g + = 0
1
]
1

ki
i k
i k
g
x
y
x
y
a y y a
, ,
since
Multiplying this equation by g
im
, we get
im
ij
k
j
im
ki
g A g g + = 0
im
ij
k
j
m
k
g A + = 0
im
ij
m
i
g A + = 0
m
i
A =
im
ij
g
Substituting this value in equation (5), we get
i
N
;
=

k
ik
ij
y g
,
=
k
jk
ji
y g
,
i
N
; =

k
jk
ij
y g
,
(6)
This is the required expression for the tensor derivative of
N
.
Theorem 12.6 The derived vector of the unit normal with respect to the enveloping space, along a
curve provided it be a line of curvature of the hypersurface.
Proof: Since the tensor derivative of
N
is
i
N
;
=

k
jk
ij
y g
,
(1)
Consider a unit vector
i
e
tangential to the curve C.
Then
i
i
e N
;
=
i
k
jk
ij
e y g

,
(2)
The direction of
i
i
e N
;
is identical with that of
i
e
Then
i
i
e N
;
= ,
,
i
i
e y
( is scalar constant)
from (2), we have
i
k
jk
ij
e y g

,
=
i
i
e y
,
Multiplying both sides of this equation by
l
y a
,
) (
, ,

l k
i jk
ij
y y a e g = ) (
, ,

l i
i
y y a e
kl
i jk
ij
g e g =
il
i
g e since

l i il
y y a g
, ,
i i
l ij
e =
il
i
g e
il
i i
il
g e e = 0
i
il il
e g ) ( = 0 (l = 1, 2, , n)
This equation implies that the direction of e
i
is a principal direction for the symmetric tensor
il
i.e., e
i
is a principal direction for the hypersurface V
n
. Hence by definition the curve C is a line of
curvature V
n
.
Hypersurface 233
12.10 THE EQUATION OF GAUSS AND CODAZZI
since we know that (pg. 86, equation 5)
kj i jk i
A A
, ,
=
p
ijk p
R A (1)
where A
i
is a covariant tenser of rank one and difference of two tensers
kj i jk i
A A
, ,
is a covariant
tenser of rank three.
It
i
y
,
are components of a covariant tensor of rank one in x
'
s. Then replacing A
i
by
i
y
,
in
equation (1), we get

ikj ijk
y y
, ,
=
p
ijk p
R y
,
=
hijk
ph
p
R g y
,
, Since
p
ijk
R =
hijk
ph
R g (2)
where
hijk
R are Riemann symbols for the tensor
ij
g
We know that
ij
y
,
=

N
ij
(3)
and

i
N
,
=

k
ik
ij
y g
,
(4)
Let
R are Riemann symbols for the tensor
a and evaluated at points of the hypersurface

using equation (3) and (4), equation (2) becomes

k j i j ik k ij ij hk ik hj hijk
ph
p
y y y R N R g y
, , , , , ,
) ( )] ( [ (5)
l
y a
,
and summed with respect to . Using the relations

l i
y y a
, ,
= 0
and

g =

l
y N
,
= 0,
we get
lijk
R =

+
k j i l ij lk ik lj
y y y y R
, , , ,
) ( (6)
Multiplying (6) by a
and summing with respect to . Using relations

