Orders of Infinity - Hardy

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Title: Orders of Infinity
The Infinitarcalcul of Paul Du Bois-Reymond
Author: Godfrey Harold Hardy
Release Date: November 25, 2011 [EBook #38079]
Language: English
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Cambridge Tracts in Mathematics
and Mathematical Physics
General Editors
J. G. LEATHEM, M.A.
E. T. WHITTAKER, M.A., F.R.S.
No. 12
ORDERS OF INFINITY
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Lonn: FETTER LANE, E.C.
C. F. CLAY, Manager
Edinburgh: 100, PRINCES STREET
Berlin: A. ASHER AND CO.
Leipzig: F. A. BROCKHAUS
New York: G. P. PUTNAMS SONS
Bom`y and Calcutta: MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltd.
All rights reserved
ORDERS OF INFINITY
THE INFINIT
ARCALC
UL OF
PAUL DU BOIS-REYMOND
by
G. H. HARDY, M.A., F.R.S.
Fellow and Lecturer of Trinity College, Cambridge
Cambridge:
at the University Press
1910
Cambridge:
PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A.
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
PREFACE
The ideas of Du Bois-Reymonds Innitarcalc ul are of great and
growing importance in all branches of the theory of functions. With
the particular system of notation that he invented, it is, no doubt, quite
possible to dispense; but it can hardly be denied that the notation is
exceedingly useful, being clear, concise, and expressive in a very high
degree. In any case Du Bois-Reymond was a mathematician of such
power and originality that it would be a great pity if so much of his
best work were allowed to be forgotten.
There is, in Du Bois-Reymonds original memoirs, a good deal that
would not be accepted as conclusive by modern analysts. He is also
at times exceedingly obscure; his work would beyond doubt have at-
tracted much more attention had it not been for the somewhat repug-
nant garb in which he was unfortunately wont to clothe his most valu-
able ideas. I have therefore attempted, in the following pages, to bring
the Innitarcalc ul up to date, stating explicitly and proving carefully
a number of general theorems the truth of which Du Bois-Reymond
seems to have tacitly assumedI may instance in particular the theo-
rem of iii. 2.
I have to thank Messrs J. E. Littlewood and G. N. Watson for
their kindness in reading the proof-sheets, and Mr J. Jackson for the
numerical results contained in Appendix III.
G. H. H.
Trinity College,
April, 1910.
CONTENTS
PAGE
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
II. Scales of innity in general . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
III. Logarithmico-exponential scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
IV. Special problems connected with logarithmico-exponential scales 28
V. Functions which do not conform to any logarithmico-exponential
scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
VI. Dierentiation and integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
VII. Some developments of Du Bois-Reymonds Innitarcalc ul . . . . . . . 55
Appendix I. General Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Appendix II. A sketch of some applications, with references . . . . . . . . . 66
Appendix III. Some numerical results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
I.
INTRODUCTION.
1. The notions of the order of greatness or order of smallness
of a function f(n) of a positive integral variable n, when n is large,
or of a function f(x) of a continuous variable x, when x is large or
small or nearly equal to a, are of the greatest importance even in
the most elementary stages of mathematical analysis.
The student
soon learns that as x tends to innity (x ) then also x
2
,
and moreover that x
2
tends to innity more rapidly than x, i.e. that
the ratio x
2
/x tends to innity as well; and that x
3
tends to innity
more rapidly than x
2
, and so on indenitely: and it is not long before
he begins to appreciate the idea of a scale of innity (x
n
) formed by
the functions x, x
2
, x
3
, . . . , x
n
, . . . . This scale he may supplement
and to some extent complete by the interpolation of fractional powers
of x, and, when he is familiar with the elements of the theory of the
logarithmic and exponential functions, of irrational powers: and so he
obtains a scale (x
), where is any positive number, formed by all

possible positive powers of x. He then learns that there are functions
whose rates of increase cannot be measured by any of the functions of
this scale: that log x, for example, tends to innity more slowly, and e
x
more rapidly, than any power of x; and that x/(log x) tends to innity
more slowly than x, but more rapidly than any power of x less than
the rst.
As we proceed further in analysis, and come into contact with its
most modern developments, such as the theory of Fouriers series, the
theory of integral functions, or the theory of singular points of analytic
functions, the importance of these ideas becomes greater and greater.
It is the systematic study of them, the investigation of general theo-
rems concerning them and ready methods of handling them, that is
the subject of Paul du Bois-Reymonds Innitarcalc ul or calculus of
innities.
See, for instance, my Course of pure mathematics, pp. 168 et seq., 183 et seq.,
344 et seq., 350.
INTRODUCTION. 2
2. The notion of the order or the rate of increase of a function
is essentially a relative one. If we wish to say that the rate of increase
of f(x) is so and so all we can say is that it is greater than, equal to,
or less than that of some other function (x).
Let us suppose that f and are two functions of the continuous
variable x, dened for all values of x greater than a given value x
0
. Let
us suppose further that f and are positive, continuous, and steadily
increasing functions which tend to innity with x; and let us consider
the ratio f/. We must distinguish four cases:
(i) If f/ with x, we shall say that the rate of increase, or
simply the increase, of f is greater than that of , and shall write
f ~ .
(ii) If f/ 0, we shall say that the increase of f is less than
that of , and write
f .
(iii) If f/ remains, for all values of x however large, between two
xed positive numbers , , so that 0 < < f/ < , we shall say
that the increase of f is equal to that of , and write
f .
It may happen, in this case, that f/ actually tends to a denite
limit. If this is so, we shall write
f .
Finally, if this limit is unity, we shall write
f .
When we can compare the increase of f with that of some standard
function by means of a relation of the type f , we shall say that
measures, or simply is, the increase of f. Thus we shall say that the
increase of 2x
2
+ x + 3 is x
2
.
INTRODUCTION. 3
It usually happens in applications that f/ is monotonic (i.e.
steadily increasing or steadily decreasing) as well as f and them-
selves. It is clear that in this case f/ must tend to innity, or zero, or
to a positive limit: so that one of the three cases indicated above must
occur, and we must have f ~ or f or f (not merely f ).
We shall see in a moment that this is not true in general.
(iv) It may happen that f/ neither tends to innity nor to zero,
nor remains between xed positive limits.
Suppose, for example, that
1
,
2
are two continuous and increasing
functions such that
1
~
2
. A glance at the gure (Fig. 1) will probably
show with sucient clearness how we can construct, by means of a staircase
P
1
P
2
P
3
P
4
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
O X
Y
2
f
Fig. 1.
of straight or curved lines, running backwards and forwards between the
INTRODUCTION. 4
graphs of
1
and
2
, the graph of a steadily increasing function f such that
f =
1
for x = x
1
, x
3
, . . . and f =
2
for x = x
2
, x
4
, . . . . Then f/
1
= 1 for
x = x
1
, x
3
, . . . , but assumes for x = x
2
, x
4
, . . . values which decrease beyond
all limit; while f/
2
= 1 for x = x
2
, x
4
, . . . , but assumes for x = x
1
, x
3
, . . .
values which increase beyond all limit; and f/, where is a function such
that
1
~ ~
2
, as e.g. =
2
, assumes both values which increase
beyond all limit and values which decrease beyond all limit.
Later on (v. 3) we shall meet with cases of this kind in which the
functions are dened by explicit analytical formulae.
3. If a positive constant can be found such that f > for all
suciently large values of x, we shall write
f ;
and if a positive constant can be found such that f < for all
suciently large values of x, we shall write
f .
If f and f , then f .
It is however important to observe (i) that f is not logically
equivalent to the negation of f
and (ii) that it is not logically

equivalent to the alternative f ~ or f . Thus, in the example
discussed at the end of 2,
1
f
2
, but no one of the relations
1
~ f, etc. holds. If however we know that one of the relations f ~ ,
f , f must hold, then these various assertions are logically
equivalent.
The reader will be able to prove without diculty that the symbols
~, , satisfy the following theorems.
If f ~ , , then f ~ .
If f , ~ , then f ~ .
If f , , then f .
If f , , then f .
The relations f , f are mutually exclusive but not exhaustive: f

implies the negation of f , but the converse is not true.
INTRODUCTION. 5
If f , then f + f.
If f ~ , then f f.
If f ~ , f
1
~
1
, then f + f
1
~ +
1
.
If f ~ , f
1

1
, then f + f
1
+
1
.
If f , f
1

1
, then f + f
1
+
1
.
If f ~ , f
1

1
, then ff
1
~
1
.
If f , f
1

1
, then ff
1

1
.
Many other obvious results of the same character might be stated,
but these seem the most important. The reader will nd it instructive to
state for himself a series of similar theorems involving also the symbols
and .
4. So far we have supposed that the functions considered all tend
to innity with x. There is nothing to prevent us from including also
the case in which f or tends steadily to zero, or to a limit other than
zero. Thus we may write x ~ 1, or x ~ 1/x, or 1/x ~ 1/x
2
. Bearing
this in mind the reader should frame a series of theorems similar to
those of 3 but having reference to quotients instead of to sums or
products.
It is also convenient to extend our denitions so as to apply to
negative functions which tend steadily to or to 0 or to some other
limit. In such cases we make no distinction, when using the symbols
~, , , , between the function and its modulus: thus we write
x x
2
or 1/x 1, meaning thereby exactly the same as by
x x
2
or 1/x 1. But f is of course to be interpreted as a
statement about the actual functions and not about their moduli.
It will be well to state at this point, once for all, that all functions
referred to in this tract, from here onwards, are to be understood, unless
the contrary is expressly stated or obviously implied, to be positive,
continuous, and monotonic, increasing of course if they tend to , and
decreasing if they tend to 0. But it is sometimes convenient to use our
symbols even when this is not true of all the functions concerned; to
INTRODUCTION. 6
write, for example,
1 + sin x x, x
2
~ x sin x,
meaning by the rst formula simply that [1+sin x[/x 0. This kind of
use may clearly be extended even to complex functions (e.g. e
ix
x).
Again, we have so far conned our attention to functions of a con-
tinuous variable x which tends to +. This case includes that which is
perhaps even more important in applications, that of functions of the
positive integral variable n: we have only to disregard values of x other
than integral values. Thus n! ~ n
2
, 1/n n.
Finally, by putting x = y, x = 1/y, or x = 1/(y a), we are led to
consider functions of a continuous variable y which tends to or 0
or a: the reader will nd no diculty in extending the considerations
which precede to cases such as these.
In what follows we shall generally state and prove our theorems
only for the case with which we started, that of indenitely increasing
functions of an indenitely increasing continuous variable, and shall
leave to the reader the task of formulating the corresponding theorems
for the other cases. We shall in fact always adopt this course, except
on the rare occasions when there is some essential dierence between
dierent cases.
5. There are some other symbols which we shall sometimes nd it
convenient to use in special senses.
By
O()
we shall denote a function f, otherwise unspecied, but such that
[f[ < K,
where K is a positive constant, and a positive function of x: this
notation is due to Landau. Thus
x + 1 = O(x), x = O(x
2
), sin x = O(1).
INTRODUCTION. 7
We shall follow Borel in using the same letter K in a whole series
of inequalities to denote a positive constant, not necessarily the same
in all inequalities where it occurs. Thus
sin x < K, 2x + 1 < Kx, x
m
< Ke
x
.
If we use K thus in any nite number of inequalities which (like
the rst two above) do not involve any variables other than x, or
whatever other variable we are primarily considering, then all the
values of K lie between certain absolutely xed limits K
1
and K
2
(thus
K
1
might be 10
10
and K
2
be 10
10
). In this case all the Ks satisfy
0 < K
1
< K < K
2
, and every relation f < K might be replaced by
f < K
2
, and every relation f > K by f > K
1
. But we shall also
have occasion to use K in equalities which (like the third above)
involve a parameter (here m). In this case K, though independent
of x, is a function of m. Suppose that , , . . . are all the parameters
which occur in this way in this tract. Then if we give any special
system of values to , , . . . , we can determine K
1
, K
2
as above.
Thus all our Ks satisfy
0 < K
1
(, , . . . ) < K < K
2
(, , . . . ),
where K
1
, K
2
are positive functions of , , . . . dened for any permis-
sible set of values of those parameters. But K
1
has zero for its lower
limit; by choosing , , . . . appropriately we can make K
1
as small as
we pleaseand, of course, K
2
as large as we please.
It is clear that the three assertions

f = O(), [f[ < K, f
are precisely equivalent to one another.
When a function f possesses any property for all values of x greater
than some denite value (this value of course depending on the nature
of the particular property) we shall say that f possesses the property
for x > x
0
. Thus
x > 100 (x > x
0
), e
x
> 100x
2
(x > x
0
).
I am indebted to Mr Littlewood for the substance of these remarks.

