Basics of Automobiles

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CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION TO TATA MOTORS ............................................................................. 4 AUTOMOBILES ............................................................................................................... 9 MAJOR SUB SYSTEMS OF AN AUTOMOBILE .......................................................... 9 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE .......................................................................... 10 PARTS OF AN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE ................................................. 10 FOUR STROKE CYCLE (PETROL ENGINES) .......................................................... 11 DIESEL ENGINES ...................................................................................................... 13 DIESEL CYCLE .......................................................................................................... 13 ENGINE BLOCK ......................................................................................................... 14 CYLINDERS................................................................................................................ 14 ENGINE CONFIGURATION ....................................................................................... 15 ENGINE CAPACITY ................................................................................................... 15 PISTON....................................................................................................................... 16 POPPET VALVES....................................................................................................... 16 CAM SHAFT ............................................................................................................... 17 CRANK SHAFT........................................................................................................... 17 POWER TRAIN .............................................................................................................. 19 MANUAL TRANSMISSION......................................................................................... 19 AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSION................................................................................... 20 GEARS........................................................................................................................ 20 CLUTCH...................................................................................................................... 20 DIFFERENTIAL........................................................................................................... 21 DRIVE SHAFT / PROPELLER SHAFT ....................................................................... 23 FRONT WHEEL DRIVE .............................................................................................. 23 REAR WHEEL DRIVE ................................................................................................ 24 FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEM ............................................................................................... 27 FUEL PUMP................................................................................................................ 27 FUEL INJECTION IN A PETROL ENGINE................................................................. 27 CARBURETOR ........................................................................................................... 27 FUEL INJECTION IN DIESEL ENGINE...................................................................... 28
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FUEL INJECTOR ........................................................................................................ 28 TURBOCHARGER...................................................................................................... 29 VALVES ...................................................................................................................... 29 IGNITION SYSTEM ........................................................................................................ 31 BATTERY OPERATED IGNITION.............................................................................. 31 SPARK IGNITION ....................................................................................................... 32 COMPRESSION IGNITION ........................................................................................ 32 SPARK PLUG ............................................................................................................. 32 ALTERNATOR ............................................................................................................ 33 BATTERY.................................................................................................................... 33 EXHAUST SYSTEM ................................................................................................... 34 PARTS OF AN EXHAUST SYSTEM .......................................................................... 34 MANIFOLD.................................................................................................................. 34 CATALYTIC CONVERTOR ........................................................................................ 35 EXHAUST PIPE .......................................................................................................... 35 SILENCER OR MUFFLER......................................................................................... 36 COOLING SYSTEM ....................................................................................................... 38 RADIATOR.................................................................................................................. 38 INTERCOOLER .......................................................................................................... 38 BRAKING SYSTEM ....................................................................................................... 40 BRAKE PEDAL ........................................................................................................... 40 BRAKES...................................................................................................................... 40 1) DRUM BRAKES...................................................................................................... 40 2) DISC BRAKES........................................................................................................ 40 3) HYDRAULIC BRAKES............................................................................................ 40 HYDRAULIC BRAKES................................................................................................ 40 BUILD ............................................................................................................................. 42 CHASIS....................................................................................................................... 42 MONOCOQUE............................................................................................................ 42 AXLE ...........................................................................................................................42 SUSPENSION............................................................................................................. 43
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STEERING.................................................................................................................. 43 GLOSSARY.................................................................................................................... 45 CAR BODY STYLES................................................................................................... 45 TECH SPEAK ............................................................................................................. 48 LIST OF SOME USEFUL LINKS.................................................................................... 66
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AUTOMOBILES
An automobile is a wheeled vehicle that carries its own motor. Different types of automobiles include cars, buses, trucks, vans, and motorcycles, with cars being the most popular. The term is derived from Greek 'autos' (self) and Latin 'movre' (move), referring to the fact that it 'moves by itself'. Earlier terms for automobile include 'horseless carriage' and 'motor car'. As of 2005 there are 600 million cars worldwide (0.074 per capita). MAJOR SUB SYSTEMS OF AN AUTOMOBILE The major subsystems of an automobile are 1) engine 2) transmission 3) fuel supply system 4) fuel ignition system 5) exhaust system 6) cooling system 7) braking system 8) build The following chapters describe each system with all major components and working in brief.
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ENGINES
An engine is something that produces some effect from a given input. Automotive production down the ages has required a wide range of energyconversion and systems. types These of include electric, steam, solar, turbine, rotary, different piston-type The internal combustion engines.
gasoline internal combustion engine, operating on a four-stroke Otto cycle, has traditionally been the most successful for automobiles, while diesel engines are widely used for trucks and buses. Karl Benz led in the development of new engines. The internal combustion engine was originally selected for the automobile due to its flexibility over a wide range of speeds. Also, the power developed for a given weight engine was reasonable; it could be produced by economical mass-production methods; and it used a readily available, moderately priced fuel- petrol.
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE The internal combustion engine is a heat engine in which the burning of a fuel occurs in a confined space called a combustion gases of pressure, chamber. high which are This creates and to temperature permitted
expand. The defining feature of an internal combustion engine is that useful work is performed by the expanding hot gases acting directly to cause movement, for example by acting on pistons, rotors, or even by pressing on and moving the entire engine itself.
PARTS OF AN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE The parts of an engine vary depending on the engine's type. For a four-stroke engine, key parts of the engine include the crankshaft (purple), one or more camshafts (red and
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blue) and valves. For a two-stroke engine, there may simply be an exhaust outlet and fuel inlet instead of a valve system. In both types of engines, there are one or more cylinders (grey and green) and for each cylinder in a petrol engine there is a spark plug (darker-grey), a piston (yellow) and a crank (purple). A single sweep of the cylinder by the piston in an upward or downward motion is known as a stroke and the downward stroke that occurs directly after the air-fuel mix in the cylinder is ignited is known as a power stroke. The various parts of an engine are discussed later.
FOUR STROKE CYCLE (PETROL ENGINES) The four-stroke cycle (or Otto cycle) of an internal combustion engine is the cycle most commonly used for automotive and industrial purposes today (cars and trucks, generators, etc). The Otto cycle is characterized by four strokes, or straight movements alternately, back and forth, of a piston inside a cylinder: Intake stroke Compression stroke Combustion stroke Exhaust stroke
Intake Stroke- During the intake stroke, the piston moves downward, drawing a fresh charge of vaporized fuel/air mixture. The illustrated engine features a 'poppet' intake valve which is drawn open by the vacuum produced by the intake stroke. Some early engines worked this way, however most modern engines incorporate an extra cam/lifter arrangement as seen on the exhaust valve. The exhaust valve is held shut by a spring (not illustrated here). Compression Stroke- As the piston rises the poppet valve is forced shut by the increased cylinder pressure. compressing the fuel/air mixture. Flywheel momentum drives the piston upward,
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Power Stroke. At the top of the compression stroke the spark plug fires, igniting the compressed fuel. As the fuel burns it expands, driving the piston downward
Intake Stroke
Compression Stroke
Power Stroke
Exhaust Stroke
Exhaust Stroke. At the bottom of the power stroke, the exhaust valve is opened by the cam/lifter mechanism. The upward stroke of the piston drives the exhausted fuel out of the cylinder.
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DIESEL ENGINES The diesel engine is a type of internal combustion engine; more specifically, it is a compression ignition engine, in which the fuel is ignited by being suddenly exposed to the high temperature and pressure of a compressed gas, rather than by a separate source of ignition, such as a spark plug, as is the case in the petrol engine. This is known as the diesel cycle, after German engineer Rudolf Diesel In a diesel engine, instead of the air fuel mixture as in petrol engines, only air is sucked in and the fuel is injected into the cylinder in the power stroke.
DIESEL CYCLE When a gas is compressed, its temperature rises; a diesel engine uses this property to ignite the fuel. INTAKE STROKE: Air is drawn into the cylinder of a diesel engine COMPRESSION STROKE: Air taken in the previous stroke is compressed by the rising piston at a much higher compression ratio than for a spark-ignition engine, up to 25:1. The air temperature reaches 700900 C, or 13001650 F. POWER STROKE: At the top of the piston stroke, diesel fuel is injected into the combustion chamber at high pressure, through an atomizing nozzle, mixing with the hot, high-pressure air. The resulting mixture ignites and burns very rapidly. This contained combustion causes the gas in the chamber to heat up rapidly, which increases its pressure, which in turn forces the piston downwards. The connecting rod transmits this motion to the crankshaft, which is forced to turn, delivering rotary power at the output end of the crankshaft. EXHAUST STROKE: Scavenging (pushing the exhausted gas-charge out of the cylinder, and drawing in a fresh draught of air) of the engine is done either by ports or valves.