l
y N a
,
= 0
and

B N a = 0
we get

+
k j i j ik k ij
y y y N R
, , , , ,
= 0 (7)
Hence, The equation (6) are generalisation of the Gauss Characteristic equation and equation
(7) of the Mainardi-Codazzi equations.
12.11 HYPERSURFACES WITH INDETERMINATE LINES OF CURVATURE
A point of a hypersurface at which the lines of curvature are indeterminate is called an Umbilical Point.
The lines of curvature may be indeterminate at every point of the hypersurface iff
ij
=
ij
g (8)
where is an invariant
The mean curvature M of such a hypersurface is given by
M=
ij
ij
g =
ij
ij
g g = n
=
n
M
.
So that the conditions for indeterminate lines of curvature are expressible as
ij
= ij
g
n
M
, from (i) (9)
If all the geodesics of a hypersurface V
n
are also geodesics of an enveloping V
n + 1
. They
hypersurface V
n
is called a totally geodesic hypersurface of the hypersurface V
n + 1
.
THEOREM 12.7 A totally geodesic hypersurface is a minimal hypersurface and its-lines of curvature
are indeterminate.
Proof: We know that
2
a
K =
2 2
g n
K K + (1)
and a hypersurface is said to be minimal if
M= 0 (2)
and the lines of curvature are indeterminate if
ij
=
ij
g
n
M
(3)
If a hypersurface V
n
is totally geodesic then geodesics of V
n
are also geodesics of V
n + 1
.
i.e., K
a
= 0 = k
g
Now, from (1), we have
K
n
= 0
But normal curvature K
n
is zero for an asymptotic direction. Hence a hypersurface V
n
is totally
geodesic hypersurface iff the normal curvature K
n
zero for all directions in V
n
and hence
ij
= 0
M =
ij
ij
g = 0
i.e., equation (2) is satisfied.
Hence, the totally geodesic hypersurface is minimal hypersurface.
In this case equation (3) are satisfied hence the lines of curvature are indeterminate.
Hypersurface 235
12.12 CENTRAL QUADRATIC HYPERSURFACE
Let x
i
be the cartesian in Euclidean space S
n
, so that the components g
ij
of the fundamental tensor are
constants. Let y
i
be the Riemmannian coordinates. If a fixed point O is taken as a pole and s the distance
of any point P then Riemannian coordinates y
i
of P with pole O are given by
y
i
= s
i
(1)
i
is unit tangent in the direction of OP.
Let
ij
a be the components in the x
s of a symmetric tensor of the rank two and evaluated at the

pole O. Then the equation
j
ij
i
y a y = 1 (2)
represents a central quadratic hypersurface
Substituting the value of equation (1) in equation (2), we get
i
ij
i
s a s = 1
i
ij
i
a =
2
1
s
(3)
The equation (3) showing that the two values of s are equal in magnitude but opposite in sign.
The positive value of s given by equation (3) is the length of the radius of the quadric (2) for the
direction
i
.
THEOREM 12.8 The sum of the inverse squares of the radii of the quadric for n mutually orthogonal
directions at O is an invariant equal to
ij
ij
g a .
Proof: If
i
h
e
|
, (h = 1, 2, n) are the contravariant components of the unit tangents at O to the curves
of an orthogonal ennuple in S
n
. The radius S
h
relative to the direction
i
h
e
|
is given by
j
h
i
h ij
e e a
| |
=
2
1
h
s
or
( )
2
1
h
n
h
s
=
j
h
i
h ij
h
h
e e a
| |
1
=
j
h
i
h
n
h
ij
e e a
| |
1
( )
2
1
h
n
h
s
=
ij
ij
g a Proved.
THEOREM 12.9 The equation of hyperplane of contact of the tangent hypercone with vertex at the
point ( ) y Q .
Proof: Given (from equation 2, pg. 235)
j i
ij
y y a = 1
Differentiating it
j i
ij
j i
ij
dy y a y dy a + = 0
or
i j
ij
j i
ij
dy y a y dy a + = 0
j i
ij
y dy a 2 = 0
j i
ij
y dy a = 0
This shows that dy
i
is tangential to the quadric. Hence y
j
is normal to the quadric.
The tangent hyperplane at the point P ( y
j
) is given by
j
ij
i i
y a y Y ) ( = 0
j i
ij
y Y a =
j i
ij
y y a
j i
ij
y Y a = 1 since
j i
ij
y y a = 1 (4)
This equation represents the equation of tangent hyperplane at P ( y
i
) .
If the tangent hyperplane P ( y
j
) passes through the point Q (y
i
). Then we have
j
ij
i
y a y = 1 (5)
Thus all points of the hyperquadric, the tangent hyperplanes at which pass through Q lie on the
hyperplane (5) on which y
i
is the current point. This is the hyperplane of contact of the tangent
hypercone whose vertex is ) (
i
y Q .
12.13 POLAR HYPERPLANE
The polar hyperplane of the point )
~
(
i
y R with respect to quadric (2) is the locus of the vertices of the
hypercones which touch the hyperquadric along its intersections with hyperplanes through R. If ) (
i
y Q
is the vertex of such tangent hypercone, then R lies on the hyperplane of contact of Q so that
j
ij
i
y a y
~
= 1
Consequently for all positions of the hyperplane through R, Q lies on the hyperplane
j
ij
i
y a y
~
= 1 (6)
This is required equations of the polar hyperplane of R and R is the pole of this hyperplane.
Hypersurface 237
12.14 EVOLUTE OF A HYPERSURFACE IN EUCLIDEAN SPACE
Consider a hypersurface V
n
of Euclidean space S
n + 1
and let x
i
(i = 1, 2, n) be coordinates of an
arbitrary point P of V
n
whose components relative to S
n + 1
are
( ) 1 , 2 , 1 +
n y L
Let N
be a unit normal vector at P relative to S