INTRODUCTION. 8
We shall use to denote an arbitrarily small but xed positive
number, and to denote an arbitrarily great but likewise xed positive
number. Thus
f < (x > x
0
)
means however small , we can nd x
0
so that f < for x > x
0
, i.e.
means the same as f ; and > f (x > x
0
) means the same: and
(log x)
means any power of log x, however great, tends to innity more slowly
than any positive power of x, however small.
Finally, we denote by a function (of a variable or variables indi-
cated by the context or by a sux) whose limit is zero when the variable
or variables are made to tend to innity or to their limits in the way
we happen to be considering. Thus
f = (1 + ), f
are equivalent to one another.
In order to become familiar with the use of the symbols dened
in the preceding sections the reader is advised to verify the following
relations; in them P
m
(x), Q
n
(x) denote polynomials whose degrees are
m and n and whose leading coecients are positive:
P
m
(x) ~ Q
n
(x) (m > n), P
m
(x) Q
n
(x) (m = n),
P
m
(x) x
m
, P
m
(x)/Q
n
(x) x
mn
,
_
ax
2
+ 2bx + c x (a > 0),
x + a
x,
x + a
x a/2
x,
x + a
x = O(1/
x),
e
x
~ x
, e
x
2
~ e
x
, e
e
x
~ e
x
,
log x x
, log P
m
(x) log Q
n
(x), log log P
m
(x) log log Q
n
(x),
x + a sin x x, x(a + sin x) x (a > 1),
e
a+sin x
1, cosh x sinh x e
x
,
x
m
= O(e
x
), (log x)/x = O(x
1
),
SCALES OF INFINITY IN GENERAL. 9
1 +
1
2
+ +
1
n
~ 1, 1 +
1
2
2
+ +
1
n
2
1,
1 +
1
2
+ +
1
n
log n, 1 +
1
2
+ +
1
n
log n 1,
n! n
n
, n! ~ e
n
, n! = n
n
1+
= n
n(1+)
,
n! n
n+
1
2
e
n
2, n! (e/n)
n
= (1 + )
2n,
_
x
1
dt
t
~ 1,
_
x
1
dt
t
log x,
_
x
2
dt
log t

x
log x
.
II.
SCALES OF INFINITY IN GENERAL.
1. If we start from a function , such that ~ 1, we can, in a
variety of ways, form a series of functions
1
= ,
2
,
3
, . . . ,
n
, . . .
such that the increase of each function is greater than that of its pre-
decessor. Such a sequence of functions we shall denote for shortness
by (
n
).
One obvious method is to take
n
=
n
. Another is as follows: If
~ x, it is clear that
(x)/(x) ,
and so
2
(x) = (x) ~ (x); similarly
3
(x) =
2
(x) ~
2
(x), and
so on.
Thus the rst method, with = x, gives the scale x, x

2
, x
3
, . . .
or (x
n
); the second, with = x
2
, gives the scale x
2
, x
4
, x
8
, . . . or (x
2
n
).
These scales are enumerable scales, formed by a simple progression of
functions. We can also, of course, by replacing the integral parameter n by
For some results as to the increase of such iterated functions see vii. 2 (vi).
a continuous parameter , dene scales containing a non-enumerable mul-
tiplicity of functions: the simplest is (x
), where is any positive number.

But such scales ll a subordinate role in the theory.
It is obvious that we can always insert a new term (and therefore, of
course, any number of new terms) in a scale at the beginning or between
any two terms: thus
(or
, where is any positive number less

than unity) has an increase less than that of any term of the scale,
and
_
n+1
or
1
n+1
has an increase intermediate between those
of
n
and
n+1
. A less obvious and far more important theorem is the
following
Theorem of Paul du Bois-Reymond. Given any ascending
scale of increasing functions
n
, i.e. a series of functions such that
1

2

3
. . . , we can always nd a function f which increases
more rapidly than any function of the scale, i.e. which satises the
relation
n
f for all values of n.
In view of the fundamental importance of this theorem we shall give
two entirely dierent proofs.
2. (i) We know that
n+1
~
n
for all values of n, but this, of
course, does not necessarily imply that
n+1

n
for all values of
x and n in question.
We can, however, construct a new scale of func-

tions
n
such that
(a)
n
is identical with
n
for all values of x from a certain value
x
n
onwards (x
n
, of course, depending upon n);
(b)
n+1

n
for all values of x and n.
For suppose that we have constructed such a scale up to its
nth term
n
. Then it is easy to see how to construct
n+1
. Since
n+1
~
n
,
n

n
, it follows that
n+1
~
n
, and so
n+1
>
n
from a certain value of x (say x
n+1
) onwards. For x x
n+1
we take
n+1
=
n+1
. For x < x
n+1
we give
n+1
a value equal to the greater
n+1
~
n
implies
n+1
>
n
for suciently large values of x, say for x > x
n
.
But x
n
may tend to with n. Thus if
n
= x
n
/n! we have x
n
= n + 1.
of the values of
n+1
,
n
. Then it is obvious that
n+1
satises the
conditions (a) and (b).
Now let
f(n) =
n
(n).
From f(n) we can deduce a continuous and increasing function f(x),
such that
n
(x) < f(x) <
n+1
(x)
for n < x < n + 1, by joining the points (n,
n
(n)) by straight lines or
suitably chosen arcs of curves.
It is perhaps worth while to call attention explicitly to a small point that
has sometimes been overlooked (see, e.g., Borel, Lecons sur la theorie des
fonctions, p. 114; Lecons sur les series à termes positifs, p. 26). It is not
always the case that the use of straight lines will ensure
f(x) >
n
(x)
for x > n (see, for example, Fig. 2, where the dotted line represents an
appropriate arc).
Then
f/
n
>
n+1
/
n
for x > n + 1, and so f ~
n
; therefore f ~
n
and the theorem is
proved.
The proof which precedes may be made more general by taking
f(n) =
n
(n), where
n
is an integer depending upon n and tending
steadily to innity with n.
(ii) The second proof of Du Bois-Reymonds Theorem proceeds on
entirely dierent lines. We can always choose positive coecients a
n
so
that
f(x) =
1
a
n
n
(x)
is convergent for all values of x. This will certainly be the case, for
instance, if
1/a
n
=
1
(1)
2
(2) . . .
n
(n).
n
n + 1
n+1
Fig. 2.
For then, if is any integer greater than x,
n
(x) <
n
(n) for n ,
and the series will certainly be convergent if
1
(1)
2
(2) . . .
n1
(n 1)
is convergent, as is obviously the case.
Also
f(x)/
n
(x) > a
n+1
n+1
(x)/
n
(x) ,
so that f ~
n
for all values of n.
3. Suppose, e.g., that
n
= x
n
. If we restrict ourselves to values of x
greater than 1, we may take
n
=
n
= x
n
. The rst method of construction
would naturally lead to
f = n
n
= e
nlog n
,
or f = (
n
)
n
, where
n
is dened as at the end of 2 (i), and each of these
functions has an increase greater than that of any power of n. The second
method gives
f(x) =
1
x
n
1
1
2
2
3
3
. . . n
n
.
It is known
that when x is large the order of magnitude of this function

is roughly the same as that of
e
1
2
(log x)
2
/ log log x
.
As a matter of fact it is by no means necessary, in general, in order to
ensure the convergence of the series by which f(x) is dened, to suppose
that a
n
decreases so rapidly. It is very generally sucient to suppose
1/a
n
=
n
(n): this is always the case, for example, if
n
(x) = (x)
n
, as
the series
_
(x)
(n)
_
n
is always convergent. This choice of a
n
would, when = x, lead to
f(x) =
_
x
n
_
n
_
2x
e
e
x/e
.
But the simplest choice here is 1/a

n
= n!, when
f(x) =
x
n
n!
= e
x
1;
it is naturally convenient to disregard the irrelevant term 1.
Messenger of Mathematics, vol. 34, p. 101.
Lindelof, Acta Societatis Fennicae, t. 31, p. 41; Le Roy, Bulletin des Sciences
Mathematiques, t. 24, p. 245.
4. We can always suppose, if we please, that f(x) is dened by a
power series
a
n
x
n
convergent for all values of x, in virtue of a theorem
of Poincares
which is of sucient intrinsic interest to deserve a formal

statement and proof.
Given any continuous increasing function (x), we can always nd an
integral function f(x) (i.e. a function f(x) dened by a power series
a
n
x
n
convergent for all values of x) such that f(x) ~ (x).
The following simple proof is due to Borel.
Let (x) be any function (such as the square of ) such that ~ .

Take an increasing sequence of numbers a
n
such that a
n
, and another
sequence of numbers b
n
such that
a
1
< b
2
< a
2
< b
3
< a
3
< . . . ;
and let
f(x) =
_
x
b
n
_
n
,
where
n
is an integer and
n+1
>
n
. This series is convergent for all values
of x; for the nth root of the nth term is, for suciently large values of n, not
greater than x/b
n
, and so tends to zero. Now suppose a
n
x < a
n+1
; then
f(x) >
_
a
n
b
n
_
n
.
Since a
n
> b
n
we can suppose
n
so chosen that (i)
n
is greater than any
of
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n1
and (ii)
_
a
n
b
n
_
n
> (a
n+1
).
Then
f(x) > (a
n+1
) > (x),
and so f ~ .
American Journal of Mathematics, vol. 14, p. 214.
Lecons sur les series à termes positifs, p. 27.

5. So far we have conned our attention to ascending scales, such
as x, x
2
, x
3
, . . . , x
n
, . . . or (x
n
); but it is obvious that we may consider
in a similar manner descending scales such as x,

x,
3
x, . . . ,
n
x, . . .
or (
n
x). It is very generally (though not always) true that if (

n
) is an
ascending scale, and denotes the function inverse to , then (
n
) is
a descending scale.
If > for all values of x (or all values greater than some denite value),
then a glance at Fig. 3 is enough to show that if and are the functions
inverse to and , then < for all values of x (or all values greater than
some denite value). We have only to remember that the graph of may
be obtained from that of by looking at the latter from a dierent point
of view (interchanging the roles of x and y). But it is not true that ~
involves . Thus e
x
~ e
x
/x. The function inverse to e
x
is log x: the
function inverse to e
x
/x is obtained by solving the equation x = e
y
/y with
respect to y. This equation gives
y = log x + log y,
and it is easy to see that y log x.
O
x
y
Fig. 3.
Given a scale of increasing functions
n
such that
1
~
2
~
3
~ . . . ~ 1,
we can nd an increasing function f such that
n
~ f ~ 1 for all values
of n. The reader will nd no diculty in modifying the argument of
2 (i) so as to establish this proposition.
6. The following extensions of Du Bois-Reymonds Theorem
(and the corresponding theorem for descending scales) are due to
Hadamard.
Given
1

2

3
. . .
n
. . . ,
we can nd f so that
n
f for all values of n.
Given
1
~
2
~
3
~ . . . ~
n
~ . . . ~ ,
we can nd f so that
n
~ f ~ for all values of n.
Given an ascending sequence (
n
) and a descending sequence (
p
)
such that
n

p
for all values of n and p, we can nd f so that
n
f
p
for all values of n and p.
To prove the rst of these theorems we have only to observe that
/
1
~ /
2
~ . . . ~ /
n
~ . . . ~ 1,
and to construct a function F (as we can in virtue of the theorem of 5)
which tends to innity more slowly than any of the functions /
n
.
Then
f = /F
is a function such as is required. Similarly for the second theorem. The
third is rather more dicult to prove.
Acta Mathematica, t. 18, pp. 319 et seq.

In the rst place, we may suppose that
n+1
>
n
for all values of
x and n: for if this is not so we can modify the denitions of the functions
n
as in 2 (i). Similarly we may suppose
p+1
<
p
for all values of x and p.
Secondly, we may suppose that, if x is xed,
n
as n , and
p
0 as p . For if this is not true of the functions given, we can
replace them by H
n
n
and K
p
p
, where (H
n
) is an increasing sequence of
constants, tending to with n, and (K
p
) a decreasing sequence of constants
whose limit as p is zero.
p+1
n+1
P
n,p
P
n,p+1
P
n+1,p
Fig. 4.
Since
p
~
n
but, for any given x,
p
<
n
for suciently large values
of n, it is clear (see Fig. 4) that the curve y =
p
intersects the curve y =
n
for all suciently large values of n (say for n n
p
).
At this point we shall, in order to avoid unessential detail, introduce a
restrictive hypothesis which can be avoided by a slight modication of the
argument,
but which does not seriously impair the generality of the result.
We shall assume that no curve y =
p
intersects any curve y =
n
in more
than one point; let us denote this point, if it exists, by P
n,p
.
See Hadamards original paper quoted above.

If p is xed, P
n,p
exists for n > n
p
; similarly, if n is xed, P
n,p
exists
for p > p
n
. And as either n or p increases, so do both the ordinate or the
abscissa of P
n,p
. The curve
p
contains all the points P
n,p
for which p has a
xed value: and y =
n
contains all the points for which n has a xed value.
It is clear that, in order to dene a function f which tends to innity
more rapidly than any
n
and less rapidly than any
p
, all that we have to
do is to draw a curve, making everywhere a positive acute angle with each
of the axes of coordinates, and crossing all the curves y =
n
from below to
above, and all the curves y =
p
from above to below.
Choose a positive integer N
p
, corresponding to each value of p, such that
(i) N
p
> n
p
and (ii) N
p
as p . Then P
N
p
,p
exists for each value of p.
And it is clear that we have only to join the points P
N
1
,1
, P
N
2
,2
, P
N
3
,3
, . . .
by straight lines or other suitably chosen arcs of curves in order to obtain a
curve which fulls our purpose. The theorem is therefore established.
7. Some very interesting considerations relating to scales of innity
have been developed by Pincherle.
We have dened f ~ to mean f/ , or, what is the same

thing,
log f log . (1)
We might equally well have dened f ~ to mean
F(f) F() , (2)
where F(x) is any function which tends steadily to innity with x
(e.g. x, e
x
). Let us say that if (2) holds then
f ~ (F), (3)
so that f ~ is equivalent to f ~ (log x). Similarly we dene
f (F) to mean that F(f) F() , and f (F) to mean
that F(f) F() remains between certain xed limits. Thus
x + log x x, x + log x ~ x (x),
x + 1 x (x), x + 1 ~ x (e
x
),
Memorie della Accademia delle Scienze di Bologna (ser. 4, t. 5, p. 739).

since e
x+1
e
x
= (e 1)e
x
.
It is clear that the more rapid the increase of F, the more likely is
it to discriminate between the rates of increase of two given functions
f and . More precisely, if
f ~ (F),
and F = FF
1
, where F
1
is any increasing function, then will
f ~ (F).
For
F(f) F() = F(f)F
1
(f) F()F
1
() > F(f) F()F
1
() .
8. The substance of the following theorems is due in part to
Pincherle and in part to Du Bois-Reymond.
1. However rapid the increase of f, as compared with that of ,

we can so choose F that f (F).
2. If f is positive for x > x
0
, we can so choose F that
f ~ (F).
3. If f is monotonic and not negative for x > x
0
, and
f (F), however great be the increase of F, then f = from a
certain value of x onwards.
(1) If f ~ , we may regard f as an increasing function of , say
f = (),
where (x) ~ x. We can choose a constant g greater than 1, and then
choose X so that (x) > gx for x > X. Let a be any number greater
than X, and let
a
1
= (a), a
2
= (a
1
), a
3
= (a
2
), . . . .
Pincherle, l.c.; Du Bois-Reymond, Math. Annalen, Bd. 8, S. 390 et seq.

