CHAPTER 1

The Problem and its Background

Introduction

How can it be that mathematics, being after all a

product of human thought independent of experience, is so

admirably adapted to the objects of reality? –Albert

Einstein

Mathematics is the science which deals with numbers,

shapes, patterns, measurements and the concepts related to

them, and their relationships. Mathematics affects greatly

in everyday lives. Every little thing that people do,

without realizing it, has some mathematical principles

behind it. Indeed, mathematics can be seen everywhere.

The world of mathematics usually tends to be thought

of as abstract. Complex and imaginary numbers, real numbers,

logarithms, functions, some tangible and others

unperceivable but these abstract numbers are simply symbols

that conjure an image, a quality in mind, and complex

equations take on a new meaning with fractals.

Fractal Geometry is one of the most recent discoveries

in the field of mathematics. Most of the mathematical

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objects that were studied have dimensions that are natural

numbers. Examples of these include points, with dimension

zero; lines, of dimension one; rectangles and triangles, of

dimension two; and cubes and pyramids, of dimension three.

These shapes abound in the world, but they usually

characterize objects that are man-made. A classroom for

example exemplifies a rectangular prism but as Mandelbrot

says,

”Clouds are not spheres, mountains are not cones,

coastlines are not circles and bark is not smooth nor does

lightning travel in a straight line… The existence of these

patterns challenges to study those forms that Euclid leaves

aside as being ‘formless’, to investigate the morphology of

the ‘amorphous’.”

In Fractal Geometry, it is shown that there are

geometric objects whose dimensions are not natural numbers

such as the shape of clouds, mountains, coastlines, trees

and many natural objects found in nature that exhibit

fractional dimensions.

Benoit Mandelbrot is an IBM mathematician who

discovered fractal and was considered as the father of

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fractal geometry. He coined the word fractal to describe

those mathematical objects.

Fractal comes from the Latin adjective fractus with

the corresponding verb frangere, which means to break into

irregular fragments. This verb refers to a quality often

characterizing natural objects that look fragmented,

irregular, broken, and complex.

Mandelbrot also defined it as a set for which the

Hausdorf Besicovitch dimension strictly exceeds the

topological dimension. (Kern and Mauk, 1990, p. 179) In less

technical language this definition means that a one-

dimensional line can, in some fashion, be bent so many times

that the line begins to fill space.

The turning point in the discovery of fractals traces

a path from chiefly theoretical studies to modern

applications in computer graphics, with several notable

people contributing certain fractal forms along the way.

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractal)

In the late nineteenth and early twentieth century,

mathematicians such as Georg Cantor, Giuseppe Peano, Helge

von Koch, Gaston, Julia, and Pierra Fatou experimented with

what are now considered classic fractals. But at that time,

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the classic fractals were scorned by the mathematical

community and thought of as “zoo of mathematical monsters”

(Peitgen, Jurgens, & Saupe, 1992, p.79) and “pathologically

unlike anything to be found in nature” (Lornell and

Westerberg, 1999, p.264). That’s why it was forgotten for a

while. Fractals were brought to the surface again when the

computer was invented. Through opportunities to use

computers were knowingly and systematically spurned by every

mathematician at that time, it did not deter Mandelbrot to

experiment and graph a million of points on it. With the

help of his excellent programmer, Peter Moldave, he was able

to make a beautiful and complex image now known as the

Mandelbrot Set.

Fractals in general, and the Mandelbrot set in

particular, demonstrate how simple mathematical principles

can generate an extremely complex and beautiful image.

Fractals represent a departure from the mathematics of

straight lines, boxes and triangles; they are a visual

representation of the way complicated world can be organized

with mathematics and how natural phenomenon and everyday

events can be traced with scientific principles.

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In view of this, it is the main feature of this study

to introduce the mathematical concepts behind the

mathematics of fractals, present these concepts that can be

easily understood by the readers in a way that readers will

find them motivating and sensible to learn and reflect on.

This study also aims not only to discuss such

mathematical concepts, but also enable readers to appreciate

mathematics, not just a subject matter, but rather an area

that is indispensable to human life.

Conceptual Framework

This study aims to generate fractals, the Mandelbrot

Set and its association to other fractals.

In connection with this, a conceptual framework in the

form of paradigm as shown in Figure 1 illustrates the flow

and the whole process of the study. The Input – Process –

Output design employed in the study serves as the

researchers’ guide in undergoing the research. The

researchers introduced the pre-requisite knowledge needed in

understanding fractals and discussed the basic ideas,

concepts and definitions related to the study of fractals,

which is found in Input.

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Moreover, process includes discussion of the

Mandelbrot set fractal, showing how Mandelbrot set can be

generated and presented through steps on generating

Mandelbrot set and illustrating some examples.

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

Basic Ideas Define what is

and Concepts Mandelbrot
in Set.

 Sets Discuss the

algorithms and
 Complex procedures in Collected,
Numbers generating systematize,
Mandelbrot
 Plotting set. and
in a
synthesized
complex Show some
plane properties of results
the Mandelbrot
 Series and set. on the
Sequences
Generate some study
 Iteration points
belonging to of
 Basic Mandelbrot set
concepts Mandelbrot
Show some set.
on
fractals that
fractals are closely
related to
 Quadratic Mandelbrot set
function

Figure 1: The Research Paradigm of the Study on Mandelbrot

Set Fractal
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In the attempt to study and generate fractal sets,

concepts and ideas in Algebra, Fractal Geometry and Complex

Analysis were used. These were processed through

definitions, presentation of theorems supported by proof,

citing examples, making use of materials gathered related to

fractal geometry.