n + 1
so that tensor derivate N
becomes covariant
derivative.
So,

i
N
;
=

i
N
,
=
k
jk
ij
y g
,
(1)
ij
y
;
=

ij
y
,
=
N
ij
(2)
and g
ij
=

+

j i
n
y y
, ,
1
1
(3)
Let ) (

y P be a point on the unit normal N
such that distance of P from P is in the direction

of N
such that
y =

+ N y
(4)
Suppose P undergoes a displacement dx
i
in V
n
then the corresponding displacement
y d of P is
given by
y d = + +

d N dx N y
i
i i
) (
, ,
(5)
The vector
i
i i
dx N y ) (
, ,

+ is tangential to V
n
whereas N
d is a normal vector. Therefore if the

displacement of ) (

y P be along the normal to the hypersurface then we have
i
i i
dx N y ) 0 (
, ,

= 0 (6)
Using equation (1) in equation (6), we get
i
k
jk
i
dx y g y ) (
, ,

= 0
Multiplying it by
i
y
,
and summing with respect to , we get, using equation (3), as
i
lk
jk
ij il
x d g g g ) ( = 0
i j
l ij il
x d g ) ( = 0
i
il il
dx g ) ( = 0
i
ij ij
x d g ) ( = 0 (7)
This shows that the directions dx
i
given by equation (7) are principal directions of the hypersurface
where the roots of the equation |g
ij

ij
| = 0 are called principal radii of normal curvature. The
locus of ) (

y P satisfying the condition (4) is called evolute of the hypersurface V
n
of S
n + 1
where
is a root of (7). The evolute is also a hypersurface of S
n + 1
.
12.15 HYPERSPHERE
The locus of a point in S
n
which moves in such way that it is always at a fixed distance R from a fixed
point ) (

b C is called a hypersphere of radius R and centre C. Therefore the equation of such a
hypersphere is given by
1

n
b y
2
) (
= R
2
(1)
THEOREM 12.10 The Riemannian curvatrure of a hypersphere of radius R is constant and equal to
2
1
R
.
Proof: Let the hypersurface be a V
n
of S
n + 1
and let its centre be taken as origin of Euclidean
coordinates in S
n + 1.
Then the hypersphere is given by
2
) (y
= R
2
, ( = 1, 2, , n + 1) (2)
For the point in V
n
the y's are functions of the coordinates x
i
on the hypersphere.
Differentiating equation (2) with respect to x
i
, we get

i
y y
,
= 0 (3)
and again differentiating it with respect to x
j
, we get.