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To fully realize the capabilities of a diesel engine, use of a turbocharger to compress the intake air is necessary; use of an aftercooler/intercooler to cool the intake air after compression by the turbocharger further increases efficiency
ENGINE BLOCK The cylinder block is a machined casting (or sometimes an assembly of modules) containing cylindrically bored holes for the pistons of a multi-cylinder reciprocating internal combustion engine, or for a similarly constructed device such as a pump. It is a complicated part at the heart of an engine, with adaptations to attach the cylinder head, crankcase, engine mounts, drive housing and engine ancillaries, with passages for coolants and lubricant
CYLINDERS Internal combustion engines can contain any number of cylinders with numbers between one and twelve being common; though as many as 30 have been used. Having more cylinders in an engine yields two potential benefits: First: the engine can have a larger displacement with smaller individual reciprocating masses (that is, the mass of each piston can be less) thus making a smoother running engine (since the engine tends to vibrate as a result of the pistons moving up and down). Second: with a greater displacement and more pistons, more fuel can be combusted and there can be more combustion events (that is, more power strokes) in a given period of time, meaning that such an engine can generate more torque than a similar engine with fewer cylinders. The down side to having more pistons is that, over all, the engine will tend to weigh more and tend to generate more internal friction as the greater number of pistons rub against the inside of their cylinders. This tends to decrease fuel efficiency and rob the engine of some of its power. For high performance petrol engines using current materials and technology (such as the engines found in modern automobiles), there seems to be a break point around 10 or 12 cylinders, after which addition of cylinders becomes an
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overall detriment to performance and efficiency, although exceptions such as the W-16 engine from Volkswagen exist.
ENGINE CONFIGURATION Engine configuration is an engineering term for the These layout of the major include or the components of an internal combustion engine. cylinders, Common components pistons, crankshaft include
crankshafts and camshaft or camshafts. configurations straight or inline configuration, the more compact V configuration and the wider but smoother flat or boxer configuration. Aircraft engines can also adopt a radial configuration which allows more effective cooling. More unusual configurations, such as "H", "U", "X", or "W" have also been used.
ENGINE CAPACITY An engine's capacity is the displacement or swept volume by the pistons of the engine. It is generally measured in litres or cubic inches for larger engines and cubic centimetres (abbreviated to cc's) for smaller engines. Engines with greater capacities are usually more powerful and provide greater torque at lower rpms but also consume more fuel. Apart from designing an engine with more cylinders, there are two ways to increase an engine's capacity. The first is to lengthen the stroke and the second is to increase the piston's diameter. In either case, it may be necessary to make further adjustments to the fuel intake of the engine to ensure optimal performance. An engine's quoted capacity can be more a matter of marketing than of engineering. The Morris Minor 1000, the Morris 1100, and the Austin-Healey Sprite Mark II all had engines of the same stroke and bore according to their specifications, and were from the same maker. However the engine capacities were quoted as 1000cc, 1100cc and 1098cc respectively in the sales literature and on the vehicle badges.
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PISTON In general, a piston is a sliding plug that fits closely inside the bore of a cylinder. Its purpose is either to change the volume enclosed by the cylinder, or to exert a force on a fluid inside the cylinder. Most pistons fitted in a cylinder have piston rings. Usually there are two spring-compression rings that act as a seal between the piston and the cylinder wall, and one or more oil control rings below the compression rings. As the piston moves inside the cylinder, it transforms the energy from the expansion of a burning gas (usually a mixture of petrol or diesel and air) into mechanical power (in the form of a reciprocating linear motion). From there the power is conveyed through a connecting rod to a crankshaft, which transforms it into a rotary motion, which usually drives a gearbox through a clutch.
POPPET VALVES Four-stroke engines, of either spark ignition or compression ignition varieties, use poppet valves to allow air (or an air/fuel mixture) into the cylinder and exhaust gases out. A poppet valve is a valve consisting of a hole, usually round or oval, and a tapered plug, usually a disk shape on the end of a shaft also called a valve stem. The shaft guides the plug portion by sliding through a valve guide. The stem is used to push down on the valve and open it, with a spring generally used to close it when the stem is not being pushed on. The engine normally operates the valves by pushing on the stems with cams and cam followers. The shape and position of the cam determines the valve lift and when and how quickly (or slowly) the valve is opened. The cams are normally placed on a fixed camshaft which is then geared to the crankshaft, running at half crankshaft speed in a four-stroke engine.
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CAM SHAFT The camshaft is an apparatus used in piston engines to operate valves. It consists of a cylindrical rod running the length of the cylinder bank with a number of oblong lobes or cams protruding from it, one for each valve. The cams force the valves open by pressing on the valve, or on some intermediate mechanism, as they rotate. The relationship between the rotation of the camshaft and the rotation of the crankshaft is of critical importance. Since the valves control the flow of fuel intake and exhaust, they must be opened and closed at the appropriate time during the stroke of the piston.
CRANK SHAFT The crankshaft,
sometimes
casually
abbreviated to crank, is that part of an engine which translates reciprocating linear piston motion into rotation. It typically connects to a flywheel, to reduce the pulsation characteristic of the four-stroke cycle. The figure shows the arrangement of crank shaft ( red ), pistons ( grey ) , cylinders ( blue ) and flywheel ( dark grey ). The crankshaft has a linear axis about which it rotates, typically with several bearing journals riding on replaceable bearings held in the engine block, the main bearings. In addition, to convert the reciprocating motion into rotation, the crankshaft has "crank throws" or "crank pins", additional bearing surfaces whose axis is offset from that of the crank, to which the "big ends" of the connecting rods from each cylinder attach. The distance of the axis of the crank throws from the axis of the crankshaft determines the piston stroke measurement, and thus engine displacement.
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POWER TRAIN
An auto's drivetrain or powertrain consists of all the components that generate power and deliver it to the road surface. Besides the engine it includes the transmission, driveshaft,
differentials, and the final drive (drive wheels, caterpillar track, propeller, etc). Sometimes "powertrain" is used to refer to simply the engine and transmission, including the other components only if they are integral to the transmission. A vehicle's driveline consists of the parts of the drivetrain excluding the engine and transmission. It is the portion of a vehicle, after the transmission, that changes depending on whether a vehicle is front wheel drive, four wheel drive, or rear wheel drive. Engines typically operate over a range of 600 to about 6000 revolutions per minute (though this varies from design to design and is typically less for diesel engines), while the car's wheels rotate between 0 rpm and around 2500 rpm. Furthermore, the engine provides its highest torque outputs approximately in the middle of its range, while often the greatest torque is required when the vehicle is moving from rest or travelling slowly. Therefore, a system that transforms the engine's output so that it can supply high torque at low speeds, but also operate at highway speeds with the motor still operating within its limits, is required. Transmissions perform this transformation.
Manual transmission Manual transmissions come in two basic types: a simple unsynchronized system where gears are spinning freely and must be synchronized by the operator to avoid noisy and damaging "gear clash", and synchronized systems that will automatically "mesh" while changing gears.. They are cheaper, lighter, usually give better performance and fuel efficiency
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Automatic transmission Automatic transmission employs hydraulics to select gears, depending on pressure exerted by fluid within the transmission assembly. Rather than using a clutch to engage the transmission, a torque converter is put in between the engine and transmission. It is possible for the driver to control the number of gears in use or select reverse, though precise control of which gear is in use is usually not possible. Automatic transmissions are easy to use.
GEARS A gear is a toothed wheel designed to transmit torque to another gear or toothed component. The teeth (or cogs) of a gear are shaped to minimize wear, vibration and noise, and to maximize the efficiency of power transmission. The larger gear is known as a wheel and the smaller as a pinion. This is the principle of the automobile transmission, allowing selection between various mechanical advantages. Gear Ratio : A gear ratio occurs when 1 gear drives another gear. For example, lets take two different size gears, one with 40 teeth and the other with 20. The one with 20 teeth will make two revolutions compared to one revolution performed by the gear with 40 teeth. This setup would create a gear ratio of 2:1. The driven gear (40 teeth) turns 1/2 the speed of the drive gear (20 teeth) but multiplies the torque by 2. The higher the ratio, 4:1 for example, the more torque will be created, but the slower the output speed.
CLUTCH A clutch is a mechanism for transmitting rotation, which can be engaged and disengaged. In everyday use, the term clutch refers to a subcomponent of motor vehicle engine's transmission designed to allow engagement or disengagement of the engine to the gearbox or whatever apparatus is being driven.
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There are many different vehicle clutch designs, but most are based on one or more friction discs, pressed tightly together or against a flywheel using springs. The spring pressure is released when the clutch pedal is depressed thus either pushing or pulling the diaphragm of the pressure plate, depending on type, and the friction plate is released and allowed to rotate freely. A wet clutch is immersed in a cooling lubricating fluid, which also keeps the surfaces clean and gives improved performance and longer life.
Clutch Disc
A dry clutch, as the name implies, uses no fluid. No pressure on the pedal means that the clutch plates are engaged (driving), while depressing the pedal will disengage the clutch plates, allowing the driver to shift gears. A manual transmission contains cogs for selecting gears. These cogs have matching teeth, called dog teeth, which means that the rotation speeds of the two parts have to match for engagement. This speed matching is achieved by a secondary clutch called a synchromesh, a device that uses frictional contact to bring the two parts to the same speed, and a locking mechanism called a blocker ring to prevent engagement of the teeth (full movement of the shift lever into gear) until the speeds are synchronized.
DIFFERENTIAL In an automobile and other fourwheeled vehicles, a differential is a device, usually consisting of gears, for allowing each of the driving wheels to rotate them. The following description of a differential applies to a "traditional" rear-wheel-drive car or truck: Power is supplied from the engine, via the gearbox, to a propeller shaft (U.S. term: driveshaft), which runs to the rear axle. A pinion gear (shown in green in the diagrams) at the end of the propeller shaft is encased within the differential itself, and it engages with the large ring gear (British term: crownwheel), at different speeds, while supplying equal torque to each of
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shown in the diagrams. The ring gear is attached to a carrier, which holds a set of small planetary gears. The three planetary gears are set up in such a way that the two outer gears (the side gears), can rotate in opposite directions relative to each other. The pair of side gears drive the axle shafts to each of the wheels. The entire carrier rotates in the same direction as the ring gear, but within that motion, the side gears can counter-rotate relative to each other. Input torque is applied to the ring gear, which turns the entire carrier (all blue), providing torque to both side gears (red and yellow), which in turn may drive the left and right wheels. If the resistance at both wheels is equal, the pinion gear (green) does not rotate, and both wheels turn at the same rate.