Then (a
n
) is an increasing sequence, and a
n
, since a
n
> g
n
a.
We can now construct an increasing function F such that
F(a
n
) =
1
2
nK,
where K is a constant. Then if a
1
x a
, a
(x) a
+1
, and
F(x) F(x) < F(a
+1
) F(a
1
) < K.
Accordingly F(f) F() remains less than a constant, and so the rst
theorem is established.
(2) Let f = , so that > 0. If , as x increases, remains
greater than a constant K, then
e
f
e
> (e
K
1)e
,
so that we may take F(x) = e
x
.
If it is not true that K, assumes values less than any
assignable positive number, as x . Let (x) be dened as the
lower limit of () for x. Then tends steadily to zero as x ,
and . We may also regard as a steadily decreasing function
of , say = ().
Let () be an increasing function of such that ~ 1/, ~ 1.
Then if
F =
_

(t) dt,
F(f) F() =
_
+
dt
_
+()
dt > ()() ~ 1,
and F(x) fulls the requirement of theorem 2. The third theorem is
obviously a mere corollary of the second.
The reader will nd it instructive to deduce or prove independently the
following three theorems, which are closely analogous to those which have
just been proved.
1. However great be the increase of f as compared with that of , we
can determine an increasing function F such that F(f) F().
2. If f is positive for x > x
0
, we can determine an increasing
function F such that F(f) ~ F().
3. If f is monotonic and not negative for x > x
0
, and F(f) F(),
however great the increase of F, then f = from a certain value of x
onwards.
To these he may add the theorem (analogous to that proved at the end
of 7) that f ~ involves F(f) ~ F() if log F(x)/ log x is an increasing
function (a condition which may for practical purposes be replaced by
F ~ x).
9. Let us consider some examples of the theorems of the last paragraph.
(i) Let f = x
m
(m > 1) and = x. Then, following the argument of
8 (1), we have () =
m
. We may take
a = e, a
1
= e
m
, a
2
= e
m
2
, . . . , a
n
= e
m
n
, . . . ,
and we have to dene F so that
F(e
m
n
) =
1
2
nK.
The most natural solution of this equation is
F(x) = K log log x/2 log m.
And in fact
F(x
m
) F(x) =
K
2 log m
log(mlog x) log log x =
1
2
K,
so that x
m
x (F).
(ii) Let f = e
x
+ e
x
, = e
x
. Following the argument of 8 (2), we
nd
= e
x
= , () = 1/,
and we may take () =
1+
( > 0). This makes F a constant multiple
of x
2+
, and it is easy to verify that
(e
x
+e
x
)
k
e
kx
,
if k > 2.
(iii) The relation F(f) F() is equivalent to f (log F). Using
the result of (i) we see that F(x
m
) F(x) if F log x. Similarly, using the
result of (ii), we see that F(e
x
+e
x
) ~ F(e
x
) if F e
x
k
(k > 2).
LOGARITHMICO-EXPONENTIAL SCALES. 22
10. Before leaving this part of our subject, let us observe that all
of the substance of 16 of this section may be extended to the case
in which our symbols ~, etc., are dened by reference to an arbitrary
increasing function F. We leave it as an exercise to the reader to eect
these extensions.
III.
LOGARITHMICO-EXPONENTIAL SCALES.
1. The only scales of innity that are of any practical importance
in analysis are those which may be constructed by means of the loga-
rithmic and exponential functions.
We have already seen (ii. 3) that
e
x
~ x
n
for any value of n however great. From this it follows that
log x x
1/n
for any value of n.
It is easy to deduce that

e
e
x
~ e
x
n
, e
e
e
x
~ e
e
x
n
, . . . ,
log log x (log x)
1/n
, log log log x (log log x)
1/n
, . . . .
The repeated logarithmic and exponential functions are so impor-
tant in this subject that it is worth while to adopt a notation for them
It was pointed out above (ii. 5) that ~ does not necessarily involve
(, being the functions inverse to , ). But it does involve < for suciently
large values of x, and therefore . Hence ~
n
(for any n) involves
n
(for any n) and therefore, if (
n
) is a descending scale, as is in this case obvious,

n
for any n. For proofs of the relations e
x
~ x
n
, log x x
1/n
, proceeding on
dierent lines, see my Course of pure mathematics, pp. 345, 350.
of a less cumbrous character. We shall write
l
1
x lx log x, l
2
x llx, l
3
x ll
2
x, . . . ,
e
1
x ex e
x
, e
2
x eex, e
3
x ee
2
x, . . . .
It is easy, with the aid of these functions, to write down any number
of ascending scales, each containing only functions whose increase is
greater than that of any function in any preceding scale; for example
x, x
2
, . . . , x
n
, . . . ; e
x
, e
2x
, . . . , e
nx
, . . . ;
e
x
2
, e
x
3
, . . . , e
x
n
, . . . ; e
2
x, e
3
x, . . . , e
n
x, . . . .
In among the functions of these scales we can of course interpolate
new functions as freely as we like, using, for instance, such functions as
x
e
x
e
x
,
where , , , , are any positive numbers; and we can of course con-
struct non-enumerable (ii. 1) as well as enumerable scales. Similarly
we can construct any number of descending scales, each composed of
functions whose increase is less than that of any functions in any pre-
ceding scale: for example
lx, (lx)
1/2
, . . . , (lx)
1/n
, . . . ; l
2
x, l
3
x, . . . , l
n
x, . . . .
Two special scales are of particularly fundamental importance; the
ascending scale
(E) x, ex, e
2
x, e
3
x, . . . ,
and the descending scale
(L) x, lx, l
2
x, l
3
x, . . . .
These scales mark the limits of all logarithmic and exponential
scales: it is of course, in virtue of the general theorems of ii., possible
to dene functions whose increase is more rapid than that of any e
n
x
or slower than that of any l
n
x; but, as we shall see in a moment, this
is not possible if we conne ourselves to functions dened by a nite
and explicit formula involving only the ordinary functional symbols of
elementary analysis.
2. We dene a logarithmico-exponential function (shortly, an L-
function) as a real one-valued function dened, for all values of x greater
than some denite value, by a nite combination of the ordinary al-
gebraical symbols (viz. +, , , ,
n
) and the functional symbols

log(. . . ) and e
(... )
, operating on the variable x and on real constants.
It is to be observed that the result of working out the value of the func-
tion, by substituting x in the formula dening it, is to be real at all stages
of the work. It is important to exclude such a function
1
2
e
x
2
+e
x
2
,
which, with a suitable interpretation of the roots, is equal to cos x.
Theorem. Any L-function is ultimately continuous, of constant
sign, and monotonic, and, as x , tends to , or to zero or to
some other denite limit. Further, if f and are L-functions, one or
other of the relations
f ~ , f , f
holds between them.
We may classify L-functions as follows, by a method due to Liou-
ville.
An L-function is of order zero if it is purely algebraical; of order 1

if the functional symbols l(. . . ) and e(. . . ) which occur in it bear only
on algebraical functions; of order 2 if they bear only on algebraical
functions or L-functions of order 1; and so on. Thus
x
x
x
= e
log xe
x log x
is of order 3. As the results stated in the theorem are true of algebraical
functions, it is sucient to prove that, if true of L-functions of order
n 1, they are true of L-functions of order n.
See my tract The integration of functions of a single variable (No. 2 of this

series), pp. 5 et seq., where references to Liouvilles original memoirs are given.
Let us observe rst that if f and are L-functions, so is f/. Hence
the last part of the theorem is a mere corollary of the rst part. Again,
the derivative of an L-function of order n is an L-function of order n (or
less). Hence it is enough to prove that, if the results stated are true of
L-functions of order n 1, then an L-function of order n is ultimately
continuous and of constant sign, i.e. that it is continuous and cannot
vanish for a series of values of x increasing beyond limit. For, if this
is true of any L-function of order n, it is true of the derivative of any
such function; and therefore the function itself is ultimately continuous
and monotonic.
Now any L-function of order n can be expressed in the form
f
n
= Ae
(1)
n1
, e
(2)
n1
, . . . , e
(r)
n1
, l
(1)
n1
, . . . , l
(s)
n1
,
(1)
n1
, . . . ,
(t)
n1
= Az
1
, z
2
, . . . , z
q
,
say, where q = r +s +t, the functions with sux n1 are L-functions
of order n 1, and A denotes an algebraical function: and there is
therefore an identical relation
F M
0
f
p
n
+ M
1
f
p1
n
+ + M
p
= 0,
where the coecients are polynomials in z
1
, z
2
, . . . , z
q
. These polyno-
mials are comprised in the class of functions
M =
n1
e
n1
(l
(1)
n1
)
1
(l
(2)
n1
)
2
. . . (l
(h)
n1
)
h
,
in which the s are positive integers, the number of terms in the sum-
mation is nite, and the functions with sux n1 are again L-functions
of order n 1. So also are
dM
0
dx
,
dM
1
dx
, . . . ,
dM
p
dx
,
and the discriminant of F qua function of f
n
.
Let us suppose our conclusions established in so far as relates to
functions of the type M. Then it follows by a well known theorem
that f
n
is continuous, and, since f
n
= 0 involves M
p
= 0, that f
n
also
is ultimately of constant sign.
Hence it is enough to establish our conclusions for functions of the
type M. Let us call
1
+
2
+ +
h
the degree of a term of M, and let us suppose that the greatest degree
of a term of M is , and that there are terms of degree , and that
the term printed in the expression of M above is one of them.
In the rst place it is obvious, from the form of M and the fact that
ey and ly are ultimately continuous when y is ultimately continuous
and monotonic, that M is ultimately continuous. Again, if M vanishes
for values of x surpassing all limit, the same is true of
M/(
n1
e
n1
),
and therefore, by Rolles theorem,
of the derivative of the latter func-

tion. But the reader will easily verify that when we dierentiate, and
arrange the terms of the derivative in the same manner as those of M,
we obtain a function of the same form as M but containing at most
1 terms of order . And by repeating this process we clearly arrive
ultimately at a function of the form
N =
n1
e
n1
,
in which there are no factors of the form l
n1
, and which must vanish
for a sequence of values of x surpassing all limit. Hence it is sucient
for our purpose to prove that this is impossible.
If F(x, y) is a function of x and y which vanishes for x = a, y = b, and has

derivatives
F
x
,
F
y
continuous about (a, b), and if
F
y
does not vanish for x = a,
y = b, then there is a unique continuous function y which is equal to b when x = a,
and satises the equation F(x, y) = 0 identically. See, e.g., W. H. Young, Proc.
Lond. Math. Soc., vol. 7, pp. 397 et seq.
If a function possesses a derivative for all values of its argument, the derivative
must have at least one root between any two roots of the function itself.
Let the number of terms in N be . Then
d
dx
N/(
n1
e
n1
)
must (for reasons similar to those advanced above) vanish for values
of x surpassing all limit. But when we dierentiate, and arrange the
terms of the derivative in the same manner as those of N, we are left
with a function of the same form as N, but containing only 1 terms.
And it is clear that a repetition of this process leads to the conclusion
that a function of the type
n1
e
n1
vanishes for values of x surpassing all limit, which is ex hypothesi un-
true. Hence the theorem is established.
3. The proof just given, it may be observed, does not in any way
depend upon the fact that the symbols of algebraical functionality,
admitted into the denition of L-functions, are of an explicit character.
We might admit such functions as
e
2
_
ly,
where y
5
+yx = 0. But the case contemplated in the denition seems
to be the only one of any interest.
Another interesting theorem is: if f is any L-function, we can nd
an integer k such that
f e
k
x;
and, if f ~ 1, we can nd k so that
f ~ l
k
x :
that is to say, an L-function cannot increase more rapidly than any
exponential, or more slowly than any logarithm.
More precisely, an L-function of order n cannot satisfy f ~ e
n
(x
)
or 1 f (l
n
x)
. The rst part of this result is easily established; the

second appears to require a more elaborate proof.
4. Let f and be any two L-functions which tend to innity
with x, and let be any positive number. Then one of the three
relations
f ~
, f
, f
must hold between f and ; and the second can hold for at most one
value of . If the rst holds for any it holds for any smaller ; and
if the last holds for any it holds for any greater .
Then there are three possibilities. Either the rst relation holds for
every ; then
f ~
.
Or the third holds for every ; then
f
.
Or the rst holds for some values of and the third for others; and
then there is a value a of which divides the two classes of values of ,
and we may write
f =
f
1
,
where
f
1

. We shall nd this result very useful in the sequel.

