Volta's work was stimulated by the Italian anatomist and physiologist Luigi Galvani, who in 1780 noticed that

dissected frog's legs would twitch when struck by a spark from a Leyden jar, an external source of electricity.
[9] [8]

In

1786 he noticed that twitching would occur during lightning storms. After many years Galvani learned how to produce twitching without using any external source of electricity. In 1791, he published a report on "animal electricity." He created an electric circuit consisting of the frog's leg (FL) and two different metals A and B, each metal touching the frog's leg and each other, thus producing the circuit AFLBAFLB...etc. In modern terms, the frog's leg served as both theelectrolyte and the sensor, and the metals served as electrodes. He noticed that even though the frog was dead, its legs would twitch when he touched them with the metals.
[10]

A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy. It consists of a number of voltaic cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half-cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate, i.e., the anode or negative electrode; the other halfcell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which cations (positively charged ions) migrate, i.e., the cathode or positive electrode. In theredox reaction that powers the battery, cations are reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode, while anions are oxidized (electrons are removed) at the [23] anode. The electrodes do not touch each other but are electrically connected by the electrolyte. Some cells use two half-cells with different electrolytes. A separator between half-cells allows ions to flow, but prevents mixing of the electrolytes.
Each half-cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to drive electric current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the difference between the emfs of its half-cells, as first recognized by Volta. Therefore, if the electrodes have emfs and , then the net emf is [24] other words, the net emf is the difference between the reduction potentials of thehalf-reactions.
[12]

[22]

; in

The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal voltage [25] (difference) and is measured involts. The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither charging nor discharging is [26] called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell. Because of internal resistance, the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage [27] of a cell that is charging exceeds the open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would maintain a constant terminal voltage of until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell maintained 1.5 volts and stored a charge of one coulomb then on complete discharge it would perform 1.5joule of [25] [26] work. In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under discharge, and the open circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the voltage and resistance are plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically [28] are a curve; the shape of the curve varies according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed. As stated above, the voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and zinccarboncells have different chemistries but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and NiMH cells have different chemistries, but [29] approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts. On the other hand the high electrochemical potential changes in the [30] reactions of lithium compounds give lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or more. Although rechargeable batteries have their energy content restored by charging, some deterioration occurs on each chargedischarge cycle. Low-capacity NiMH batteries (17002000 mAh) can be charged for about 1000 [56] cycles, whereas high-capacity NiMH batteries (above 2500 mAh) can be charged for about 500 cycles. NiCd batteries tend to be rated for 1000 cycles before their internal resistance permanently increases beyond usable values. Under normal circumstances, a fast charge, rather than a slow overnight charge, will shorten battery [56] lifespan. However, if the overnight charger is not "smart" and cannot detect when the battery is fully charged, [57] then overcharging is likely, which also damages the battery. Degradation usually occurs because electrolyte migrates away from the electrodes or because active material falls off the electrodes. NiCd batteries suffer the drawback that they should be fully discharged before recharge. Without full discharge, crystals may build up on the electrodes, thus decreasing the active surface area and increasing internal resistance. This decreases battery

capacity and causes the "memory effect". These electrode crystals can also penetrate the electrolyte separator, thereby causing shorts. NiMH, although similar in chemistry, does not suffer from memory effect to quite this [58] extent. A battery does not suddenly stop working; its capacity gradually decreases over its lifetime, until it can [59] no longer hold sufficient charge.

An analog camcorder battery [lithium ion].

Automotive leadacid rechargeable batteries have a much harder life. Because of vibration, shock, heat, cold, [61] and sulfation of their lead plates, few automotive batteries last beyond six years of regular use. Automotive starting batteries have many thin plates to provide as much current as possible in a reasonably small package. In [60] general, the thicker the plates, the longer the life of the battery. They are typically drained only a small amount before recharge. Care should be taken to avoid deep discharging a starting battery, since each charge and discharge cycle causes active material to be shed from the plates.

[60]

Almost any liquid or moist object that has enough ions to be electrically conductive can serve as the electrolyte for a cell. As a novelty or science demonstration, it is possible to insert two electrodes [78] [79] made of different metals into a lemon, potato, etc. and generate small amounts of electricity. "Two-potato clocks" are also widely available in hobby and toy stores; they consist of a pair of cells, each consisting of a potato (lemon, et cetera) with two electrodes inserted into it, wired in series to [80] form a battery with enough voltage to power a digital clock. Homemade cells of this kind are of no real practical use, because they produce far less current and cost far more per unit of energy generatedthan commercial cells

ELECTRODES
An electrode is an electrical conductor used to make contact with a nonmetallic part of a circuit (e.g. a semiconductor, anelectrolyte or a vacuum). The word was coined by the scientist Michael Faraday from the Greek words elektron (meaningamber, from which the word electricity is derived) and hodos, a way.
[1]

Anode and cathode in electrochemical cells

An electrode in an electrochemical cell is referred to as either an anode or a cathode (words that were also coined by Faraday). The anode is now defined as the electrode at which electrons leave the cell and oxidation occurs, and the cathode as the electrode at which electrons enter the cell and reduction occurs.

Each electrode may become either the anode or the cathode depending on the direction of current through the cell. A bipolar electrode is an electrode that functions as the anode of one cell and the cathode of another cell. [edit]Primary

cell

A primary cell is a special type of electrochemical cell in which the reaction cannot be reversed, and the identities of the anode and cathode are therefore fixed. The anode is always the negative electrode. The cell can be discharged but not recharged. [edit]Secondary

cell

A secondary cell, for example a rechargeable battery, is one in which the chemical reactions are reversible. When the cell is being charged, the anode becomes the positive (+) and the cathode the negative () electrode. This is also the case in an electrolytic cell. When the cell is being discharged, it behaves like a primary cell, with the anode as the negative and the cathode as the positive electrode. [edit]Other

anodes and cathodes

In a vacuum tube or a semiconductor having polarity (diodes, electrolytic capacitors) the anode is the positive (+) electrode and the cathode the negative (). The electrons enter the device through the cathode and exit the device through the anode. Many devices have other electrodes to control operation, e.g., base, gate, control grid. In a three-electrode cell, a counter electrode, also called an auxiliary electrode, is used only to make a connection to the electrolyte so that a current can be applied to the working electrode. The counter electrode is usually made of an inert material, such as a noble metal or graphite, to keep it from dissolving. [edit]Welding

electrodes

In arc welding an electrode is used to conduct current through a workpiece to fuse two pieces together. Depending upon the process, the electrode is either consumable, in the case of gas metal arc welding or shielded metal arc welding, or non-consumable, such as in gas tungsten arc welding. For a direct current system the weld rod or stick may be a cathode for a filling type weld or an anode for other welding processes. For an alternating current arc welder the welding electrode would not be considered an anode or cathode. [edit]Alternating

current electrodes

For electrical systems which use alternating current the electrodes are the connections from the circuitry to the object to be acted upon by the electric current but are not designated anode or cathode since the direction of flow of the electrons changes periodically, usually many times per second. [edit]Uses Electrodes are used to provide current through nonmetal objects to alter them in numerous ways and to measure conductivity for numerous purposes. Examples include:

Electrodes for medical purposes, such as EEG, ECG, ECT, defibrillator Electrodes for electrophysiology techniques in biomedical research Electrodes for execution by the electric chair Electrodes for electroplating Electrodes for arc welding Electrodes for cathodic protection Electrodes for grounding Electrodes for chemical analysis using electrochemical methods Inert electrodes for electrolysis (made of platinum) Membrane electrode assembly