If the left side gear (red) encounters resistance, the pinion gear (green) rotates about the left side gear, in turn applying extra rotation to the right side gear (yellow ).
Thus, for example, if the car is making a turn to the right, the main ring gear may make 10 full revolutions, and during that time, the left wheel will speed up because it has further to travel, and the right wheel will slow down correspondingly, as it has less distance to travel. The side gears will turn in opposite directions relative to each other by, say, 2 full turns, resulting in the left wheel making 12 revolutions, and the right wheel making 8 revolutions. When the vehicle is travelling in a straight line, there will be almost no movement of the planetary system of gears, other than the minute movements necessary to compensate for slight differences in wheel diameter, undulations in the road (which make for a longer or shorter wheel path) etc.
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DRIVE SHAFT / PROPELLER SHAFT A driveshaft or driving shaft or Cardan shaft is a mechanical device for transferring power from the engine or motor to the point where useful work is applied. Most engines or motors deliver power as torque through rotary motion: this is extracted from the linear motion of pistons in a reciprocating engine; water driving a water wheel; or forced air or water in a turbine. Driveshafts are carriers of torque: they are subject to torsion and shear stress, which represents the difference between the input force and the load. They thus need to be strong enough to bear the stress, without imposing too great an additional inertia by virtue of the weight of the shaft.
FRONT WHEEL DRIVE In automobile design, an FF, or Front-engine, Front wheel drive, layout places both the engine and driven wheels at the front of the vehicle. This layout is typically chosen for its compact packaging - that is, it takes up very little space, allowing the rest of the vehicle to be designed more flexibly. Advantages of front wheel drive Interior space: Since the powertrain is a single unit contained in the engine compartment of the vehicle, there is no need to devote interior space for a driveshaft tunnel or rear differential, increasing the volume available for passengers and cargo. Cost: Fewer components overall Weight: Fewer components mean lower weight Fuel economy: Lower weight means better petrol mileage Improved drivetrain efficiency: the direct connection between engine and transaxle reduce the mass and mechanical inertia of the drivetrain compared to a rear-wheel drive vehicle with a similar engine and transmission, allowing greater fuel economy.
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Assembly efficiency: the powertrain can be often be assembled and installed as a unit, which allows more efficient production. Slippery-surface traction: placing the mass of the drivetrain over the driven wheels improves traction on wet, snowy, or icy surfaces. Predictable handling characteristics Front wheel drive wears down the front tires first so you don't have to switch tires to get the best tires in the rear.
Disadvantages of front wheel drive Lack of weight shifting will limit the acceleration of a front wheel drive vehicle. In a rear wheel drive car the weight shifts back during acceleration giving more traction to the driving wheels. The fact that this does not happen in a front wheel car is the main reason why nearly all racing cars are rear wheel drive. However, since front wheel cars have the weight of the engine over the driving wheels the problem only applies in extreme conditions. In some towing situations front wheel drive cars can be at a traction disadvantage since there will be less weight on the driving wheels. Because of this, the weight that the vehicle is rated to safely tow is likely to be less than that of a rear wheel drive or four wheel drive vehicle of the same size and power. The driveshafts may limit the amount by which the front wheels can turn, thus it may increase the turning circle of a front wheel drive car compared to a rear wheel drive one with the same wheelbase.
REAR WHEEL DRIVE In Automobile design, an RR, or Rear-engine, Rear wheel drive, layout places both the engine and drive wheels at the rear of the vehicle. This layout is typically chosen for a combination of several reasons. For optimal handling and to eliminate the phenomenon known as torque steer, the wheels which propel the car should not be the same ones that steer it. For optimum traction, the engine should be nearest to the driven wheels since the engine is typically the densest/heaviest component of the car. Advantages Better handling in dry conditions - accelerating force is applied to the rear wheels, on which the down force increases, due to load transfer in acceleration,
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making the rear tires better able to take simultaneous acceleration and curving than the front tires. Less costly and easier maintenance - Rear wheel drive is mechanically simpler and typically does not involve packing as many parts into as small a space as does front wheel drive, thus requiring less disassembly or specialized tools in order to replace parts. Even weight distribution - The division of weight between the front and rear wheels has a significant impact on a car's handling, and it is much easier to get a 50/50 weight distribution in a rear wheel drive car than in a front wheel drive car, as more of the engine can lie between the front and rear wheels (in the case of a mid engine layout, the entire engine), and the transmission is moved much farther back. Towing - Rear wheel drive puts the wheels which are pulling the load closer to the point where a trailer articulates, helping steering, especially for large loads. Weight transfer during acceleration. (During heavy acceleration, the front end rises, and more weight is placed on the rear, or driving wheels). Drifting - Drifting is a controlled skid, where the rear wheels break free from the pavement as they spin, allowing the rear end of the car to move freely left and right. This is of course easier to do on slippery surfaces. Severe damage and wear to tires and mechanical components can result from drifting on dry asphalt. Disadvantages More difficult to master - While the handling characteristics of rear-wheel drive may be useful or fun in the hands of some drivers, for others, having the rear wheels move about is unintuitive and dangerous. Decreased interior space - This isn't an issue in a vehicle with a ladder frame like a pickup truck, where the space used by the drive line is unusable for passengers or cargo. Increased weight - The components of your typical rear wheel drive vehicle's power train may be less complex, but there are more of them. The driveshaft adds weight. The transmission is probably heavier. More difficult handling on low grip surfaces (wet road, ice, snow, gravel...) as the car is pushed rather than pulled. It can also lead to accidents in light rain. The decline in popularity of rear wheel drive cars can be attributed to these factors.
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FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEM

Fuel Injection is a method or system for metering fuel into an internal combustion engine. The fuel is then burned in air to produce heat, which in turn is converted to mechanical work by the engine. In modern automotive applications, fuel injection is typically only one of several important tasks performed by an engine management system. An engine's air/fuel ratio must be accurately controlled under all operating conditions to achieve the desired engine performance, emissions, driveability and fuel economy FUEL PUMP A fuel pump is an essential component on a car or other internal combustion engined device. Fuel has to be pumped from the fuel tank to the engine and delivered under low pressure to the carburetor or under high pressure to the fuel injection system. Some fuel injected engines have two fuel pumps for this purpose: one low pressure/high volume supply pump in the tank and one high pressure/low volume pump on or near the engine.
FUEL INJECTION IN A PETROL ENGINE CARBURETOR The carburetor is a device which mixes air and fuel for an internal-combustion engine. A carburetor basically consists of an open pipe, the carburetors "throat" or "barrel", through which the air passes into the inlet manifold of the engine. The pipe is in the form of a venturi it narrows in section and then widens again, causing the airflow to increase in speed in the narrowest part. Below the venturi
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is a butterfly valve or throttle. This valve controls the flow of air through the carburetor throat and thus the quantity of air/fuel mixture the system will deliver, thereby regulating engine power and speed. The throttle is connected, usually through a cable or a mechanical linkage to the accelerator pedal on a car. Fuel is introduced into the air stream through small holes at the narrowest part of the venturi.
FUEL INJECTION IN DIESEL ENGINE FUEL INJECTOR The fuel injector acts as the fuel-dispensing nozzle. It injects liquid fuel directly into the engine's air stream. In almost all cases this requires an external pump. The pump and injector are only two of several components in a complete fuel injection system. Both mechanical and electronic injection systems can be used in either direct or indirect injection configurations
TYPES OF INJECTION METHODS 1) Direct Injection 2) Indirect injection
DIRECT INJECTION In direct injection, the fuel is injected straightaway into the cylinder. Modern diesel engines make use of one of the following direct injection methods:
Distributor pump direct injection The first incarnations of direct injection diesels used a rotary pump much like indirect injection diesels, however the injectors were mounted in the top of the combustion chamber rather than in a separate pre-combustion chamber.
Common rail direct injection In older diesel engines, a distributor-type injection pump, regulated by the engine, supplies bursts of fuel to injectors which are simply nozzles through which the diesel is sprayed into the engine's combustion chamber.
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Unit direct injection This also injects fuel directly into the cylinder of the engine. However, in this system the injector and the pump are combined into one unit positioned over each cylinder. Each cylinder thus has its own pump, feeding its own injector, which prevents pressure fluctuations and allows more consistent injection to be achieved.
INDIRECT INJECTION An indirect injection diesel engine delivers fuel into a chamber off the combustion chamber, called a prechamber, where combustion begins and then spreads into the main combustion chamber, assisted by turbulence created in the chamber. This system allows smoother, quieter running, and because combustion is assisted by turbulence, injector pressures can be lower, which in the days of mechanical injection systems allowed high-speed running suitable for road vehicles (typically up to speed of around 4,000 rpm).
TURBOCHARGER A turbocharger is
an
exhaust
gas-driven
compressor used to increase the power output of an internal-combustion engine by increasing the mass of oxygen entering the engine. A key advantage of turbochargers is that they offer a considerable increase in engine power with only a slight increase in weight.
VALVES Four-stroke engines, of either spark ignition or compression ignition varieties, use poppet valves to allow air (or an air/fuel mixture) into the cylinder and exhaust gases out. Very early engines used alternative valve types such as slide valves, but these proved less satisfactory, especially for high-speed engines.