IV.
SPECIAL PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH
LOGARITHMICO-EXPONENTIAL SCALES.
1. The functions e
r
(l
s
x)
. We have agreed to express the fact that,

however large be and however small be , x
has an increase less than

that of e
x
, by
x
e
x
(1)
Such a relation as
x
1
(lx)
2
e
1
x
2
(lx)
3
might at rst sight appear to aord more information than (1): but
x
1
(lx)
2
x
1
,
1
x
2
(lx)
3
~ x
2
,
Let us endeavour to nd a function f such that
x
f e
x
. (2)
If
1
~
2
, e
1
~ e
2
(ii. 8). Thus (2) will certainly be satised if
log x log f x
.
Hence a solution of our problem is given by
f = e
(log x)
1+
.
Similarly we can prove that
f = e
(log x)
1
satises
(log x)
f x
.
It will be convenient to write
e
0
x l
0
x x,
and then we have the relations
e
0
(l
1
x)
e
1
(l
1
x)
1
e
0
(l
0
x)
e
1
(l
1
x)
1+
e
1
(l
0
x)
, (3)
where denotes any positive number.
Let us now consider the functions

f = e
r
(l
s
x)
, f
= e
r
(l
s
x)
,
where ,
are positive and not equal to 1. If r = r
, f ~ f
or f f
according as s < s
or s > s
. If s = s
, the same relations hold according as

r > r
or r < r
. If r = r
and s = s
, then f ~ f
or f f
according as
where
1
,
2
are any positive numbers greater than
1
and less than
2
respectively.
Hence our relation really expresses no more than (1).
Here , as usual, denotes any positive number however small. Of course, in

using the index 1 , it is tacitly implied that < 1.
>
or <
. Leaving these cases aside, suppose s > s
, s s
= > 0.
Putting l
s
x = y, we obtain
f = e
r
(l
y)
, f
= e
r
y
.
If r < r
it is clear that f . If r > r
, let r r
= ; then
l
r
f = (l
y)
, l
r
f
= l
y :
if > 1 the symbol may be replaced by . If > , l
r
f l
r
f
and so
f f
. If < , f ~ f
. If = , f ~ f
or f f
according as > 1 or
< 1. Thus
f ~ f
(r s > r
), f f
(r s < r
),
while if r s = r
, f ~ f
or f f
according as > 1 or < 1, being

the exponent of the logarithm of higher order which occurs in f or f
.
From this it follows that
. . . e
1
(l
2
x)
1
e
0
(l
1
x)
(lx)
e
1
(l
2
x)
1+
e
2
(l
3
x)
1+
. . .
. . . e
2
(l
2
x)
1
e
1
(l
1
x)
1
e
0
(l
0
x)
e
1
(l
1
x)
1+
. . .
. . . e
3
(l
2
x)
1
e
2
(l
1
x)
1
e
1
(l
0
x)
ex
e
2
(l
1
x)
1+
. . . .
These relations enable us to interpolate to any extent among what we
may call the fundamental logarithmico-exponential orders of innity, viz.
(l
k
x)
, x
, e
k
x
. Thus
e
(lx)
1+
, e
e
(llx)
1+
, . . . ,
and
e
e
(lx)
1
, e
e
e
(llx)
1
, . . . ,
are two scales, the rst rising from above x
, the second falling from be-

low ex
, and never overlapping.

These scales, and the analogous scales which can be interpolated between
other pairs of the fundamental logarithmico-exponential orders, possess an-
other interesting property. The two scales written above cover up (to put
it roughly) the whole interval between x
and ex
, so far as L-functions
(iii. 2) are concerned: that is to say, it is impossible that an L-function f
should satisfy
f ~ e
r
(l
r
x)
1+
, (every r),
f e
r+1
(l
r
x)
1
, (every r);
and the corresponding pairs of scales lying between (l
k+1
x)
and (l
k
x)
,
or between e
k
x
and e
k+1
x
, possess a similar property. This property is

analogous to that possessed (iii. 3) by the scales (l
r
x), (e
r
x); viz. that no
L-function f can satisfy f ~ e
r
x, or 1 f l
r
x, for all values of r. A
little consideration is all that is needed to render this theorem plausible: to
attempt to carry out the details of a formal proof would occupy more space
than we can aord.
2. (i) Compare the rates of increase of
f = (lx)
(lx)
, = x
(lx)
.
These functions are the same as e(lx)
llx, e(lx)
1
. If + 1,
f ~ ; if + < 1, f .
(ii) Compare the rates of increase of
f = x
a
(lx)
b
, = e
A(lx)
(llx)
, (a, A, > 0).

Here f = e(a lx+b llx). If < 1, then f ~ ; if > 1, then f . If = 1,
< 0, then f ~ ; if = 1, > 0, then f . If = 1, = 0, a > A,
then f ~ ; if = 1, = 0, a < A, then f . If = 1, = 0, a = A,
then f ~ if b > 0 and f if b < 0. Finally if = 1, = 0, a = A, b = 0
the two functions are identical.
(iii) Compare the increase of f = x
/(1+)
, where is a function of x
such that ~ 1, with that of x
.
It is clear that f x, but f ~ x
for any value of less than unity. For,

if x is large enough, > n, where n is any positive integer, and so
f > x
n/(1+n)
.
Again f = xe
lx/(1+)
, and so, if lx, f x: but if lx, f x; while
if ~ lx, f x.
3. Successive approximations to a logarithmico-exponential
function. Consider such a function as
f =
x(lx)
2
e
lx(l
2
x)
2
e
l
2
x(l
3
x)
2
.
If we omit one or more of the parts of the expression of f we obtain another
function whose increase diers more or less widely from that of f. The
question arises as to which parts are of the greatest and which of the least
importance; i.e. as to which are the parts whose omission aects the increase
of f most or least fundamentally.
Taking logarithms we nd
lf =
1
2
lx +
lx(l
2
x)
2
e
l
2
x(l
3
x)
2
+ 2l
2
x, (a)
the three terms being arranged in order of importance. Again
l
2
f = l
2
x l2 +, l
3
f = l
3
x +,
where (i. 5) in each of the last equations denotes a function (not the same
function) which tends to zero as x . If we neglect this term in each of
them in turn we deduce the approximations
(1) f = x, (2) f =
x.
By neglecting the last term in the equation (a) we obtain the much closer
approximation
(6) f =
xe
lx(l
2
x)
2
e
l
2
x(l
3
x)
2
.
In order to obtain a more complete series of approximations to f we must
replace the equation (a) by a series of approximate equations. Now if
=
lx(l
2
x)
2
e
l
2
x(l
3
x)
2
we have
l =
1
2
l
2
x +
_
l
2
x(l
3
x)
2
+ 2l
3
x,
l
2
= l
3
x l2 +, l
3
= l
4
x +.
Hence we obtain (0) = lx, (3) =
lx, and (5) =
lxe
l
2
x(l
3
x)
2
as
approximations to the increase of : of these, however, the rst is valueless,
inasmuch as it would make preponderate over the rst term on the right
hand side of (a).
A similar argument, applied to the function e
l
2
x(l
3
x)
2
, leads us to inter-
polate (4) =
lxe
l
2
x
between (3) and (5). We can now, by adopting a
series of approximate forms of the equation (a), deduce a complete system
of closer and closer approximations to the increase of f, viz.
(1) x, (2)
x, (3)
xe
lx
, (4)
xe
lxe
l
2
x
,
(5)
xe
lxe
l
2
x(l
3
x)
2
, (6)
xe
lx(l
2
x)
2
e
l
2
x(l
3
x)
2
.
This order corresponds exactly to the order of importance of the various
parts of the expression of f.
4. Legitimate and illegitimate forms of approximation to
a logarithmico-exponential function. In applications of this the-
ory, such as occur, for instance, in the theory of integral functions, we are
continually meeting such equations as
f = (1 +)e
x
, f = e
(1+)x
, f = e
x
+
, ( > 0). (1)
It is important to have clear ideas as to the degree of accuracy of such
representations of f. The simplest method is to take logarithms repeatedly,
as in 3 above.
In the rst example the term does not aect the increase of f: we have
f ex
. This is not true in the second; but lf x
, so that the term

does not aect the increase of lf ; while in the third this is not true, though
llf . Of the three formulae the rst gives the most, and the last the least,
information as to the increase of f (see also vii. 3).
Such a formula as
f = xe
(1+)x
(2)
would not be a legitimate form of approximation at all. For the factor e(x
)
which is not completely specied may well be far more important than the
explicitly expressed factor x: we might for example have = x
, where
0 < < , in which case e(x
) is more important than any power of x. Thus

(2) does not really convey more information than the second equation (1),
and to use it would involve a logical error similar to that involved in saying
that the suns distance is 92,713,600 miles, with a probable error of some
100,000 miles.
5. Attempts to represent orders of innity by symbols. It
is natural to try to devise some simple method of representing orders of
innity by symbols which can be manipulated according to laws resembling
as far as possible those of ordinary algebra. Thus Thomae
has proposed to
represent the order of innity of f = x
(lx)
1
(l
2
x)
2
. . . by
Of = +
1
l
1
+
2
l
2
+. . . ,
where the symbols l

1
, l
2
, . . . are to be regarded as new units. It is clear
that these units cannot, in relation to one another, obey the Axiom of
Archimedes:
however great n, nl
2
cannot be as great as l
1
, nor nl
1
as
great as 1.
The consideration of a few simple cases is enough to show that any such
notation, if it is to be of any use, must obey the following laws:
(i) iff , O(f +) = Of;
(ii) O(f) = Of +O;
(iii) Of() = Of O.
And Pincherle
has pointed out that these laws are in any case incon-
sistent with the maintenance of the laws of algebra in their entirety. Thus
if
Ox = 1, Olx = ,
we have, by (iii), Ollx =
2
, and by (iii) and (ii),
Ol(xlx) = (1 +) = +
2
;
and on the other hand, by (i),
Ol(xlx) = O(lx +llx) = .
Elementare Theorie der analytischen Funktionen, S. 112.
The reader will not confuse this use of the symbol O (which does not extend
beyond this paragraph) with that explained in i. 5.
If x > y > 0, we can nd an integer n such that ny > x.
l.c. (see p. 18 above).

Pincherle has suggested another system of notation; but the best yet
formulated is Borels.
Borel preserves the three laws (i), (ii), (iii), the

commutative law of addition, and the associative law of multiplication. But
multiplication is no longer commutative, and only distributive on one side.
He would denote the orders of

e
x
x
n
, x
n
(lx)
p
, e
2x
, e
x
2
, e
e
x
, e
lx
,
1
2
x,
by
+n, n +
p
, 2 , 2,
2
,
1
2

1
,
1

1
2
.
But little application, however, has yet been found for any such system of
notation; and the whole matter appears to be rather of the nature of a
mathematical curiosity.
V.
FUNCTIONS WHICH DO NOT CONFORM TO ANY
LOGARITHMICO-EXPONENTIAL SCALE.
1. We saw in i. ( 2) that, given two increasing functions and
( ~ ), we can always construct an increasing function f which is, for
an innity of values of x increasing beyond all limit, of the order of ,
and for another innity of values of x of the order of . The actual
construction of such functions by means of explicit formulae we left till
later. We shall now consider the matter more in detail, with special
reference to the case in which and are L-functions.
We shall say that f is an irregularly increasing function (fonction à
croissance irregulière) if we can nd two L-functions and ( ~ )
such that
f (x = x
1
, x
2
, . . . ), f (x = x
1
, x
2
, . . . ),
Lecons sur les series à termes positifs, pp. 35 et seq.; for further information
see his recently published Lecons sur la theorie de la croissance, pp. 14 et seq.
(a +b)c = ac +bc, but in general a(b +c) ,= ab +ac.