Through organizing and carefully analyzing the

presented materials during the course of research, the

result of the study On Mandelbrot Set served as the output

of the study.

Statement of the Problem

This study concentrated on definition and properties

of Mandelbrot set. Specifically, it attempted to answer the

following questions:

1. What is Mandelbrot Set ?

2. What are the steps to generate a Mandelbrot set?

3. What are the properties of Mandelbrot set ?

4. What are the other sets of fractals that are closely

related to Mandelbrot set?

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Assumption of the Study

For a better appreciation of this study, it is

assumed that the readers have:

1. background on basic concepts on sets, polynomial

functions, and complex analysis;

2. an extensive skill in algebraic operations and

manipulation; and

3. Read something about Fractal Geometry.

Scope and Limitation of the Study

The study focused on Mandelbrot set and its

properties. Its scope included the definition of Mandelbrot

set and other fractals that are closely related to the set.

The discussion includes properties and proving some

theorems on Mandelbrot set, showing procedures on how the

fractal sets are generated by the family of quadratic

function . Although, most of these sets are

computer generated, in this study, some steps and procedures

on how to generate them manually were presented

The procedures or computer programs used in the

computer generated images of fractal sets in the study are

beyond the scope of the study.

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Significance of the Study

A lot of people are now becoming more interested on

different fields of studying geometry, particularly in the

new arousing chaos and fractals because of the fact that

patterns and figures created within have affect on people’s

lives. It is in this light that eagerness to explore and

learn about fractals grew to consider them as topic of

research.

The mathematics behind fractal is incredibly

interesting and captivating. However, fractals are not

really popular to everyone. It became a huge question on

their relevance and importance in different fields of study

in general and in mathematics in particular. But as an

interesting topic in contemporary mathematics and computer

graphics as well, this served as a challenge to investigate

what fractals are all about.

Studying fractals was a great source of enriching

one’s knowledge in mathematics because of the reason that

fractals have been widely applied to describe the great

variety of irregular, rough and fragmented objects of

natural forms that is usually found in nature. The geometry

of fractals shows patterns observed in the natural world.

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The study would train and inspire one to search for

patterns, make generalizations, formulate rules and

transform them to mathematical formulas.

Somehow, this paper would create an impression that

mathematics is not boring and difficult; it could also be

fun. It doesn’t only speak the language of numbers but it

conveys an art too.

Definition of terms

The following terminologies used in the entire

discussion of the study were defined for better

understanding of this research study. The definitions were

taken from mathematics book, internet and mathematics

dictionary.

Arcwise (or path) connected is arcwise connected if

every two points in are joined by an arc in .

Attractor is a set towards which a variable moving

according to the dictates of a dynamical system evolves over

time. That is, points that get close enough to the attractor

remain close even if slightly disturbed.

Closed Set is one that contains its boundary.

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Connectedness is connected if there are no proper

closed subsets and of such that union , but

intersect is empty. That is is connected if it is a

single piece.

Continuous function is wherein if for any there

exists a such that implies ,

where measures distance in the domain of , and

measures distance in the range of . This is the epsilon-

delta definition.

Complex Conjugate of a complex number is

defined as . Extending this concept, complex

conjugate can be defined as a set of complex numbers by

which .

Complex Dynamics is the study of dynamical

system defined by iteration of functions on complex

number spaces.

Complex Analytic Dynamics is the study of the dynamics

of specifically analytic functions.

Critical Point is the maximum, minimum, or point of

inflection of a curve. It is a point at which the derivative

of a function is zero, infinite, or undefined.

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Dynamical System is a concept in mathematics where a

fixed rule describes the time dependence of a point in a

geometrical space. This study is concerned with describing

and analyzing the behavior of iterated functions.

Generator is the bent line-segment or figure that

replaces the initiator at each iteration of a fractal.

Initiator is a line-segment or figure that begins as

the beginning geometric shape for a fractal. The initiator

is then replaced by the generator for the fractal.

Iteration is the repeating a set of rules or steps

over and over. One step is called an iterate.

Linear Conjugacy is a property of two functions and

such that if there exists a function of the form

, are linearly conjugate. It is easy to

check that the inverse of is .

Locally Connected is a set with the property that if

for every point in , for every open set containing ,

there is an open set containing and contained in the

connected component of in . That is is locally

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connected if every connected component of every open subset

is open in .

Magnitude a complex number denoted by , is

defined as , and can be visualized as the

distance from to the origin of the complex plane.

Open Set is one that does not contain any part of its

boundary.

Parameter is a constant in an equation that varies in

other equations of the same general form, especially such a

constant in the equation of a curve or surface that can be

varied to represent a family of curves or surfaces. One set

of independent variable that expresses the coordinates of a

point.

Recursion is the process of repeating items in a self-

similar way. Given some starting information and a rule for

how to use it to get new information; the rule is then

repeated using the new information.

Self-similarity is a characteristic or state of having

an appearance that is invariant upon being scaled larger or

smaller.
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Simply Connected is a set that is connected and

every closed curve in can be deformed in to some

constant closed curve. That is is simply connected if it

has no holes.