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IGNITION SYSTEM
The ignition system of an internal-combustion engine is an important part of the overall engine system that provides for the timely burning of the fuel mixture within the engine. All conventional petrol (petrol) engines require an ignition system. The ignition system is usually switched on/off through a lock switch, operated with a key or code patch.
BATTERY OPERATED IGNITION The battery operated ignition system uses an ignition coil (a type of autotransformer) to step the voltage up to the needs of the ignition, and a distributor to route the ensuing pulse to the correct spark plug at the correct time.
TYPES OF IGNITION SYSTEMS : 1) Mechanically timed ignition 2) Electronic Ignition
MECHANICALLY TIMED IGNITION Most four-stroke engines have used a mechanically timed electrical ignition system. The heart of the system is the distributor which contains a rotating cam running off the engine's drive, a set of breaker points, a condenser, a rotor and a distributor cap. External to the distributor is the ignition coil, the spark plugs, and wires linking the spark plugs and ignition coil to the distributor. The power source is a lead-acid battery, kept charged by the car's electrical system, which generates electricity using a dynamo or alternator.
ELECTRONIC IGNITION The disadvantage of the mechanical system is the use of breaker points to interrupt the low voltage high current through the primary winding of the coil; the points are subject to mechanical wear where they ride the cam to open and shut, as well as oxidation and burning at the contact surfaces from the constant sparking. They require regular adjustment to compensate for wear, and the
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opening of the contact breakers, which is responsible for spark timing, is subject to mechanical variations. In addition, the spark voltage is also dependent on contact effectiveness, and poor sparking can lead to lower engine efficiency. Electronic ignition (EI) solves these problems. The lack of moving parts compared with the mechanical system leads to greater reliability and longer service intervals.
SPARK IGNITION The term spark-ignition is normally used to refer to internal combustion engines where the fuel-air mixture is ignited with a spark. The term contrasts with compression-ignition engines, where the heat from compression alone ignites the mixture. Spark-ignition engines can be either two-stroke or four-stroke, and are commonly referred to as "petrol engines" in US English and "petrol engines" in British English.
COMPRESSION IGNITION Unlike the spark ignition where the air fuel mixture injected into the cylinder in the intake stroke is ignited by an electric spark using a spark plug, the compression ignition works on the principle of thermodynamic laws of compression, whereby the air which is forced into the cylinder is compressed to great extent suddenly in the compression stroke which leads to the sudden rise in temperatures inside the cylinder. At this moment fuel in the form of very fine spray is injected into the cylinder by a fuel injector. The high temperatures in combustion chamber lead to instantaneous burning of the fuel ( power stroke ). Thus there is no need of an electric spark and the engine utilizes the high temperatures of compressed air to ignite the fuel. Such type of ignition is utilized in diesel engines and therefore they are also called compression engines.
SPARK PLUG A spark plug (sometimes in British English, a sparking plug) is an electrical device that fits into the cylinder head of internal combustion engines ( PETROL ENGINES ) and ignites compressed aerosol petrol by means of an electric spark. Spark plugs have an insulated center electrode which is connected by a heavily insulated wire to an ignition coil or magneto
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circuit on the outside, forming, with a grounded terminal on the base of the plug, a spark gap inside the cylinder.
ALTERNATOR An alternator is an electromechanical device that converts mechanical energy to alternating current electrical energy. Alternators are used in automobiles to charge the battery and to power all the car's electric systems when its engine is running. Modern automotive alternators have a voltage regulator built into them.
BATTERY A automobile battery
is a type of electric battery that
supplies electric energy to the starter motor and the ignition system of a vehicles engine. The term is also used for the main power source of an electric vehicle. They are usually lead-acid batteries that provide a nominal 12-volt potential difference by serially connecting six cells that each produce about 2 to 2.1 volts.
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EXHAUST SYSTEM An exhaust system conveys burnt gases from an internal combustion engine and typically includes a collection of pipes. In the most basic sense, the exhaust system just vents waste gases from the engine. Depending on the overall system design, the exhaust gas may flow through a turbocharger to increase engine power, a catalytic converter to reduce air pollution, and a muffler to reduce noise. PARTS OF AN EXHAUST SYSTEM MANIFOLD In most production engines, the manifold is an assembly designed to collect the exhaust gas from multiple cylinders and combine those flows into a single pipe. A header is another name for a manifold, but which specifically refers to an enhanced manifold that has been designed for performance. Headers are generally circular steel tubing with bends and folds calculated to make the paths from each cylinder's exhaust port to the common outlet all of equal length, and joined at narrow angles to encourage pressure waves to flow through the outlet, and not back in the direction of the other cylinders. HEADER BACK Header-back (or header back) refers to the portion of the exhaust system from the outlet of the header or manifold to the final vent to open air everything from the header back.
TIP The end of the final length of exhaust pipe where it vents to open air, generally the only visible part, often ends with just a straight or angled cut, but may include a fancy tip. The tip is usually chromed, and is often of larger pipe than the rest of the exhaust system. This produces a final reduction in pressure, as well as prevents rusting of the tips, and can be used to enhance the appearance of the car.
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CATALYTIC CONVERTOR A catalytic converter is a device used to reduce the toxicity of emissions from an internal combustion engine. Catalytic converters are used on spark ignition (petrol; liquefied petroleum gas (LPG); compressed natural gas (CNG)) engines; and compression ignition (diesel) engines. The reasons for use on each type of engine are different. For spark ignition engines the most commonly used catalytic converter is the three-way converter. A three-way catalytic converter has three simultaneous tasks: Reduction of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen and oxygen: 2NOx O2 + N2 Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide: 2CO + O2 2CO2 Oxidation of unburnt non-methane hydrocarbons (HC) to carbon dioxide and water: CxHy + nO2 xCO2 + mH2O For compression ignition (i.e., Diesel) engines, the most commonly used catalytic converter is the diesel oxidation catalyst. The catalyst uses excess O2 (oxygen) in the exhaust gas stream to oxidize CO (Carbon Monoxide) to CO2 (Carbon Dioxide) and HC (hydrocarbons) to H2O (water) and CO2. A two-way catalytic converter has two simultaneous tasks: Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide: 2CO + O2 2CO2 Oxidation of unburnt non-methane hydrocarbons (unburnt and partially-burnt fuel) to carbon dioxide and water: CxHy + O2 xCO2 + mH2O
EXHAUST PIPE An exhaust pipe is usually tubing used to guide waste exhaust gases away from a controlled combustion inside an engine. An exhaust pipe must be carefully designed to carry toxic and/or noxious gases away from the users of the machine. Also, the exhaust gases from most types of machine are very hot; the pipe must be heat-resistant, and it must not pass through or near any combustible materials.
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SILENCER or MUFFLER A muffler or silencer is a device for reducing the amount of noise emitted by an internal combustion engine. Engine exhaust blows out through the muffler. Mufflers are typically installed along the exhaust pipe of the engine. They usually contain a series of baffles to absorb sound, although the majority of the noise reduction is not through absorption but through destructive interference in the muffler itself. The muffler accomplishes this with a resonating chamber, which is specifically designed such that opposite sound waves are likely to collide, canceling each other out. They are a common piece of equipment on automobiles, usually slung under the rear of a car. Catalytic converters also often have a muffling effect.
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COOLING SYSTEM
In the process of combustion and friction between the various moving parts of the engine substantial amounts of heat is generated which needs to be dissipated in order to maintain safe temperatures for engine and various systems to work properly. Broadly speaking , the an automobile may be either air cooled or water cooled. In case of an air cooled engine, the engine is mounted such that air passes through it when the automobile is in motion. The passing over of air over the engine block ensures it cooling.. However this type of cooling is effective only for smaller engines like those used in scooters or motorbikes. Bigger engines generally are water cooled. In this system water is circulated through a water jacket in the engine block with an aid of a pump. The water while it passes through the engine block carries with it the heat of combustion. This heat is then dissipated through a radiator placed in front of the vehicle.
RADIATOR In automobiles with an internal combustion engine, a radiator is connected to channels running through the engine and cylinder head, through which is pumped a liquid. This liquid is typically a mixture of water with ethylene glycol (a.k.a. antifreeze). The fluid moves in a closed system from the radiator to the engine, where it conducts heat away from the engine parts and carries the heat primarily to the radiator. The radiator is typically mounted behind the vehicle's grille, with cold air driven through the radiator to cool the radiator, the fluid inside, and therefore the engine. Between the engine and the radiator lies the thermostat, a temperature operated valve. It remains closed, restricting coolant flow, until the engine reaches the thermostat's activation temperature. This arrangement allows the engine temperature to be maintained in the ideal operating range.
INTERCOOLER An intercooler is a device used on turbocharged and supercharged internal combustion engines to improve the volumetric efficiency and increase the amount of charge in the engine, thereby increasing power.. Modern automobile designs are technically
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aftercoolers because they appear most often at the very end of the chain, but this name is no longer used. Turbochargers and superchargers compress incoming air, causing it to become heated. Since hot air is less dense than cooler air at the same pressure, the total charge delivered to the cylinders is higher than noncompressed air, but still less than it could be. By cooling the charge after compression, even more charge can be delivered, increasing power. Additionally, intercoolers help to increase the total amount of boost possible without causing engine knocking.
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BRAKING SYSTEM
The barking system in an automobile is used to retard the vehicle in order to either come to a stop or control the speed. The main components of the braking system are the brake pedal and brakes which may be of three types discussed below.