x
1
, x
2
, . . . and x
1
, x
2
, . . . being any two indenitely increasing se-
quences of values of x. We shall also say that the increase of f is
irregular and that the logarithmico-exponential scales are inapplicable
to f.
The phrase fonction à croissance irregulière has been dened by various
writers in various senses. Borel
originally dened f to be à croissance

regulière if
e
x
< f < e
x
+
, (x > x
0
),
or in other words if llf lx or llf lx.
This denition was of course designed to meet the particular needs of the
theory of integral functions: and has been made more precise by Boutroux
and Lindelof,
who use inequalities of the form

e
x
(lx)
1
...(l
k
x)
< f < e
x
(lx)
1
...(l
k
x)
k
+
.
All functions which are not à croissance regulière for these writers are
included in our class of irregularly increasing functions.
2. The logarithmico-exponential scales may fail to give a complete
account of the increase of a function in two dierent ways. The func-
tion may be of irregular increase, as explained above, and the scales
inapplicable: on the other hand they may be, not inapplicable, but
insucient (en defaut). That is to say, although the increase of the
function does not oscillate from that of one L-function to that of an-
other, there may be no L-function capable of measuring it. That such
functions exist follows at once from the general theorems of ii. Thus
we can dene a function which tends to innity more rapidly than
any e
r
x, or more slowly than any l
r
x: and the increase of such a func-
tion is more rapid or slower than that of any L-function (iii. 2). Or
again, we can (ii. 6) dene a function whose increase is greater than
that of e
r
(l
r
x)
1+
(any r) and less than that of e
r+1
(l
r
x)
1
(any r);
Lecons sur les fonctions entières, p. 107.
Boutroux, Acta Mathematica, t. 28, p. 97; Lindelof, Acta Societatis Fennicae,

t. 31, p. 1. See also Blumenthal, Principes de la theorie des fonctions entières
dordre inni.
and the increase of such a function (iv. 1) cannot be equal to that of
any L-function.
We shall now discuss some actual examples of functions for which
the logarithmico-exponential scales are inapplicable or insucient.
3. Irregularly increasing functions. Functions whose increase
is irregular may be constructed in a variety of ways.
(i) Pringsheim
has used, in connection with the theory of the conver-

gence of series, functions of an integral variable n whose increase is irregular.
A simple example of such a function is
f(n) = 10
[(log
10
n)
1/
]
, ( > 1),
where [x] denotes the integral part of x. It is easily proved, for instance,
when = 2, that the increase of f(n) varies between that of n and that of
n 10
12
log
10
n
. We shall not do more than mention functions of this type.
They are dened, most naturally, as functions of an integral variable n: if
we extend the denition to the continuous variable, the resulting function
is discontinuous. The denition can of course be modied so as to give a
continuous function of x with substantially the same properties; but it is not
easy to eect this by a simple, natural, and explicit formula.
(ii) A more natural type of function is given by
f = cos
2
+ sin
2
,
where , , are increasing L-functions. We have to consider what condi-
tions , , must satisfy in order that f may increase steadily with x. That
its increase oscillates between that of and that of is obvious.
Dierentiating,
f
cos
2
+
sin
2
+ 2( )
cos sin .
Suppose ~ : and let us assume that (as will be proved in the next
chapter) relations between L-functions involving the symbols ~, etc. may
See Math. Annalen, Bd. 35, S. 347 et seq. and M unchener Sitzungsberichte,
Bd. 26, S. 605 et seq.
be dierentiated and integrated. The condition that f
should always be
positive is
~ ( )
2
2
or
~
2
2
. A fortiori, since
, we
must have
, or log ~ . Thus f is certainly monotonic if

~ , log ~ ,
~
2
2
/
.
If, e.g., = x, we require log ~ x, which is satised, for example, if
= x
e
x
( > 1). It is convenient to write a + 1 for . Then, since
x
+1
e
x
, we must have
~ x
a
e
x
; and so
~
_
x
t
a
e
t
dt =
1
_
x
t
a+1
d
dt
(e
t
) dt
1
x
a+1
e
x
,
as is easily seen on integrating by parts. Thus we may take = x
e
x
,
where 2 + 2 < < . Changing our notation a little we see that
f = (x
+
cos
2
x +x
sin
2
x)e
x
is monotonic if 0 < < 1; and the increase of f obviously oscillates

between that of x
+
e
x
and that of x
e
x
. Similarly it may be shown

that
f = (e
x
cos
2
x +e
x
sin
2
x)e
e
x
is monotonic if < < + 2;
and again the increase of f is irregular.

4. Irregularly increasing functions (continued). We shall now
consider two more general and more important methods for the con-
struction of irregularly increasing functions.
(iii) Borel
has shown how, by means of power series, we may dene

functions which increase steadily with x, while their increase oscillates
to an arbitrary extent.
Let
(x) =
a
n
x
n
, (x) =
b
n
x
n
Cf. Messenger of Mathematics, vol. 31, p. 1.
See Borel, Lecons sur les fonctions entières, pp. 120 et seq.; Lecons sur les
series à termes positifs, pp. 32 et seq. Borel considers the cases only in which
= e
x
, = e
x
2
or e
e
x
; but his method is obviously of general application. The
proof here given is however more general and much simpler.
be two integral functions of x with positive coecients; suppose also
~ . The increase of and may be as large as we like (ii. 4);
but in each case it must be greater than that of any power of x.
Then we can dene a function
f(x) =
c
n
x
n
,
where every c
n
is equal either to a
n
or to b
n
, in such a way that, for an
innity of values x
whose limit is innity, we have f , and for a

similar innity of values x
we have f .
Let (
) be a sequence of decreasing positive numbers whose limit

is zero. Take a positive number x
0
such that (x
0
) > 1, (x
0
) > 1,
and a number x
1
greater than x
0
. When x
1
is xed we can choose n
1
so that
n
1
a
n
x
n
1
<
1
3
1
,
n
1
b
n
x
n
1
<
1
3
1
,
and so, if c
n
is either of a
n
, b
n
(however the selection may be made for
dierent values of n),
n
1
c
n
x
n
1
<
n
1
(a
n
+ b
n
)x
n
1
<
2
3
1
.
For 0 n < n
1
we take c
n
= a
n
. Then
[f(x
1
) (x
1
)[ <
n
1
(a
n
+ c
n
)x
n
1
<
1
,
and so, since (x
1
) > 1,
f(x
1
)
(x
1
)
1
<
1
. (1)
By f for an innity of values x
we mean of course that f/ 1 as

x through this particular sequence of values.
Now let x
2
be a number greater than x
1
; we can suppose x
2
chosen
so that
_
n
1
1
0
a
n
x
n
2
__
(x
2
) <
1
5
2
,
_
n
1
1
0
b
n
x
n
2
__
(x
2
) <
1
5
2
.
When x
2
is xed we can choose n
2
(n
2
> n
1
) so that
n
2
a
n
x
n
2
<
1
5
2
,
n
2
b
n
x
n
2
<
1
5
2
.
For n
1
n < n
2
we take c
n
= b
n
. And, however c
n
be chosen for
n n
2
, we have
n
2
c
n
x
n
2
<
n
2
(a
n
+ b
n
)x
n
2
<
2
5
2
.
Also
[f(x
2
) (x
2
)[ <
n
1
1
0
a
n
x
n
2
+
n
1
1
0
b
n
x
n
2
+
n
2
c
n
x
n
2
+
n
2
b
n
x
n
2
<
2
5
2
(x
2
) +
3
5
2
<
2
(x
2
),
and so

f(x
2
)
(x
2
)
1
<
2
. (2)
It is plain that, by a repetition of this process, we can nd a sequence
x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, . . . whose limit is innity, so that
f(x
3
)
(x
3
)
1
<
3
(3),
f(x
4
)
(x
4
)
1
<
4
(4), . . . ;
and our conclusion is thus established. Incidentally we may remark
that not only f itself, but all its derivatives also, are increasing and
continuous.
It is clear that, if we were given any number of integral functions
1
,
2
, . . . ,
k
, with positive coecients, we could dene f so that
f/
s
1, as x through a suitably chosen sequence of values, for
each of the functions
s
.
(iv) Power series with gaps. There is another method of construct-
ing irregularly increasing functions by means of power series which, though
less general theoretically than that explained above, is in some ways more
interesting, inasmuch as the functions to which it leads us are of a far sim-
pler and more natural type. We shall conne ourselves here to explaining
in general terms the general principle of the method and indicating a few
simple examples.
Let
(x) =
a
n
x
n
(1)
be an integral function with positive coecients: suppose, to x our ideas,
that the coecients decrease steadily as n increases. Suppose also that, for
a particular value of x,
(x) = a
is the greatest term of the series. In general one term will be the greatest,
but for certain particular values of x, say
1
,
2
, . . . , two consecutive terms
will be equal.
As x increases, the index of (x) increases, and tends to with n: it

thus denes a function (x) such that
(x) = i, (
i
< x <
i+1
).
At the point of discontinuity
i
, where (x) jumps from i 1 to i, we may
assign to it the value i. When is thus dened for all values of x, or
(x) denes a function of x which tends continuously and steadily to
with x.
For fuller details see Hardy, Proc. Lond. Math. Soc., vol. 2, pp. 332 et seq.;
Messenger of Mathematics, vol. 39, p. 28; Borel, Rendiconti del Circolo Matematico
di Palermo, t. 23, p. 320; Lecons sur la theorie de la croissance, pp. 111 et seq.;
Blumenthal, Principes de la theorie des fonctions entières dordre inni, pp. 5 et seq.
We leave aside the possibility, which obviously applies only to particular cases,
of more than two terms being equal.
The increase of is obviously at least as great as that of ; it may
be expected to be greater: but it is, in ordinary cases, not so very much
greaterthe increase of gives a very fair approximation to that of .
Thus, if (x) = e
x
, a
n
= 1/n!, and
i
= i. And for i < x < i + 1 we have
e
i
< < e
i+1
, (1
i
)
e
i
2i
< < (1 +
i
)
e
i+1
2i
.
Thus ~ , but log log : the dierence between the increases of

and is small compared with the increases themselves.
Now let
f(x) =
a
(n)
x
(n)
, (2)
where (n) ~ n: and let p(x) be the function related to f as (x) is to .
The laws of increase of (x) and of p(x) may be expected to be very much
the same, for p(x) is dened by a selection from some of the terms from all
of which (x) was selected. The increase of f(x) clearly cannot be greater,
and may be expected to be less, than that of (x): but it cannot be less
than that of p(x). Hence we may expect relations of the type
p f .
Also it is clear that, the more rapidly we suppose (n) to increase, the lower
in the gap between and will f sink, and that, if we suppose to increase
with sucient rapidity, we may expect to nd f, so that the increase
of f is completely dominated by that of one (variable) term.
We then shall have
f(x) a
N(x)
x
N(x)
,
where N(x) is a function of x which assumes successively each of a series of
integral values N
i
, so that
N(x) = N
i
, (x
i
x < x
i+1
).
But, as x increases from x

i
to x
i+1
, the order of a
N
i
x
N
i
, considered as a
function of x, may vary considerably, since N
i
, though depending on the
The second pair of inequalities are an immediate consequence of Stirlings

theorem, that i! i
i+
1
2
e
i
2.
We must have p , p f, , f .
N
i
, x
i
are, of course, not the same as
i
,
i
above.
interval (x
i
, x
i+1
), does not depend on the particular position of x in that
interval. And so it is clear that we are in this way likely to be led to functions
whose increase is irregular in the sense explained in 1.
Suppose, for example, that a
n
= n
n
, so that
(x) =
_
x
n
_
n
_
2x
e
e
x/e
.
Here
i
= i
_
1 +
1
i
_
i+1
ei,
and it is easily shown that (x) e
x/e
.
Now let (n) = 2
n
, so that
f(x) =
x
2
n
2
n2
n
=
v
n
say. Then v
i1
= v
i
if x = 2
i+1
, so that x
i
= 2
i+1
and N
i
= 2
i
for
2
i+1
x < 2
i+2
.
For this range of values of x, v
i
is the greatest term; when x = 2
i+2
, v
i
= v
i+1
.
Further, it is not dicult to show that f(x) p(x) = v
i
, the behaviour
of f(x) being dominated by that of its greatest term.
If we put x = 2
i+1+
, where 0 < < 1, we nd
f(x) v
i
= 2
(1+)2
i
= 2
x
,
where = (1 + )2
1
. This is a maximum when 1 + = 1/(log 2), when
it is equal to 1/(e log 2) = .53 . . . . Hence the increase of f(x) oscillates
(roughly) between that of 2
.53...x
and 2
1
2
x+1
.
See ii. 3, and the references given in the footnote to p. 13. We might have
taken (x) = e
x
, but our choice of (x) leads to the simplest examples.
We may say roughly that in general f pthat is to say, f/p 1 as x

through any sequence of values not falling inside any of certain intervals surrounding
the values
i
. At a point
i
, f/p is nearly equal to 2.
The latter function is multiplied by 2, as there are two equal terms when = 0
or 1.
Similar considerations may be applied to the more general series
x
a
n
b
na
n
,
where a is an integer greater than unity. This series is derived from
(x/n
a
)
n
, where = (log b)/(log a), by taking (n) = a
n
. Another
example of an irregularly increasing function dened in a similar manner is
f(x) =
x
n
3
(n
3
)!
,
the increase of which oscillates between the increases of e
x
/
x and
x
1
2
e
x
9
8
x
1/3
.
These examples are of course typical of a large class of functions.

Before we leave this subject let us call attention to a point of considerable
interest suggested by the foregoing examples. In forming the logarithmico-
exponential scales we started from the scale x, x
2
, . . . and then formed the
function
x
n
n!
. If we had started, as we equally well might have done, from
the scale x
2
, x
4
, x
8
, . . . (cf. ii. 1), we should have been led to choose, as a
function transcending this scale, not e
x
but some such function as
x
2
n
(2
n
)!
.
This is one of the irregularly increasing functions of the type just considered.
Had we proceeded thus, and completed the construction of our fundamen-
tal scales on similar lines, our fundamental functions would for the most
part have been among those which do not conform to the logarithmico-
exponential scale, and it would have been the functions of that scale that
would have appeared as irregularly increasing functions.
Messenger of Mathematics, vol. 39, p. 28.