+
ij i j
y y y y
, , , = 0 (4)
By Gauss formula,
ij
y
,
=

N
ij
(5)

+ N y g
ij ij = 0 (6)
From equation (3) it follows that
i
y
,
is perpendicular to
y . But
i
y
,
is tangential to V
m
. Hence
y is normal to V
n.
. The equation (2) implies that the components of the unit vector
N
are given by
N
=

RN y
R
y
(7)
ij ij
N N R g +

= 0
or

+
2
) (N R g
ij ij
= 0
or
ij ij
R g + = 0 since 1 ) (
2
N
2. To prove that for a space V
n
with positive constant Riemannian curvature K these exists sets of n + 1 real
coordinate
y satisfying the condition
1
1
) (
n
y
=
K
1
where R
2
=
K
1
Proof: Using (9) in equation (1), we get
2
) (y
=
K
1
Proved.
EXAMPLE 2
Show that the directions of two lines of curvature at a point of a hypersurface are conjugate.
Solution
The principal direction
i
h
e
|
are given by
j
h
i
h ij
e e
| |
= 0 (1)
The shows that principal directions at a point of a hypersurface are conjugate.
Thus we say that two congruences of lines of curvature are conjugate.
EXAMPLE 3
Show that the normal curvature of hyper surface V
n
in an asymptotic direction vanishes.
Solution
Let us consider a curve C in a V
n
. If C is an asymptotic line then it satisfies the differential
equation
j i
ij
dx dx = 0
i.e.,
ds
dx
ds
dx
j i
ij
= 0 (1)
Now the normal curvature K
n
of the hypersurface V
n
in an asymptotic direction in a V
n
is given
by
K
n
=
ds
dx
ds
dx
j i
ij
i.e., K
n
= 0 from (1)
EXAMPLE 4
To prove that if the polar hyperplane of the point R passes through a point P then that of P passes
through R.
Solution
Let ) (
i
y P and ) (
i
y R be two points. The polar hyperplane of ) (
i
y R is
11. Prove that the necessary and sufficient condition that system of hypersurface with unit normal N be
isothermic is that
) . div ( N N N N = 0.
12. Show that the normal curvature of a subspace in an asymptotic direction is zero.
13. If straight line through a point P in S
n
meets a hyperquadric in A and B and the polar hyperplane of
P in Q prove that P, Q are harmonic conjugates to A, B.
14. What are evolutes of a hypersurface in an Euclidean space. Show that the varieties
1
= constant in
evolute are parallel, having the curves of parameter
1
as orthogonal geodesics of V
n
.
INDEX
A
Absolute 131
Addition and Subtraction of Tensors 15
Associated tensor 43
Asymptotic directions 229
B
Bianchi identity 94
Binormal 137
C
Canonical congruence 213
Christoffels symbols 55
Completely skew-symmetric 111
Completely symmetric 111
Concept 188
Congruence of curves 49
Conjugate (or Reciprocal) Symmetric Tensor 25
Conjugate directions 229
Conjugate metric tensor 34
Conservative force field 144
Contraction 18
Contravariant tensor of rank r 14
Contravariant Tensor of rank two 9
Contravariant vector 7
Covariant tensor of rank s 14
Covariant tensor of rank two 9
Covariant vector 7
Curl 76
Curl of congruence 211
Curvature 136
Curvature of Congruence 207
Curvature tensor 86
D
Degree of freedom 157
Dextral Index 1
Divergence 75
Divergence Theorem 161
Dummy index 1
Dupins Theorem 226
E
Einstein space 103
Einstein tensor 95
Einsteins Summation Convention 1
Eulers condition 171
Eulers Theorem 228
Evolute 237
F
First curvature 227
First curvature vector of curve 170
First fundamental tensor 34
Free Index 2
Fundamental tensor 31
Fundamental theorem 199
G
Gauss Characteristic equation 233
Gausss formula 222
Gausss theorem 164
Generalised Krnecker delta 112
Generalized coordinates 157
Geodesic congruence 208
Geodesic coordinate system 175
Geodesics 171
Gradient 75
Greens Theorem 162
H
Hamiltons principle 153
Hypersphere 238
Hypersurface 48, 218
I
Inner product of two tensors 18
Integral of energy 155
Intrinsic derivative 131
K
Kinetic energy 144
Krnecker Delta 2
L
Lagrangean equation 148
Lagrangean function 148
Laplaces equation 167
Laplacian operator 80, 163
Length of a curve 42
Levi-civitas concept 188
Line element 31
Line of curvature 227
M
Magnitude of vector 44
Mainardi-Codazzi equations 233
Mean curvature 101
Meauniers Theorem 225
Metric Tensor 31
Minimal curve 42
Minimal Hypersurface 227, 234
mixed tensor of rank r + s 14
mixed tensor of rank two 9
N
Newtonian Laws 142
Normal congruence 209
n-ply orthogonal system of hypersurfaces 49
Null curve 42
O
Orthogonal Cartesian coordinates 120
Orthogonal ennuple 49
Osculating plane 136
Outer Product of Tensor 16
P
Parallel vector fields 134
Parallelism 188
Poissons equation 166
Polar hyperplane 236
Potential energy 145
Principal directions of the hypersurface 227
Principle normal vector 136
Principle normal curvatures 227
Principle of least action 156
Projective curvature tensor 104
Q
Quotient Law 24
R
Reciprocal base systems 122
I ndex 245
Relative Tensor 26
Ricci tensor 88
Riccis principal directions 102
Riccis coefficients of rotation 205
Riccis Theorem 71
Riemann curvature 96
Riemanns symbol 86
Riemannian coordinates 177
Riemannian Geometry 31, 116
Riemannian Metric 31
Riemannian space 31
S
Scalar product of two vectors 44
Schurs theorem 100
Second fundamental tensors 34
Serret-Frenet formula 138
Simple Pendulum 152
Skew-Symmetric Tensor 20
Stokes Theorem 164
Straight line 140
Subscripts 1
Superscripts 1
Symmetric Tensors 20
T
Tensor density 26
Torsion 137
Totally geodesic hypersurface 234
Transformation of Coordinates 6
U
Umbral 1
Unit principal normal 171
W
Weyl tensor 104
Work function W 145