BRAKE PEDAL The brake pedal is a simple lever. It is attached at one point to the framework of the automobile, a rod extends from a point along its length to the master cylinder, and the pedal is at the end of the lever.
BRAKES The three types of brakes being used commonly 1) drum brakes 2) disc brakes 3) hydraulic brakes
DRUM BRAKES A drum brake is a brake in which the friction is caused by a set of shoes or pads that press against the inner surface of a rotating drum. The drum is connected to a rotating wheel. (Below-left) DISC BRAKE: The disc brake is a device for slowing or stopping the rotation of a wheel. A brake disc, usually made of cast iron or ceramic, is connected to the wheel or the axle. To stop the wheel, friction material in the form of brake pads (mounted in a device called a brake caliper) is forced mechanically, hydraulically or pneumatically against both sides of the disc. (bottom-right) HYDRAULIC BRAKES The hydraulic brake is an arrangement of braking mechanism which uses hydraulic fluid, typically some type of light-viscosity petroleum oil, to transfer pressure from the controlling unit, which is usually near the operator of the vehicle, to the actual brake mechanism, which is usually at or near the wheel of the vehicle.
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BUILD
CHASIS A chassis (plural: "chassis") consists of a framework which supports an object, analogous to an animal's skeleton. In the case of a motor vehicle, the term chassis means the frame plus the "running gear" like engine, transmission, referred driveshaft, to as differential, and suspension. A body (sometimes chassis to complete the vehicle. "coachwork"), which is usually not necessary for integrity of the structure, is built on the
Monocoque Monocoque (French for "single shell") or unibody is a construction technique that uses the external skin of an object to support some or most of the load on the structure. AXLE An axle is a central shaft for a rotating wheel or gear. Axles are an important structural component of a wheeled vehicle. The axles maintain the position of the wheels relative to each other and to the vehicle body. Since for most vehicles the wheels are the only part touching the ground, the axles must bear the weight of the vehicle plus any cargo, and also any acceleration forces between the vehicle and the ground. DRIVE AXLES An axle that is driven by the engine is called a drive axle. Modern front wheel drive cars typically combine the transmission and front axle into a single unit called a transaxle. The drive axle is a split axle with a differential and universal joints between the two half axles. Each half axle connects to the wheel by use of a constant velocity (CV) joint which
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allows the wheel assembly to move freely vertically as well as to pivot when making turns. In rear wheel drive cars and trucks, the engine turns a driveshaft which transmits rotational force to a drive axle at the rear of the vehicle. The drive axle may be a live axle, but modern automobiles generally use a split axle with a differential. Some simple vehicle designs, such as go-karts, may have a single drive wheel. The drive axle is a split axle with only one of the two shafts driven by the engine.
SUSPENSION Suspension is the term given to the system of springs, shock absorbers and linkages that connects a vehicle to its wheels. Suspension systems serve a dual purpose - contributing to the car's handling and braking for good active safety and driving pleasure, and and keeping vehicle well occupants comfortable reasonably
isolated from road noise, bumps, and vibrations.
STEERING Steering is the term applied to the collection of components, linkages, etc. which allow for a car or other vehicle to follow a course determined by its driver. The most conventional steering arrangement is to turn the front wheels using a handoperated steering wheel which is positioned in front of the driver, via the steering column, which may contain universal joints to allow it to deviate somewhat from a straight line. Power Steering Power steering aims to make steering less strenuous for the driver. There are two types of power steering systemshydraulic and electric/electronic. There is also a hydraulicelectric hybrid system possible.
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GLOSSARY
Following is the list of the important terms that are used commonly in the automobile industry. The aim of this glossary is to simplify the jargon and help understand the various technical terms better.
CAR BODY STYLES Cars can come in a large variety of different body styles. Some are still in production, while others are of historical interest only. These styles are largely (though not completely) independent of a car's classification in terms of price, size and intended broad market; the same car model might be available in multiple body styles. Please note that while each body style has a historical and technical definition, in common usage such definitions are often blurred. Over time, the common usage of each term evolves. For example, people often call 4-passenger sport coupes a 'sports car', while purists will insist that a sports car by definition is limited to two-place vehicles. CABRIO COACH OR SEMI-CONVERTIBLE : A car that has a retractable textile cover for what amounts to a large sunroof. CONVERTIBLE : A body style with a removable or retractable roof and rear window. CABRIOLET : Another term for a convertible COUP (UK/EU) OR COUPE (US) : A 2-door, 2- or 4-seat car with a fixed roof. Its doors are longer than those of a sedan, and the rear passenger area smaller. In cases where the rear seats are very small and not intended for regular use it is called a 2+2. COUP CONVERTIBLE : A type of convertible with a rigid roof (as opposed to a fabric or vinyl roof) that retracts into the lower bodywork. CROSSOVER SUV (OR XUV) :A type of Sport Utility Vehicle (SUV) which is based on a car platform rather than truck chassis. This also refers to a vehicle which is marketed as neither an SUV, a minivan nor a wagon, but combines design elements of those types.
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ESTATE CAR : A British English term for what North Americans call a station wagon. FASTBACK : A design where the roof slopes at a smooth angle to the tail of the car, but the rear window does not open as a separate door. HARDTOP : A style of automobile roof. Originally referred to a removable solid roof on a convertible; later, also a fixed-roof car whose doors have no fixed window frames, which is designed to resemble such a convertible. A pillarless hardtop (the most common kind) is completely open on the sides with the windows down. HATCHBACK : Identified by a rear door including the back window that opens vertically to access a storage area not separated from the rest of the passenger compartment. May be 2 or 4 door and 2 or 4 seat, but generally called in British English 3 door, 5 door. LIMOUSINE : By definition, a chauffeur-driven car with a (normally glass-windowed) division between the front seats and the rear. In German, the term simply means a sedan. MINIVAN : A boxy wagon-type of car usually containing three or four rows of seats, with a capacity of six or more passengers. Often with extra luggage space also. As opposed to the larger van, the minivan was developed primarily as a passenger vehicle, though is more van-like than a station wagon. In Britain, these are generally referred to as People carriers. MPV : Multi-purpose vehicle, a large car or small bus designed to be used on and offroad and easily convertible to facilitate loading of goods from facilitating carrying people. NOTCHBACK : A cross between the smooth fastback and angled sedan look. It is a sedan type with a separate trunk compartment. PICKUP TRUCK AKA PICK-UP : Small or medium sized truck. Not based on a passenger car, but of similar size. This light commercial vehicle features a separate cabin and rear load area (separate cargo bed).
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ROADSTER : Originally a two-seat open car with minimal weather protection no top was provided, neither any side glass. In some cases an optional hard or soft top might be offered, along with side curtains, but there was no side glass. In modern usage, the term is often used mean simply a convertible two-seat sports car, similarly to spyder. SALOON : The British English term for a sedan. SEDAN : A car seating four or more with a fixed roof that is full-height up to the rear window. Normally a 4 door; 2 door is rarer in the US but they do occur (more so historically). This is the most common body style. In the U.S., this term has been used to denote a car with fixed window frames, as opposed to the hardtop style where the sash, if any, winds down with the glass. As hardtops have become rarer, this distinction is no longer so important. SPORT UTILITY VEHICLE (SUV) : Derivative of off-road or four-wheel drive vehicles but with car-like levels of interior comfort and drivability. Also sometimes called a "softroader". STATION WAGON : A car with an full-height body all the way to the rear; the loadcarrying space created is accessed via a rear door or doors. T-TOP : A derivative of the Targa top, called a T-bar roof, this fixed-roof design has two removable panels and retains a central narrow roof section along the front to back axis of the car (e.g. Toyota MR2 Mk 1.) TARGA TOP : A semi-convertible style used on some sports cars, featuring a fully removable hard top roof panel which leaves the A and B pillars in place on the car body. VAN : In North America 'van' refers to a truck-based commercial vehicle of the wagon style, whether used for passenger or commercial use. Usually a van has no windows at the side rear (panel van), although for passenger use, side windows are included. In other parts of the world, 'van' denotes a passenger-based wagon with no rear side windows.
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NON-ENGLISH TERMS Some non-English language terms are familiar from their use on imported vehicles in English-speaking nations even though the terms have not been adopted into English. Barchetta : Italian term for a roadster. The name means, roughly, "small boat". Berlina : Italian term for a sedan. Berline : French term for a sedan. Berlinetta : Italian term for a sport coup. Break : French term for a station wagon. Jeep : German and Greek term for a sport utility vehicle. Not to be confused with the english-language jeep, which originated from the WWII 'GP' (general purpose) military vehicle. Turismo : Spanish term for a sedan. Literally means tourism, used mostly in Latin American countries.
TECH SPEAK This component compiles the list of various technical terms with a brief write up on each to help understand the mechanics of an automobile better.
AutomaticTransmission A transmission that shifts its own gears according to the prevailing speed, load, and road condition. Also called automatic gearbox. Operation can be electrical or hydraulic. The transmission transfers the engine's power from the crankshaft to the driveshaft (which, in turn, sends it on to one or more axles and the driving wheels). An automatic transmission does this using a torque converter rather than a manually operated clutch. A torque converter uses hydraulic pressure to engage and disengage the transmission gears from the engine.