5. Functions which transcend the logarithmico-exponential
scales. We turn our attention now to functions for which the
logarithmico-exponential scales are not inapplicable but insucient
( 2). Of the existence of such functions we are already assured. Thus
a function which assumes the values e
1
(1), e
2
(2), . . . , e
(), . . . for
x = 1, 2, . . . , , . . . certainly has an increase greater than that of
any logarithmico-exponential function. No such function, however, has
as yet made its appearance naturally in analysis; it will be sucient,
therefore, to mention two examples of such functions which transcend
the logarithmico-exponential scales in quite dierent manners.
(i) The series
(x)
e
()
has obviously, if it converges, an increase greater than that of any e
(x).
Suppose k 1 x < k. Then
e
k
(x)
e
k
(k)
< 1,
e
k+
(x)
e
k+
(k + )
<
e
k+
(k)
e
k+
(k + )
<
e
k+
(k)
e
k+
(k + 1)
.
But, by the Mean Value Theorem,
e
k+
(k + 1) = e
k+
(k) + e
k+
(y)e
k+1
(y) . . . e
2
(y)e
1
(y),
where y is some number between k and k + 1; and so
e
k+
(k + 1) > e
k+
(k)e
k+1
(k) . . . e
1
(k).
It follows that the terms of the series
=k
e
(x)
e
()
are less than those of the series
1 +
=1
1
e
1
(k)e
2
(k) . . . e
k+1
(k)
,
which is plainly convergent, and therefore that the original series is con-
vergent; and it is obviously only one of a large class of series possessing
similar properties.
(ii) Let (x) be an increasing function such that (0) > 0, ~ x. We
can dene an increasing function f, which satises the equation
ff(x) = (x), (1)
as follows.
Draw the curves y = x, y = (x) (Fig. 5). Take Q
0
arbitrarily on OP
0
(see the gure); draw Q
0
R
1
parallel to OX and complete the rectangle Q
0
Q
1
.
Join Q
0
, Q
1
by any continuous arc everywhere inclined at an acute angle to
the axes. On this arc take any point Q; draw QP, QR parallel to the axes,
and complete the rectangle QQ
. As Q moves from Q
0
to Q
1
, Q
moves from
Q
1
to Q
2
, say. As we constructed Q
from Q, so we can construct Q
from Q
:
proceeding thus we dene a continuous curve Q
0
Q
1
Q
2
Q
3
. . . corresponding
to a continuous and increasing function f(x). Then f(x) satises (1). For
if y = f(x) is the ordinate of Q, it is clear that ff(x) is the ordinate of Q
,
which is equal to (x), the ordinate of P.
Let us write
f(x) = f
1
(x), (x) = f
1
f
1
(x) = f
2
(x), f(x) = f(x) = f
3
(x),
and so on, so that Q
n
is the point f
n
(0), f
n+1
(0). Also let be the function
inverse to , and write
2
for , and so on. Finally, let the equation of Q
0
Q
1
be (x, y) = 0. Then it is easy to see that the equations of Q
2n
Q
2n+1
and
of Q
2n+1
Q
2n+2
are respectively
n
(x),
n
(y) = 0,
n+1
(y),
n
(x) = 0.
Suppose for example that (x) = e
x
, OQ
0
= a < 1, and that Q
0
Q
1
is
the straight line y = a + x, where = (1 a)/a. Then the equations
of Q
2n
Q
2n+1
and of Q
2n+1
Q
2n+2
are
l
n
y = a +l
n
x, l
n
x = a +l
n+1
y,
or
y = e
n1
e
(l
n1
x)
, y = e
n
e
a/
(l
n1
x)
1/
.
y = (x)
Y
O X
R
1
R
R
2
y = x
Q
0
P
0
(0)
f(0)
P
P
1
P
P
2
Q
Q
1
Q
Q
2
Q
Q
3
Fig. 5.
For simplicity let us take a =
1
2
, = 1. Then the equations of Q
2n
Q
2n+1
and of Q
2n+1
Q
2n+2
are respectively
y = e
n1
e(l
n1
x) = e
n2
(l
n2
x)
e
=
n
(x),
y = e
n
(l
n1
x)/
e = e
n1
(l
n2
x)
1/
e
=
n
(x),
say. Now (iv. 1)
x

3
. . .
n
. . .
n
. . .
3
e
x
and a function f, such that

n
f
n
for all values of n, transcends the
logarithmico-exponential scales. But f clearly satises these relations, and
so its increase is incapable of exact measurement by these scales.
It is easily veried that
n
n
x e
x
and
n
n
x ~ e
x
for all values of n.
Hence it is clear a priori that any increasing solution of (1) must satisfy
n
f
n
.
This kind of graphical method may also be employed to dene functions
whose increase, like that of the function considered under (i) above, is slower
DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION. 48
than that of any logarithm or more rapid than that of any exponential. It
can be employed, for example, to solve the equation
(2
x
) = 2(x);
and it can be proved that the increase of a function such that (2
x
) (x)
is slower than that of any logarithm (vii. 3).
6. The importance of the logarithmico-exponential scales.
As we have seen in the earlier paragraphs of this section, it is possi-
ble, in a variety of ways, to construct functions whose increase cannot
be measured by any L-function. It is none the less true that no one
yet has succeeded in dening a mode of increase genuinely indepen-
dent of all logarithmico-exponential modes. Our irregularly increasing
functions oscillate, according to a logarithmico-exponential law of oscil-
lation, between two logarithmico-exponential functions; the functions
of 5 were constructed expressly to ll certain gaps in the logarithmico-
exponential scales. No function has yet presented itself in analysis the
laws of whose increase, in so far as they can be stated at all, cannot be
stated, so to say, in logarithmico-exponential terms.
It would be natural to expect that the arithmetical functions which
occur in the theory of the distribution of primes might give rise to
genuinely new modes of increase. But, so far as analysis has gone, the
evidence is the other way.
Thus if we denote by (x) the number of prime numbers less than x, it
is known that
(x)
x
log x
.
More precisely
(x) =
_
x
2
dt
log t
+(x) = Li (x) +(x),
where [(x)[ x(log x)
. The precise order of (x) has not yet been

determined, but there is reason to anticipate that (x)
x/(log x).
VI.
DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION.
1. Integration. It is important to know when relations of the
types f(x) ~ (x), etc., can be dierentiated or integrated. The results
are very much what might be expected from analogy with similar results
in other branches of analysis, and may therefore be discussed somewhat
summarily. For brevity we denote
_
x
a
f(t) dt,
_
x
a
(t) dt
(where a is a constant) by F(x) and (x). And we suppose for the
moment that f and are positive for x a.
It may be well to repeat (cf. i. 4) that f and are always supposed
to be (at any rate for x > x
0
) positive, continuous, and monotonic,
unless the contrary is stated or clearly implied. Some of our conclusions
are valid under more general conditions; but the case thus dened, and
the corresponding case in which f or or both of them are negative,
are the only cases of importance.
Lemma. If ~ 1, and f > H for x > x
0
, then x
1
can be found
so that F > (H) for x > x
1
: similarly f < h for x > x
0
involves
F < (h + ) for x > x
1
.
For if f > H for x > x
0
, we have
F =
_
x
a
f dt >
_
x
0
a
f dt + H
_
x
x
0
dt > H +
_
x
0
a
f dt H
_
x
0
a
dt,
and if we choose x
1
so that
__
x
0
a
f dt + H
_
x
0
a
dt
__
<
for x x
1
, as we certainly can if ~ 1, the result follows. Similarly in
the other case. From this lemma we can at once deduce the following
Theorem. Any one of the relations
f ~ , f , f , f , f
involves the corresponding one of the relations
F ~ , F , F , F , F
if either F ~ 1 or ~ 1.
To this we may add: if both
_

f dt,
_

dt are convergent, then
f ~ , f , f , f , f involve corresponding relations
between
F =
_

x
f dt, =
_

x
dt.
The proof we may leave to the reader. These results have been
stated primarily for the case in which f and are positive; but there
is no diculty in extending them to the case in which either function
or both are negative.
2. Dierentiation. It follows from 1 that f ~ involves
f
if f ~ 1 or f 1 and if any one of the relations expressed by

~, , , , holds between f
and
.
In interpreting this statement regard must be paid to the conventions laid
down in i. 4. Thus if f ~ ~ 1, f
and
are positive; and f
. But
if f ~ 1 ~ , is a decreasing function and
< 0. In this case f
,
a relation which we have agreed to denote by f
. If 1 ~ f ~ both
f
and
are negative: the relation f
would involve
_

x
f
dt
_

x
dt
or f , and is therefore impossible; similarly for f
; so we must
have f
, a relation which we have agreed also to denote by f
.
The case in which f 1 is exceptional; any one of the relations f
, etc.
may then hold. Thus if f = 1 +e
x
, f
= 1/x, we have f ~ , f
. The
fact is that in this case f, regarded as the integral of f
, is dominated by the
constant of integration.
Similar results hold, of course, for the relations f , etc., with
similar exceptions. With regard to all of them it is to be observed that
the assumption that one of the relations holds between f
and
is
essential. We can never infer that one of them holds. We cannot even
infer that f
or
is a steadily increasing or decreasing function at all.

Thus if f = e
x
, = e
x
+sin e
x
, we have f
= e
x
and
= e
x
(1+cos e
x
).
Thus f and increase steadily and f , f
f; but
does not tend

to innity (vanishing for an innity of values of x). Again if
= e
x
(
2 + sin x) +
1
2
x
2
,
we have
= e
x
(
2 + sin x + cos x) + x
and e
x
, while
oscillates between the orders of e

x
and x. It is
possible, though less easy, to obtain examples of this character in which
also is monotonic.
3. Dierentiation of L-functions. If f and are L-functions,
so are f
and
, and one of the relations f
, f
, f
certainly holds (iii. 2). Thus in this case both dierentiation and inte-
gration are always legitimate
this statement, however, being subject

to certain exceptions in the cases in which f 1 or 1.
In what follows we shall suppose that all the functions concerned
are L-functions, or at any rate resemble L-functions in so far that one
of the relations f ~ , f , f is bound to hold between any pair
of functions, and that dierentiation and integration are permissible.
1. If f is an increasing function, and f
~ f, then f ~ e
x
. If
f
f, then f e
x
. Similarly if f is a decreasing function, f
~ f
and f
f involve f e
x
and f ~ e
x
respectively. If f
f, then
A tacit assumption to this eect underlies much of Du Bois-Reymonds work.
The results which follow are all in substance due to Du Bois-Reymond.

e
x
f e
x
or e
x
f e
x
, and we can nd a number such
that f = e
x
f
1
, where e
x
f
1
e
x
.
The proofs of these assertions are almost obvious. Thus if f is an
increasing function, and f
~ f, we have
f
/f ~ 1, log f ~ x,
and so log f > x for x > x
0
, i.e. f > e
x
, or, what is the same thing,
f ~ e
x
. The last clause of the theorem follows at once from iii. 4.
2. More generally, if v is any increasing function, f
/f ~ v
/v
involves f ~ v
or f v
, according as f is an increasing or a
decreasing function; and f
/f v
/v involves f v
or f ~ v
. And
f
/f v
/v involves v
f v
or v
f v
; and then we can

nd a number such that f = v
f
1
, where v
f
1
v
.
When f is an increasing function we shall call f
/f the type t of f:
it being understood that t may be replaced by any simpler function

such that t . The type of a decreasing function f we dene to be the
same as that of the increasing function 1/f. The following table shews
the types of some standard functions:
Function 1 llx lx x
e
x
e
x
e
2
x e
3
x . . .
Type 0
1
x lxllx
1
x lx
1
x
1 x
1
ex e
2
x ex . . .
If f ~ , then f
/f
/. By making the increase of f large enough

we can make the increase of t = f
/f as large as we please. The reader will

nd it instructive to write out formal proofs of these propositions, and also
of the following.
1. As the increase of f becomes smaller and smaller, f
/f tends to
zero more and more rapidly, but, so long as f at all, we cannot have
f
/f ,
_

dx convergent.
Du Bois-Reymond calls f/f
the type; the notation here adopted seems slightly

more convenient.
On the other hand, if the last integral is divergent we can nd f so that
f ~ 1, f
/f .
2. Although we can nd f so that f
/f shall have an increase larger

than that of any given function of x, we cannot have
f
/f ~ (f),
_

dx
x(x)
convergent.
On the other hand, if the last integral is divergent we can nd f so that
f
/f ~ (f).
[Thus we cannot nd a function f which tends to innity so slowly
that f
/f 1/x
( > 1). But we can nd f so that f
/f 1/xlxllx
(e.g. f = l
3
x). We cannot nd f so that f
/f ~ f
or f
~ f
1+
( > 0).
But we can nd f so that f
/f ~ lf (e.g. f = e
3
x).]
3. If f ~ e
k
x for all values of k, f
/f satises the same condition, and

f
~ f lf l
2
f . . . l
k
f.
He will also nd it protable to formulate corresponding theorems about
functions of a positive variable x which tends to zero.
4. Successive dierentiation. Du Bois-Reymond has given the
following general theorem, which enables us to write down the increase
of any derivative of any logarithmico-exponential function. We write t
for f
/f, as in the last section, and we assume that no derivative f

(n)
satises f
(n)
1: if this should be the case the results of the theorem,
so far as the derivatives f
(n+1)
, . . . are concerned, cease to be true.
Theorem. (i) If t ~ 1/x (so that f ~ x
) then
f f
/t f
/t
2
f
/t
3
. . . f
(n)
/t
n
. . . .
(ii) If t 1/x (so that f x
) then
f f
/t xf
/t x
2
f
/t . . . x
n1
f
(n)
/t . . . .
(iii) If t 1/x (so that f = x
f
1
, where x
f
1
x
), then if
is not integral either set of formulae is valid. But if is integral
f xf
x
2
f
. . . x
f
()
x
f
(+1)
/t
1
x
+1
f
(+2)
/t
1
. . . ,
where t
1
is the type of f
1
.
(i) If t ~ 1/x, 1/t x and so t
/t
2
1; hence t
/t t = f
/f or
ft
t.
Dierentiating the relation f
ft, and using the relation just es-

tablished, we obtain
f
t + ft
t.
Thus the type of f
is the same as that of f; accordingly the argu-

ment may be repeated and the rst part of the theorem follows.
(ii) If t 1/x, xf
f and so
xf
+ f
.
But this cannot possibly be the case unless xf
. Dierentiating
again we infer
xf
+ 2f
,
whence xf
; and so on generally.
Thus the second part follows.