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By using summation convention,

4 Tensors and Their Applications

It is law of transformation of contravariant vector. So,

It is law of transformation of component of covariant vector. So,

be the component of the tangent vector of the point ) ,..., , (

It is law of transformation of component of contravariant vector. So,

This shows that Krnecker

do not form a tensor..

This shows that if we make direct transformation from

12 Tensors and Their Applications

This shows that if we make direct transformation from

This shows that if we make direct transformation from

The shows that

This is law of transformation of tensor of rank two. So,

18 Tensors and Their Applications

This is law of transformation of tensor of rank five. So,

Put the covariant index l = contravariant index i, so that

This is law of transformation of tensor of rank 3. So,

Multiplying these, we get

are component of a Skew-symmetric covariant tensor of rank two.

So, from (1)

So, from (1)

So, A(i, j, k) is tensor of type (1, 2).

26 Tensors and Their Applications

2.17 RELATIVE TENSOR

is the Jacobian of transformation. If

are components of two arbitrary vectors then

It is law of transformation of contravariant vector. So,

from equation (2)

Note (i) Tensors g

since i, j are dummy indices.

= , cos sin , sin sin

Now, the length of arc, , 2 1 t is

then from (1)

Taking determinant of both sides

is the angle between the two vectors

4.2 TRANSFORMATION OF CHRISTOFFEL'S SYMBOLS

Since we know that

Differentiating it partially w.r.t. to

69 Christoffel's Symbols and Covariant Differentiation 69

71 Christoffel's Symbols and Covariant Differentiation 71

are components of a tensor of rank three where

It is law of transformation of tensor of rank three.

are components of a tensor of rank three.

and using equation (1) we get

be scalar functions of coordinates x

is a scalar function of coordinates

(Sec Ex. 7, Pg 75)

5.3 COVARIANT RIEMANN-CHRISTOFFEL TENSOR

n n R for , 2 n i.e., they are ( ) . 1 1 2 2

u and suppose that the corresponding value of

Since K is constant and independent of the orientaion.

110 Tensors and Their Applications

zero is symbol the of value the cases other all in 0,

THEOREM 6.2 To prove that

. For n = 3, the result is

first contract it and the multiply the result by

has the values.

is replaced by some function t = ) (s and we denote ( ) [ ] s x

Substituting these values in

We must have the relation F F ) , (

and substituting in equation (6), we get