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Benefit: An automatic transmission allows the driver more comfort and ease of use than a manual transmission, particularly in urban and stop-and-go driving situations. Anti-roll bar : A torsion bar bent in the form of an elongated letter U, installed so that the ends are attached to the lower suspension arms and the centre portion is held by bushes on a transverse chassis/body member. This leaves the ends free to move up and down with the wheels, but if one wheel moves upwards while the other moves downwards, during cornering for example, the bar goes into torsion and restricts the amount of chassis/body roll. A-/B-/C-/D-pillar : The A-pillar is the roof support next to the windscreen and the pillar behind the front door is the B-pillar. The C-pillar can be either the rear roof support or, in the case of five-door station wagons, SUVs and MPVs, the pillar behind the rear side door. The rear roof support on these vehicles then becomes the D-pillar. The ratio between the height and width of a tyre, expressed as a
Aspect ratio :
percentage. The height is measured from the tyre seat diameter on the rim to the crown of the tyre. Modern tyres have aspect ratios as low as 35 per cent, whereas older tyres may have aspect ratios of over 80 per cent. Axle Ratio: The number of times the driveshaft revolves to turn the axle one revolution. For example, a 4:1 axle ratio means the drive shaft turns 4 times for every one time the tire turns. This ratio multiplies the torque applied to the wheels. BDC (Bottom Dead Centre) : The instant when the piston is at the lowest point in its rotational cycle. Beam axle : A rigid beam that connects two wheels together. Bending moment : If a force acts in such a way that it may cause a material to bend, then the force multiplied by the perpendicular distance to the axis about which the bending could take place is called the bending moment. The formula is identical to that used to calculate a torque.
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BMEP (Brake Mean Effective Pressure): This is the average pressure acting on the piston during one complete working cycle, as calculated from the power determined at the flywheel with a dynamometer, or engine brake. It is a useful measure of engine development, since a higher value would mean a more modern engine. Boost pressure: The pressure, above atmospheric, delivered by a supercharger or turbocharger. If the biggest ridge a vehicle can drive over is
Break-over angle (ridge angle):
idealized as an equal-legged triangle, then the top angle of the triangle is called the break-over angle by some authorities, whereas others quote one of the bottom angles. Bulkhead : The partition between the engine compartment or boot and the interior. Bore and Stroke: These are two separate measurements of the area of the combustion process in an individual cylinder. The bore is the diameter of the cylinder and the stroke is the total distance the piston travels within the cylinder from top to bottom. The area of the cylinder, multiplied by the stroke, times the number of cylinders, equals the engine's total displacement. Brake Horsepower (BHP): The measure of an engine's horsepower without the loss in power caused by the inefficiencies in the accessories and drivetrain. Cam : lobe-shaped portion of the camshaft that actuates the valve mechanism Camshaft : A shaft in the engine used to operate the intake and exhaust valves. It is driven from the crankshaft by gears, belts or chains and opens and closes the valves as it rotates. The camshaft is located in the engine block in a pushrod overhead-valve (OHV) engine where the cam lobes operate pushrods that, in turn, operate the valvetrain. A camshaft located in the top of the cylinder head is referred to as an overhead camshaft. There can be either one (single overhead camshaft or SOHC) or two (dual overhead camshaft or DOHC) camshafts per row of cylinders
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CAD (Computer Aided Design): The ability of a computer to calculate fast, and show the results in graphical form, is utilised to create software packages that enable designers to study the properties of a particular design quickly and accurately. The final design is often combined with CAM (computer aided manufacturing), written as CADCAM. An outward tilt of the front wheel at the top, as seen from the front
Camber:
central locking can activate the locking and unlocking from a small unit on the key fob away from the car, either by infra-red or radio waves. Some systems unlock all the doors at the same time, but modern systems are often selective, i.e. they first unlock only the driver's door, and then the others and the boot. Cargo Weight Rating : Includes payload rating minus the weight of all occupants at a weight of approximately 180 lbs. a person. What you need to know: Vehicles that operate above the Payload rating are a potential safety hazard because the engine, frame, suspension, brakes and tires are not designed for weight above the rating the manufacturer has set. Centre of mass: The point at which the earth's gravitational force can be assumed to act on a car, for any calculations where the mass distribution is not important. It is sometimes called the centre of gravity. Cetane number: The ignition quality of a diesel fuel is measured in terms of a cetane number, which is a measure of its ability to self-ignite. In this sense, it is opposite to the octane numbers that are used to evaluate petrol, because petrol is designed not to selfignite. Chassis: The basic framework that supports the body, engine, drivetrain and suspension in older cars, and still does in heavy trucks. Modern cars have unitconstruction (or Monocoque) bodywork.
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CKD (Completely Knocked Down) : Vehicles assembled away from the parent factory are referred to as CKD units, because the components are sent out in CKD packs. These packs may contain sub-assemblies as well as loose parts. Chassis [Pronunciation: chassie] : The structural elements of a vehicle. A unibody chassis includes everything but bolted-on body panels. If a vehicle has a separate frame, the term chassis refers to the frame. Clearance volume : This is the space between the top of the piston at TDC and the walls of the combustion chamber. It is also known as the combustion chamber space. Coil spring. A spring shaped as a coil. Cross ply : A tyre constructed so that the strengthening plies inside the casing run at various angles from one side to the other across the tread area. CV joint: The letters CV denote a constant velocity joint, i.e. one that can transmit torque at an angle from one shaft to another without any speed variation. The need for such a joint arose because a Hooke's joint transmits a speed variation, the amount of which is dependent upon the angle between the shafts Cubic Centimeter (CC ) : The combustion chamber is the engine area where compression and combustion take place. As the piston moves up and down, the size of the combustion chamber changes. It has some maximum volume as well as a minimum volume. The difference between the maximum and minimum is called the displacement and is measured in liters or CCs (Cubic Centimeters, where 1,000 cubic centimeters equals a liter). For any engine, this is the theoretical volume of air displaced by one piston as it moves from TDC ( Top Dead Centre ) to BDC ( Bottom Dead Centre), multiplied by the number of cylinders. It can be calculated by multiplying the piston area by the stroke length and the number of cylinders. Generally, the displacement tells you something about how much power an engine can produce. A cylinder that displaces half a liter can hold twice as much fuel/air mixture as a cylinder that displaces a quarter of a liter, and therefore you would expect about twice as much power from the larger cylinder (if everything else is equal). So a 2.0 liter engine is roughly half as powerful as a 4.0 liter engine.
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Cylinder Head : The top part of the engine that attaches to the cylinder block. It seals the cylinders and includes the upper part of the combustion chamber as well as the valve train (including camshafts). All Toyota vehicles are equipped with a cross-flow cylinder head design that provides the straightest possible path for the air-fuel mixture. By allowing this mixture to flow smoothly, the engine can perform more efficiently, resulting in improved power and economy. Differential, Limited-Slip Differential (LSD) : Limited Slip Differential (LSD) prevents all of the torque from being directed to the rear slipping wheel. The LSD also helps achieve excellent driving stability and acceleration response. During acceleration, the LSD ensures that the torque is split between the two rear wheels DOHC : DOHC stands for double overhead cam. A DOHC engine has two camshafts per cylinder head, so inline engines have two cams, but V engines have four. Usually, double overhead cams are used on engines with four or more valves per cylinder -- a single camshaft simply cannot fit enough cam lobes to actuate all of those valves. Of the two cams, one drives the intake valves and the other operates the exhaust valve. In a single overhead cam engine (SOHC), one cam has enough lobes to drive both the intake and exhaust valves. DOHC is also known as "twin overhead camshafts." The main reason to use double overhead cams is to allow for more intake and exhaust valves. More valves means that intake and exhaust gases can flow more freely because there are more openings for them to flow through. This increases the power of the engine. Dry Disc Clutch : In a car, you need a clutch because the engine spins all the time and the car wheels don't. In order for a car to stop without killing the engine, the wheels need to be disconnected from the engine somehow. The clutch allows us to smoothly engage a spinning engine to a non-spinning transmission by controlling the slippage between them. To understand how a clutch works, it helps to know a little bit about friction. A clutch with only one plate is a dry clutch. Dry weight : The weight of a vehicle without any fluids.
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Dynamometer (dyno): A device that is capable of applying a load to an engine, and measuring the torque output, from which the power can be calculated if the engine revolutions are known. Efficiency : There are many different types of efficiency, but they all attempt to measure how much wastage is inherent in a process. The usual form of the formula is: output divided by input times 100 to give a percentage. For example, the volumetric efficiency of an engine is the amount of air actually inhaled in a certain time divided by the theoretical amount, as given by the displacement, times 100. Another example is the overall efficiency of an engine, which is the energy equivalent of the torque at the flywheel divided by the total energy in the fuel delivered to the combustion chamber Ergonomics. The study of the relationship between people and their working environment. Thus, for example, if the interior layout of a car is such that all the controls fall easily to hand it, is called an ergonomically efficient design. Four-by-Two (4X2) : Used to describe a vehicle with two-wheel drive. The first figure is the number of wheels, and the second is the number of powered wheels. Another term for two-wheel drive. : Used to
Four-by-Four
(4X4)
describe a vehicle with four-wheel drive. The first figure is the number of wheels, and the second is the number of powered wheels. Four Wheel Drive (4WD) transfers engine power to all four wheels. 4WD systems usually lack a center differential that allows use in dry conditions. 4WD provides superior traction compared with front or rearwheel drive.