(iii) If t 1/x, f = x
f
1
and t
1
, the type of f
1
, satises t
1
1/x.
Then
f
= x
1
f
1
+ x
1
x
1
f
1
( + xt
1
) x
1
f
1
;
Similarly f
x
2
f
1
and so on. We can proceed indenitely in this
way unless is integral: in this case we nd f
()
f
1
, and from this
point we proceed as in case (ii).
Examples. (i) If f = e
x
, then t = 1/
x ~ 1/x, and f
(n)
e
x
/(
x)
n
.
If f = e
(log x)
2
, then t = (log x)/x ~ 1/x, and f
(n)
e
(log x)
2
(log x)
n
/x
n
.
More precisely xf
, xf
2f
, and so on.
DEVELOPMENTS OF THE INFINIT
ARCALC
UL. 55
(ii) If f = (log x)
m
, then t = 1/(xlog x) 1/x, and
f
(n)
tx
(n1)
f (log x)
m1
/x
n
.
(iii) If f = x
2
llx, t 1/x. Here
f
xllx, f
llx, f
1/xlx, f
1/x
2
lx, . . . .
(iv) The results of the theorem, in the rst two cases, can be stated
more precisely as follows:
If t ~ 1/x, then
f
(n)
(f
/f)
n
f.
If t 1/x, then
f
(n)
(1)
n1
(n 1)! x
(n1)
f
.
If f is a positive increasing function, then if t ~ 1/x all the derivatives are
ultimately positive, while if t 1/x they are alternately ultimately positive
and ultimately negative.
5. Functions of an integral variable. The theorems for func-
tions of an integral variable n, corresponding to those of 14, involve
sums
A
n
= a
1
+ a
2
+ + a
n
in place of integrals, and dierences
a
n
= a
n
a
n+1
instead of dierential coecients. The reader will be able to formulate
and to prove for himself the theorems which correspond to those of 1.
Thus
a
n
~ b
n
, a
n
b
n
, a
n
b
n
, a
n
b
n
, a
n
b
n
involve
the corresponding equations for A
n
, B
n
, if one at least of
A
n
, B
n
tends to innity with n
and so on.
Considerations of space forbid that we should go further

into the subject here.
This is of course the well known theorem of Cauchy and Stolz: see Bromwich,
Innite Series, p. 377.
ARCALC
UL. 56
VII.
SOME DEVELOPMENTS OF DU BOIS-REYMONDS
INFINIT
ARCALC
UL.
1. We shall conclude our account of the general theory by a brief
sketch of some interesting results due in the main to Du Bois-Reymond.
For further details we must refer to his memoirs catalogued in the
Bibliographical Appendix.
The functions
f(x + a)
f(x)
,
f(ax)
f(x)
, etc.
It is often necessary to obtain approximations to such functions as
f(x + a)/f(x),
where a is itself a function of x, which for simplicity we suppose positive,
and which may tend to innity with x. In this connection Du Bois-
Reymond
has proved a whole series of theorems: it will be sucient

for our present purpose to give a few specimens of his results. In what
follows it will be assumed throughout that all the functions dealt with
are L-functions, or at any rate such that any pair of them satisfy one
of the relations f ~ , f , f , and that such relations may be
dierentiated or integrated. This being so we have
f(x + a)
f(x)
= e
lf (x+)lf (x)
= e
_
a
f
(x + )
f(x + )
_
,
where 0 < < a. This expression has certainly the limit unity if f
f
and a 1. Hence
f(x + a) f(x) (1)
if a 1 and e
x
f e
x
. If f
/f 1, i.e. if e
x
f e
x
,
the relation (1) holds for a f/f
: it certainly holds, for instance, if

a = xf(x)
, where > 0, since x/f
f/f
whenever f ~ 1.
Math. Annalen, Bd. 8, S. 363 et seq.
For
_

f
1
f
dx is convergent, and so f
/f
1+
1/x.
ARCALC
UL. 57
If a f/f
(as e.g. if f = e
x
f
1
, where e
x
f
1
e
x
, and a 1),
f(x + a)/f(x) will tend to a limit dierent from unity.
Again
f(x + a)
f(x)
= e
_
a
f
(x)
f(x)
t(x + )
t(x)
_
,
where t = f
/f. Hence
f(x + a)
f(x)
= e
_
u
f
(x)
f(x)
_
(u a) (2)
in all cases in which t(x + )/t(x) 1; as for example if a 1,
e
x
t e
x
, or, what is the same thing, if
a 1, e
e
x
f e
e
x
.
The reader will nd it instructive to write down conditions under
which the equation (2) holds when u a is substituted for u a, and
to consider in what circumstances either relation holds when a ~ 1.
2. The reader is also recommended to verify some of the following
results:
(i) If 1 a x and x
f x
, then f(x +a)/f(x) 1.

(ii) If f x and a 1/f
, or if f x and a 1, then f(x +a) f(x) 1.

(iii) If e
x
f e
x
and a f
/f
, then
f(x +a) f(x) af
(x).
The condition a f
/f
may be simplied by means of the theorem of

vi. 4. Thus if t 1/x (i.e. if f x
) it is equivalent to a x.
(iv) If x
a x
, (lx)
f (lx)
, then f(ax)/f(x) 1.
(v) If e
lx
f e
lx
, then
fxf(x)
f(x)
1, e
_
xlf (x)f
(x)
f(x)
_
1;
ARCALC
UL. 58
and the limits of the two functions are the same: and if e
lx
e
lx
this
limit is unity.
Suppose, e.g. f ~ 1, and let f(x) = (lx); then, if a = f(x),
f(ax)
f(x)
= e
l(lx+la)l(lx)
= e
la
(lx+la
1
)/(lx+la
1
)
,
where 1 < a
1
< a. The exponent is
l(lx +la
1
)
(lx +la
1
)
(lx +la
1
)
l(lx)
l(lx +la
1
)
.
Now a = f(x) x
and therefore la
1
la lx, and so, by (i),
l(lx +la
1
) l(lx)
if l x
or if f e
(lx)
, which is certainly the case. Hence the exponent

is asymptotically equivalent to
l(u)
(u)/(u),
where u = lx + la
1
. And l(
/) 1 if (l)
2
u, i.e. if e
u
or
f e
lx
. In this case f(ax) f(x); and it is easy to see that if f e
lx
the symbol may be replaced by .
(vi) If f(x) = x(x), and e
lx
e
lx
, then
f
2
(x) ff(x) x
2
, . . . , f
n
x
n
, . . . .
The reader will easily prove this by the aid of the preceding results. He
will also nd it instructive to calculate the increase of f
n
when f = e
lx
and
when f = e
(lx)
, where >
1
2
.
The accuracy of approximations.
3. We have already (iv. 34) had occasion to use the notion
of an approximation to the increase of a function, and to distinguish
legitimate and illegitimate forms of approximation. Du Bois-Reymond
has given the following more precise denitions.
ARCALC
UL. 59
He denes (x, u, u
1
, . . . ) to be an approximate form of y if
y = (x, u, u
1
, . . . ),
being a known function, and u, u
1
, . . . unknown functions whose
increase is, however, subject to certain limitations. It is clear that it
is really useless, however, to insert more than one unknown function u
in . The eect of the presence of u is to dene a certain stretch within
which the increase of y lies, and the presence of several us can eect no
more. We shall therefore consider only approximate forms of the type
y = (x, u). (1)
Thus
e
x
u
(u 1), e
(1+u)x
(u 1), x
1+u
e
x
(u 1) (2)
are approximate forms of y = xe
x
/lx; the second clearly closer than
the rst and the third than the second.
The closeness of an approximation may be measured as follows. The
presence of u in (1) lends a certain degree of indeterminateness to the
increase of y: all that we can say (the increase of u being known to lie
between certain limits) is that y lies in a certain interval
1
y
2
.
Now (ii. 8) we can nd an increasing function F so that F(
1
)
F(
2
): if F satises this condition, any more slowly increasing function
will do so too. The slower the increase of F must be taken, the rougher
the approximation.
The facts may be stated the other way round. Given y, and
a function F, such that 1 F x, we can determine an interval
1
y
2
such that F(
1
) F(
2
). The slower the increase of F,
the larger this interval may be taken; if F x it vanishes, if F 1 it
may be taken as large as we please. If F = lx it might be (y
, y
); if
F = l
2
x it might be
e
(ly)
, e
(ly)
,
ARCALC
UL. 60
and so on. No logarithmico-exponential form of F, however, can give
an interval as large as (log y, e
y
); a function F such that F(y) F(e
y
)
must transcend any logarithmico-exponential scale.
Let us consider the approximations (2) for xe
x
/lx.
(i) If y = e
x
u
(u l), y lies in the interval e
x
1
, e
x
1+
. Since
ll(e
x
1
) = (1 )lx ll(e
x
1+
)
we may take F = llx, or even F = (llx)
: but the increase of F cannot be

taken as large as (lx)
.
(ii) If y = e
(1+u)x
(u 1), y lies in the interval e
(1)x
, e
(1+)x
. Then
we may take F = (lx)
, but we cannot take F = e

(lx)
.
(iii) If y = x
1+u
e
x
we may, as the reader will easily verify, take
F = e
(lx)
, where is any number less than unity.

Another example of an approximation is given by the formula
f(x +a)
f(x)
= e
_
u
f
(x)
f(x)
_
(u a).
If, e.g., a is a constant,
l
_
f(x +a)
f(x)
_
l
_
e
_
f
(x)
f(x)
__
,
and the degree of accuracy of the approximation is great enough to be mea-
sured by the function F = lx.
The approximate solution of equations.
4. It is often important to obtain an asymptotic solution of an
equation f(x, y) = 0, i.e. to nd a function whose increase gives an
approximation to that of y. No very general methods of procedure can
be given, but the kind of methods which may be pursued are worth
illustrating by a few examples.
(i) Suppose that the equation is
x = y(y), (1)
ARCALC
UL. 61
where y
. If the increase of is so slow that y(y) (y)

it is clear that
y x/(y) x/(x) :
and if the increase of is slow enough we may have y x/(x).
The conditions
e
ly
(y) e
ly
, e
ly
(y) e
ly
are, by the result (v) of 2, enough to ensure the truth of these hypothe-
ses; and then y = ux/(x), where u 1 (or u 1) is an approximate
solution of our equation.
Du Bois-Reymond has proved that the more elaborate approximations
y = ux/(x/), y = ux
1/{1+(x
/)}
have a wider range of validity: and that more elaborate approximations still
may be constructed valid within the range
e
(ly)
1
e
(ly)
1
.
The more general equation
x = y
m
(y)
can clearly be reduced to the form considered above by writing x
m
for x
and
m
for .
In general, if x = (y), the more rapid the increase of the more
precisely can we determine the increase of y as a function of x. Thus if
x = ye
y
we have lx = y + ly and
y = lx ly = lx(1 + u),
where u ly/lx llx/lx. This is a solution of a much more precise
kind than those considered above.
ARCALC
UL. 62
5. The reader will nd it instructive to examine the following re-
sults:
(i) Let
x = ye
(ly)
3/8
.
This is an example of the work of 4: and
y xe
(lx)
3/8
.
(ii) Let
x = ye
(ly)
5/8
.
Here
y xe[(lx)
5/8
1 (lx)
3/8
5/8
]
xe(lx)
5/8
+
5
8
(lx)
1/4
.
(iii) Let
x = y
m
(ly)
m
1
(l
2
y)
m
2
. . . (l
r
y)
m
r
.
Here
y m
m
1
/m
x
1/m
(lx)
m
1
/m
. . . (l
r
x)
m
r
/m
.
(iv) Let
x = e
y
2
ly.
Here
y =
_
lx l
3
x +u (u 1).
(v) As an example of another type, Du Bois-Reymond has considered
the equation
f(x +y) f(x) = C,
where C is a positive constant. He nds
y C/f
(x) (f(x) ~ lx),

y = xeCu/xf
(x) (u 1, lx ~ f(x) ~ llx),

and so on: the forms of the solution when f lx, f llx, . . . are excep-
tional.
ARCALC
UL. 63
(vi) As an example of an approximation pushed to greater lengths let
us take the following result: if
x = y ly,
then
y =
x
lx
_
1 +
llx
lx
+
(llx)
2
(lx)
2

llx
(lx)
2
_
+u,
where
u
x(llx)
3
(lx)
4
.
6. Here we may bring our account of the general theory to a close.
It is a theory that has found, and is nding, a large and increasing
variety of applications in various branches of mathematics: the nature
of some of these applications the reader may glean from Appendix II.
APPENDIX I.
GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Du Bois-Reymonds memoirs bearing on the subjects of this tract
are:
Sur la grandeur relative des innis des fonctions (Annali di
Matematica, Serie 2, t. 4, p. 338).
Theorème general concernant la grandeur relative des innis des
fonctions et de leurs derivees (Crelles Journal, Bd. 74, S. 294).
Eine neue Theorie der Convergenz und Divergenz von Reihen
mit positiven Gliedern. Anhang: Ueber die Tragweite der logarith-
mischen Kriterien (Crelles Journal, Bd. 76, S. 61).
Ueber asymptotische Werthe, innitare Approximationen, und
innit are Au osung von Gleichungen (Math. Annalen, Bd. 8,
S. 363). Nachtrag zur vorstehenden Abhandlung (ibid., S. 574).
Notiz uber innit are Gleichheiten (Math. Annalen, Bd. 10,
S. 576).
Ueber die Paradoxen des Innitarcalc uls (Math. Annalen,
Bd. 11, S. 149).
Notiz uber Convergenz von Integralen mit nicht verschwinden-
dem Argument (Math. Annalen, Bd. 13, S. 251).
Ueber Integration und Dierentiation innitaren Relationen
(Math. Annalen, Bd. 14, S. 498).
Ueber den Satz: limf
(x) = limf(x)/x (Math. Annalen, Bd. 16,