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Four Wheel Drive (4WD) - Part time : A part time four wheel drive system operates in two wheel drive mode until you choose to engage four wheel drive for off road or other adverse driving conditions. Four Wheel Drive (4WD) Permanent : Permanent four wheel drive sends torque to all four wheels on a continuous basis. There is no option for two wheel drive but the driver can usually choose a high or low mode depending on the driving conditions
Front-Engine/Front-Wheel Drive : Sometimes abbreviated "FF" or "FWD," this refers to a vehicle with the engine in front of the passenger compartment driving the front wheels. This layout is efficient in terms of packaging, providing more room for passengers and cargo by combining the entire drivetrain in one unit and eliminating the need for a driveshaft tunnel. Benefit: By placing the weight of the engine over the drive wheels, traction is also improved in certain situations. Front-Engine/Rear-Wheel Drive : Abbreviated "FR" or "RWD," this is a layout in which the engine is in front of the passenger compartment and drives the rear wheels through a driveshaft that connects to the rear axle. Benefit: This provides benefits in weight distribution for improved handling in sports and luxury cars. It is also used in trucks to enhance load-carrying and towing ability; since the load-carrying area of the vehicle is over the driving wheels, traction is improved Gear Ratio : A gear ratio occurs when 1 gear drives another gear. For example, lets take two different size gears, one with 40 teeth and the other with 20. The one with 20 teeth will make two revolutions compared to one revolution performed by the gear with 40 teeth. This setup would create a gear ratio of 2:1. The driven gear (40 teeth) turns 1/2 the speed of the drive gear (20 teeth) but multiplies the torque by 2. The higher the ratio, 4:1 for example, the more torque will be created, but the slower the output speed. Glow plug : A special plug, fitted to diesel engines, which carries a heater element, necessary for cold starting because compression alone does not supply enough heat to initiate combustion.
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Gross Axle Weight Rating (GAWR) : The maximum amount of weight that can be supported by each axle, as designated by the manufacturer. What you need to know: The total load on each axle must not exceed its GAWR Gross Combined Weight (GCW) : The total weight of a vehicle, including all its cargo, plus the weight of a trailer and its entire contents. Gross Combined Weight Rating (GCWR) : The maximum allowable weight of the GCW as specified by the manufacturer. Exceeding this limit compromises safety. What you need to know: Vehicles that operate above the GCWR are a potential safety hazard because the engine, frame, suspension, brakes and tires are not designed for weight above the rating the manufacturer has set. Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW) : Maximum legal weight at which a vehicle can be operated. The total weight of a vehicle with driver and passengers, cargo, fuel, coolant, any dealer or after-market installed accessories, and tongue weight if towing. Gross Vehicle Weight Rating (GVWR) : It is the maximum permissible total weight of the vehicle that may not be exceeded, as designated by the manufacturer. GVWR is identified on the manufacturer's label, which is usually located on the driver's door or door jam. What you need to know: Vehicles that operate above the GVWR are a potential safety hazard because the engine, frame, suspension, brakes and tires are not designed for weight above the rating the manufacturer has set. Ground Clearance: The distance between the lowest point on the vehicle and the ground. This number is particularly useful for 4-wheel-drive trucks and sport utility vehicles, which are more likely to encounter obstacles. Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition, or HCCI: It is a form of internal
combustion in which well mixed fuel and oxidizer (typically air) are compressed to the point of auto-ignition. As in other forms of combustion, this exothermic reaction releases chemical energy into a sensible form that can be translated by an engine into work and heat.
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HCCI has characteristics from each of the two most popular forms of combustion used in IC engines: homogeneous charge spark ignition (petrol engines) and stratified charge compression ignition (diesel engines). As in homogeneous charge spark ignition, the fuel and oxidizer are mixed together. However, rather than using an electric discharge to ignite a portion of the mixture, the concentration and temperature of the mixture are raised by compression until the entire mixture reacts simultaneously. Horse Power : A measurement of the engine's ability to perform work.. In metric terms, it is the ability to raise 250 kilograms a distance of 30 centimeters in one second. It is also equal to 745.7 watts. In fps ( foot-pound-second ) unit one horsepower is defined as the ability to lift 33,000 pounds one foot in one minute. To find horsepower, the total rate of work in foot pounds accomplished is divided by 33,000. If a machine was lifting 100 pounds 660 feet per minute, its total rate of work would be 66,000 foot pounds per minute. Divide this by 33,000 foot pounds per minute to arrive at 2 horsepower The measurement of mechanical power, or the work needed to carry a weight over a given distance in a specified period of time. The base measurement is 100 pounds carried 330 feet per minute. Independent Suspension : Suspension in which each wheel is sprung individually so that any disturbance on the wheel has no effect on the opposite wheel. This compares to a "rigid" or "solid" axle where the wheels are connected and a disturbance at one end affects the other. Independent suspensions can apply to the front, rear or all four wheels. Joule. This is the metric unit of work or energy, and is equal to a Newton-meter. Kerb Weight : The weight of an empty vehicle, without cargo and driver and passengers, but including maximum amounts of fuel, oil, coolant and standard equipment, including the spare tire and tools. Knock. Irregular combustion may cause knocking, which can sometimes be heard, but the so-called high speed knock cannot be heard by human ears. Leaf Spring : A number of slightly curved, flexible steel plates of varying lengths, mounted one atop the other. The plates are attached at the ends to the underbody. The
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curved shape of the plates allows them to flex and absorb bumps. Made of spring steel or various composite materials that deflects by bending when forces act upon it . Leaf springs are used primarily in suspensions. The ends are attached to the chassis, and the middle is fixed to the axle. Also called semi-elliptic springs. Live axle. An axle that transmits power, either because it is hollow and carries a driveshaft, or because it is the driveshaft, as is the case with front-wheel drive. Mag wheels. Although the name implies wheels made from magnesium, almost all are made from cast aluminum. Overdrive : A final drive ratio of less than 1:1. This allows the engine to operate at lower rpm during highway driving, requiring less fuel and reducing engine noise. OHV (OverHead Valve). This term describes any engine that has all its valves in the cylinder head. The valves may be operated by pushrods or an overhead camshaft. In the latter case, however, the head is rather referred to as a single overhead camshaft (SOHC), or double overhead camshaft (DOHC). Overhead Cam (OHC) : This is when the camshaft is located in the cylinder head, rather than in the engine block (see Camshaft). This design eliminates the need for pushrods and lifters, reducing weight and improving engine responsiveness and efficiency. The advantages tend to increase at high rpm. Oversteer. When a car corners, each tyre develops a different slip angle. If the average of the rear slip angles is greater than the average of the front slip angles, then the car seems to require less steering input than it would if it was rolling slowly around the same corner. This condition is called oversteer. Also see understeer. Pascal. The metric unit of pressure and stress is the Pascal (Pa). It is defined to be a force of one Newton distributed over one square metre. It is so small that a unit 1 000 times bigger, the kilopascal (kPa), is used for most purposes. Tyre pressures are measured in kPa where 100 kPa = one Bar. The latter is not a recommended metric unit.
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Payload : The maximum amount of weight, including driver and passengers, that can be carried in the truck's bed and cabin. Basically, the payload is the GVWR minus the Curb Weight. Piston speed. The average piston speed, given by double the stroke length in metres times engine revs per second, is an important measure of an engine's state of development. This follows because both stroke length and r/min are factors that help to determine the inertial loads in an engine. Modern engines have values between 15 and 18 m/s, and GP engines are pushing towards 25 m/s. Platform. This could mean the basic steel pressing onto which the rest of the body panels are welded. It also sometimes refers to the basic pressing plus the suspension, wheels and even the engine. The various manufacturers do not agree as to exactly what constitutes a platform. It is sometimes also called a floorpan, and this name could also apply to both of the above meanings Power. Power is the rate of doing work (i.e. the work done divided by the time taken). The modern unit is the watt, defined so that one watt = one joule per second. The Imperial unit is the horsepower (= 746 watts), while the old German unit is the PS (= 736 watts). The perception of power in the public's mind is complicated by the various power ratings that have been used by governments to tax motorists. None of these was related to the real output as measured on a test bench, or dynamometer. Britain used an RAC horsepower rating that only took the bore into account, and France had an even more weird CV rating. This resulted in an engine developing 30 kW being called a 14 HP in Britain and an 11CV in France! Power Steering : A steering system assisted by hydraulic or vacuum pressure from a pump. This reduces steering effort. Power steering is essential to make large, heavy vehicles manageable. Small vehicles often do not require power steering. Benefit: Power steering multiplies the driver's steering force and lessens the amount of steering input required to turn the wheels.
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Power-to-Weight Ratio : The horsepower rating of an engine divided by the vehicle's curb weight. The resulting number is the number of pounds of vehicle per horsepower. With other factors being equal, the fewer pounds per horsepower the higher the performance. For example, a vehicle with a ratio of 1:15 (one horsepower to 15 pounds of curb weight) should accelerate much more quickly than one with a ratio of 1:30. Powertrain (Drivetrain) : A name given to the components that create power and send it to the driving wheels, including the engine, transmission, driveshaft, differential and axle(s). Revolutions per minute (rpm) : RPM indicates how many times the engine crankshaft rotates per minute. If the engine is running at 4,000 RPM, the valves are opening and closing 2,000 times every minute, or 33 times every second Rack and pinion : Torque can be converted to linear force by a rack and pinion. The pinion is a spur gear, and meshes with a toothed bar or rod that can be thought of as a sector gear with an infinitely large radius of curvature. Such a mechanism is used in automobiles to convert the rotation of the steering wheel into the left-to-right motion of the tie rod(s). Rack and Pinion Steering : A steering system having a pinion gear at the lower end of the steering column that engages a rack or a toothed rod that connects to the wheel steering arms. The ends of the rack are linked to the steered wheels with tie rods. When the gear is rotated by the steering shaft, it moves the rack from side to side: turning the wheels. The steering wheel is connected to a pinion gear that meshes with a rack, or linear gear. As the pinion rotates, the rack moves side to side, this moves the steering linkage, causing the wheels to pivot left or right. Radial ply : A tyre constructed so that the strengthening plies inside the casing run radially (i.e. at right angles to the tyre centerline) from one side to the other side across the tread area.
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Radian: The angular measure favored by scientists and engineers, because it simplifies the mathematical calculations. An angle of 90 degrees is equivalent to /2 radians, and this can be used as a conversion factor to convert from degrees to radians. Pi () is the circumference of a circle divided by its diameter, i.e. 3,142. Reed valve: Some two-stroke engines improve intake-mixture control by having a number of flat plates, called reeds, at the intake port in the crankcase. They open and close, depending on pressure differences, to introduce some measure of timing into the mixture inhalation process. Rigid Axle : A simple non-independent suspension, consisting of a rigid transverse member with wheel hubs solidly bolted to it. The axle can be attached to the body by leaf springs, or by a combination of suspension arms and links. Roll angle: The angle, measured from the vertical, that a car's body adopts when cornering. Roll centre: The centre about which body roll takes place during cornering. The position of this centre is determined by the suspension geometry. Slip angle. The flexibility of a tyre causes the longitudinal centreline of any wheel to deviate from the path followed by the contact patch centreline, as soon as the steering wheel is turned from the straight-ahead position. The angle between the wheel centreline and the contact patch centeline is called the slip angle, and each wheel will normally run at a different angle, because its value depends on a number of factors. These include suspension geometry, tyre construction, tyre pressure and cornering speed. The difference between the average front and rear slip angles will determine whether a car oversteers or understeers. SOHC (Single Overhead Cam): An engine whose valves are driven by a single camshaft in the cylinder head. Speed rating: The speed rating of a tyre is the maximum safe speed that a tyre can sustain, not continuously, but for a reasonable period of time, without weakening. The rating is usually denoted by a letter of the alphabet shown on the side of the tyre. It is
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important to note that the rating only applies to a new tyre in good condition, but not to retreads. Spoiler: A specially shaped wing or body panel that is bolted to the front or rear of a vehicle, sometimes to improve the local airflow, and sometimes just as a styling statement. Steering Ratio : The ratio of the gearing within a steering system, such as the rack to the pinion or the interfacing and worm gear to the recirculating-ball and nut. A smaller ratio (such as 4:1, compared to 6:1) means that the front wheels turn more tightly in response to steering input, a condition normally associated with sporty vehicles. A larger ratio means that the steering responds more subtly.
Suspension The assembly of springs, shock absorbers, torsion bars, joints, arms, etc., that cushions the shock of bumps on the road and serves to keep the wheels in constant contact with the road, thereby improving control and traction. Synchromesh. A set of specially shaped rings inside the gearbox that offer frictional surfaces to the rotating gears, against which the various gears can be forced to slow down their rotation, to make gear-changing easier. TDC (Top Dead Centre). This refers to the instant when the piston is at the highest point in its rotational cycle. Torque : Is a force that tends to rotate or turn things. For example, you generate torque anytime you apply a force using a wrench. When you use a wrench, you apply a force on the handle. This force creates a torque on a nut, which tends to turn the nut. To calculate the torque, you just multiply the force by the distance from the centre. In the case of the nut, if the wrench is a meter long, and you put 200 Newtons of force on it, you are generating 200 Newton-meter of torque. If you use a two meter long wrench you only need 100 Newtons of force on it to generate the same torque. So by lengthening the wrench, you have multiplied the torque (same as a lever). In an engine, torque is the
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twisting motion at the crankshaft in foot-pounds. What you need to know: Torque gets it going, and horsepower keeps it going It is thus a measure of the twisting force. Torque is measured in lb.-ft. (pound-foot) or N-m (Newton-meters). The RPM at which the engine produces maximum torque is important. For instance, if Engine A produces 200 N-m @ 3000 RPM, and Engine B supplies 200 N-m @ 5000 RPM, then Engine A will accelerate better at low speeds. Engine B will accelerate better at high speeds. Torsion Bar : A type of spring that twists as it is compressed or stretched. Torsion bar springs are simple and rugged, used in the suspension system. Torsion Bar Spring : A basically straight bar fastened to the frame at one end and to the control arm of the suspension at the other end. The bar acts as a spring as it resists twisting when the wheel moves up and down. Benefit: The advantages are relatively low weight, no wear and maintenance and, in some vehicles, packaging advantages. Torsion Bar suspension : Long rods of spring steel which take the place of springs. One end of the bar is anchored and the other arm (attached to the suspension) is free to twist. The bars' resistance to twisting causes springing action. Torsion Beam Suspension : Also called a Twist Beam Suspension, this is a rigid axle design. The cross member acts as a torsion bar to resist twisting of the suspension arms. The result is increased roll rigidity and a very small positive camber angle during cornering. Benefit: The compact design offers good space utilization and lower weight than most other rigid axle designs. Torque converter: A fluid coupling, filled with oil, consisting of three members with vanes shaped in such a way that it can multiply the engine torque by a factor of up to three while coupling the engine to the transmission. Understeer: When a car corners, each tyre develops a different slip angle. If the average of the front slip angles is greater than the average of the rear slip angles, then the car seems to require more steering input than it would if it was rolling slowly around the same corner. This condition is called understeer. See also oversteer.
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Valve lag: This is the crankshaft rotation angle at which a valve closes after TDC or BDC. Valve lead : This is the crankshaft rotation angle at which a valve opens before TDC or BDC. Valve timing diagram: This a diagram that shows the crankshaft rotation angles at which the intake and exhaust valves open and close, during one complete cycle of events. Viscosity: The resistance of a fluid to flow is called its viscosity, commonly, if incorrectly, known as its thickness. The SAE number of an oil is an indication of its viscosity, with a higher number indicating a more viscous oil. Most liquids (but not all; see viscous coupling) become less viscous as they are heated up. Valve Train : The system that operates intake and exhaust valves, consisting of camshaft, valves and springs, lifters, pushrods and rocker arms. Variable Valve Timing (VVT) : What it is: Variable Valve Timing allows the point at which an engine's valves open and close to change with operating conditions - such as engine speed and throttle position. in addition to changing the valve timing with respect to the crankshaft, some systems also change the duration the valve is open and the extent to which it opens. Varying these parameters allows the engine to operate more efficiently at all engine speeds while maintaining drivability. How it works: Traditionally, camshafts open and close intake and exhaust valves at fixed points in the engine cycle regardless of engine speed or throttle position. Variable Valve Timing can employ several mechanisms to change valve opening and closing. it can affect either the intake valves and/or the exhaust valves, depending on the design. Some methods include advancing or retarding the cams or valves or activating additional camshafts or rocker arms. Customer benefit: Improved power, fuel economy and emissions (depending on the system). Watt : The metric unit of power. It is the energy, or work done, in Newton-meters divided by the time taken in seconds.
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Weight Distribution : Expressed as two numbers, one front and one rear, this figure represents the percentage of weight resting on the front and rear axles. Benefit: A more even weight distribution aids in handling, and is important to the service life of many components, including axles, springs, bearings and tires. Wheel Size (e.g. 15 X 7) : Wheel size is defined by the diameter and width of the wheel. A 15 X 7 wheel has a 15-inch diameter and a 7-inch width Wheelbase: The distance from the center of the front wheel to the center of the rear wheel as viewed from the side of the vehicle. A longer wheelbase generally contributes to a smoother ride, while a shorter wheelbase results in a tighter turning radius Wishbone Suspension (Double Wishbone Suspension): An independent suspension that uses curved members (wishbones) to control suspension travel. A wishbone suspension offers good axle control, and limits undesirable suspension. Yaw: One of the three rotations that a car is capable of executing. Rotation about the vertical (also called polar) axis through the centre of mass of a vehicle is called yaw. The other rotations are: ROLL, which occurs around a horizontal longitudinal axis through the centre mass; PITCH, which occurs around a horizontal transverse axis through the centre mass.
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LIST OF SOME USEFUL LINKS

Following is the list of some useful links that provide valuable information on cars such as classification & types of cars, glossary to technical terms etc. There is also a link which in provides animated working diagrams of engine cycles. http://www.keveney.com This site hosts animated engine cycles namely Otto cycle and diesel cycles in addition to other engines as well. http://auto.howstuffworks.com the automobile section of the How Stuff Works portal. This site features information on various types of engines, parts and their working, fuels etc with well labeled diagrams as well as animated drawings. http://www.cars.com a very informative portal on cars http://www.sonirodban.com/tiger.html automobile terms. http://www.cartoday.com/content/car_magazine/booklets/techno_terms/index.asp another useful link for automobile tech speak http://www.siamindia.com/ Manufacturers. http://www.tata.com/0_products_services/companies_industries/automotive/commercial _vehicles.htm - page hosted by the TATA Motors limited homepage showcasing the TATA portfolio. homepage of the Society of Indian Automobile link having comprehensive glossary of
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Basics of Automobiles

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Basics of Automobiles

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CRANK SHAFT The crankshaft,

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FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEM

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TYPES OF INJECTION METHODS 1) Direct Injection 2) Indirect injection

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TYPES OF IGNITION SYSTEMS : 1) Mechanically timed ignition 2) Electronic Ignition

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BATTERY A automobile battery

is a type of electric battery that

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