S. 550).
See also
A. Pringsheim: Ueber die sogenannte Grenze und die Grenzgebiete
zwischen Convergenz und Divergenz (M unchener Sitzungsberichte,
Bd. 26, S. 605).
Ueber die Du Bois-Reymondsche Convergenz-Grenze u.s.w.
(M unchener Sitzungsberichte, Bd. 27, S. 303).
Allgemeine Theorie der Convergenz und Divergenz von Reihen mit
positiven Gliedern (Math. Annalen, Bd. 35, S. 347).
GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. 65
Zur Theorie der bestimmten Integrale und der unendlichen Reihen
(Math. Annalen, Bd. 37, S. 591).
J. Hadamard: Sur les caractères de convergence des series ` a termes
positifs et sur les fonctions indeniment croissantes (Acta Mathe-
matica, t. 18, p. 319 and p. 421).
S. Pincherle: Alcune osservazioni sugli ordini dinnito delle funzioni
(Memorie della Accademia delle Scienze di Bologna, Ser. 4, t. 5,
p. 739).
E. Borel: Lecons sur les fonctions entières, pp. 111122.
Lecons sur les series à termes positifs, pp. 150.
Lecons sur la theorie de la croissance.
APPENDIX II.
A SKETCH OF SOME APPLICATIONS,
WITH REFERENCES.
A. Convergence and divergence of series and integrals.
(i) The logarithmic tests. The series
u
n
(u
n
0) is convergent
if
u
n
n
1
or u
n
(nln. . . l
k1
n)
1
(l
k
n)
1
,
where > 0, and divergent if
u
n
n
1
or u
n
(nln. . . l
k
n)
1
(l
k
n)
1
.
The integral
_

f(x) dx (f 0) is convergent if
f x
1
or f (x lx. . . l
k1
x)
1
(l
k
x)
1
,
f x
1
or f (x lx. . . l
k
x)
1
.
The integral
_
0
f(x) dx (f 0) is convergent if
f (1/x)
1
or f (1/x)l(1/x) . . . l
k1
(1/x)
1
l
k
(1/x)
1
,
That is to say of certain regions of mathematical theory in which the notation

and the ideas of the Innitarcalc ul may be used systematically with a great gain in
clearness and simplicity.
APPLICATIONS. 67
f 1/x
or f (1/x)l(1/x) . . . l
k
(1/x)
1
.
[The rst general statement of the logarithmic criteria, so far as
series are concerned, appears to have been made by De Morgan: see
his Dierential and Integral Calculus, 1839, p. 326. The essentials of
the matter, however, appear in a posthumous memoir of Abel (uvres
complètes, t. 2, p. 200; see also t. 1, p. 399). This memoir appears
also to have been rst published in 1839. The case of k = 1 had been
dealt with by Cauchy (Exercices de Mathematiques, t. 2, 1827, pp. 221
et seq.). Bertrand appears to have arrived at some or all of De Morgans
results independently (see Liouvilles Journal, t. 7, 1842, p. 37) and the
criteria are very commonly attributed to him. The criteria for integrals
do not appear to have been stated generally before Riemann, Inaugural-
Dissertation of 1854 (Werke, S. 229).
The following references may also be useful:
Bonnet, Liouvilles Journal, t. 8, p. 78.
Dini, Sulle serie a termini positivi (Pisa, 1867); also in the Annali
dell Univ. Tosc., t. 9, p. 41.
Du Bois-Reymond, Crelles Journal, Bd. 76, S. 619.
Pringsheim, Math. Annalen, Bd. 35, S. 347 and Bd. 37, S. 591; also
in the Encyklopadie der Math. Wiss., Bd. 1, Th. 1, S. 77 et seq.
Hobson, Theory of functions of a real variable, p. 406.
Bromwich, Innite series, pp. 29, 37.
Hardy, Course of pure mathematics, pp. 357 et seq.
Chrystal, Algebra, vol. 2, pp. 109 et seq.]
(ii) General theorems analogous to Du Bois-Reymonds Theorem
(ii. 1).
Given any divergent series
u
n
of positive terms, we can nd a
function v
n
such that v
n
u
n
and
v
n
is divergent; i.e. given any
divergent series we can nd one more slowly divergent.
APPLICATIONS. 68
Given any convergent series
u
n
of positive terms we can nd v
n
so that v
n
~ u
n
and
v
n
is convergent; i.e. given any convergent series
we can nd one more slowly convergent.
Given any function (n) tending to innity, however slowly, we can
nd a convergent series
u
n
and a divergent series
v
n
such that
v
n
/u
n
= (n).
Given an innite sequence of series, each converging (diverging)
more slowly than its predecessor, we can nd a series which converges
(diverges) more slowly than any of them.
[See Abel and Dini, l.c. supra; Hadamard, Acta Mathematica, t. 18,
p. 319 and t. 27, p. 177; Bromwich, Innite series, p. 40; Littlewood,
Messenger of Mathematics, vol. 39, p. 191.]
There is no function (n) such that u
n
(n) 1 is a necessary
condition for the divergence of
u
n
, and no function (n) such that
(n) ~ 1 and u
n
(n) 1 is a necessary condition for the convergence
of
u
n
.
If u
n
is a steadily decreasing function of n, then nu
n
1 is a
necessary condition for convergence; but there is no function (n) such
that (n) ~ 1 and n(n)u
n
1 is a necessary condition.
[Pringsheim, Math. Annalen, Bd. 35, S. 343 et seq.; ibid., Bd. 37,
S. 591 et seq.]
If however nu
n
decreases steadily, then nlog nu
n
0 is a neces-
sary condition; and if n(n)u
n
, where n(n) ~ 1 and
_
dn
n(n)
~ 1,
decreases steadily, then
_
n(n)
_
dn
n(n)
_
u
n
0
is a necessary condition.
(iii) Special series and integrals possessing peculiarities in respect
to the mode of their convergence or divergence.
For examples of series and integrals which converge or diverge so
slowly as not to answer to any of the logarithmic criteria see Du Bois-
APPLICATIONS. 69
Reymond, Pringsheim, Borel (l.c. supra), and Blumenthal, Principes
de la theorie des fonctions entières dordre inni, ch. 1.
In these cases the logarithmic tests are insucient (en defaut,
iv. 2, 5). For examples of series and integrals to which the logarith-
mic tests are inapplicable (v. 3, 4) see the writings just mentioned
and also
Thomae: Zeitschrift f ur Mathematik, Bd. 23, S. 68.
Gilbert: Bulletin des Sciences Mathematiques, t. 12, p. 66.
Goursat: Cours dAnalyse, t. 1, p. 205.
Hardy: Messenger of Mathematics, vol. 31, p. 1; ibid., vol. 31, p. 177;
ibid., vol. 39, p. 28.
B. Asymptotic formulae for nite series and integrals.
A closely connected problem is that of the determination of asymp-
totic formulae for
A
n
= a
1
+ a
2
+ + a
n
or for
(x) =
_
x
a
(t) dt,
when the behaviour of a
n
or (x) for large values of n or x is known.
A good deal can be accomplished in this direction by means of (i) the
theorem of Cauchy and Stolz, that, if a
n
and b
n
are positive and
a
n
Cb
n
, then A
n
CB
n
, (ii) the theorems of vi. and (iii) the
theorem of Maclaurin and Cauchy, that
(1) + (2) + + (n)
_
n
1
(x) dx,
where (x) is a positive and decreasing function of x, tends to a limit
as n .
[For (i) see Cauchy, Analyse algebrique, p. 52; Stolz, Math. An-
nalen, Bd. 14, S. 232, or Allgemeine Arithmetik, Bd. 1, S. 173; Jensen,
Tidskrift for Mathematik (5), Bd. 2, S. 81; Bromwich, Innite series,
p. 378, and Proc. Lond. Math. Soc., ser. 2, vol. 7, p. 101. Proofs of (iii)
APPLICATIONS. 70
will be found in almost any modern treatise on analysis: e.g., Bromwich,
Innite series, p. 29; Hardy, Course of pure mathematics, p. 305. An
important extension to slowly oscillating series has been given recently
by Bromwich (Proc. Lond. Math. Soc., ser. 2, vol. 7, p. 327).]
Among the most important results which follow from these theorems
are
1
s
+ 2
s
+ + n
s
n
s+1
s + 1
(s > 1),
1
s
+ 2
s
+ + n
s
n
s+1
s + 1
(s) (1 < s < 0),
1 +
1
2
+ +
1
n
log n ,
1 +

1
+
( + 1)( + 1)
1 2 ( + 1)
+ . . . to n terms,
()
() ()
n
+
+
( + > ),
or
( + )
() ()
log n ( + = ).
In connection with the last result see Bromwich, Proc. Lond. Math.
Soc., ser. 2, vol. 7, p. 101; in the earlier formulae is Eulers constant
and denotes the Riemann -function.
The most important of all formulae of this kind is beyond question
log 1 + log 2 + + log n (n +
1
2
) log n + n
1
2
log(2),
which, in the form
n! n
n+
1
2
e
n
2,
constitutes Stirlings Theorem. The literature connected with Stirlings
Theorem and its extensions to the Gamma-function of a non-integral
or complex variable is far too extensive to be summarized here. See
Encykl. der Math. Wiss., Bd. II. (2), S. 165 et seq.; Bromwich, Innite
series, pp. 461 et seq.
APPLICATIONS. 71
Another formula of the same kind is
1
1
2
2
3
3
. . . n
n
An
1
2
n
2
+
1
2
n+
1
12
e
1
4
n
2
,
where A is a constant dened by the equation
log A =
1
12
log 2 +
1
12
+
1
2
2
1
log
2
.
The properties of this constant have been investigated by Kinke-
lin and Glaisher (Kinkelin, Crelles Journal, Bd. 57, S. 122: Glaisher,
Messenger of Mathematics, vol. 6, p. 71; vol. 7, p. 43; vol. 23, p. 145;
vol. 24, p. 1; Quarterly Journal of Mathematics, vol. 26, p. 1: see also
Barnes, ibid., vol. 31, pp. 264 et seq.).
All these results are intimately bound up with the theory of the
general Euler-Maclaurin Sum Formula
n
1
f(n) =
_
n
f(x) dx + C +
1
2
f(n) +
B
1
2!
f
(n)
B
2
4!
f
(n) + . . .
which also possesses an extensive literature (see Schlomilch, Theorie
der Dierenzen und Summen; Boole, Finite dierences; Marko, Dif-
ferenzenrechnung; Seliwano, Dierenzenrechnung; Encykl. der Math.
Wiss., Bd. I. S. 929 et seq.; Bromwich, Innite series, p. 238 and p. 324;
Barnes, Proc. Lond. Math. Soc., ser. 2, vol. 3, pp. 253 et seq.; where
many further references are given).
A simple example of the use of the general formula is aorded by
the relation
n
n
s+1
s + 1

1
2
n
s
1
(1)
i1
_
s
2i 1
_
B
i
2i
n
s2i+1
(s).
Here s is positive and not integral, and the summation with respect
to i is continued until we come to a negative power of n.
APPLICATIONS. 72
C. Formulae involving prime numbers only.
Asymptotic formulae involving functions dened arithmetically, and
particularly functions dened by sums of functions of prime numbers
only, play a most important part in the analytical theory of numbers.
Of these the most important is the formula
(n)
n
ln
,
where (n) denotes the number of prime numbers less than n.
Similarly it is known that
lp n,
lp
p
ln,
1
p
lln
(the summation in each case applying to all primes less than n) while
1
p lp
is convergent.
Many more accurate results have been established by recent writers,
particularly Mertens, Hadamard, Von Mangoldt, De la Vallee-Poussin,
and Landau; and the theory has to a considerable extent been freed
from Riemanns still unproved assumption that all the roots of his Zeta-
function have their real part equal to
1
2
. Thus it has been shown that
(n) =
_
n
2
dx
log x
+ O
_
n
(ln)
_
,
or, still more accurately,
(n) =
_
n
2
dx
log x
+ One
ln
,
where is a positive constant; but it still remains to be settled whether
(as there is some reason to suppose) the last term can be replaced
by O(
n) or even by
O
_
n
ln
_
.
APPLICATIONS. 73
[It would carry us too far to give detailed references to the literature
of this exceedingly dicult and fascinating subject. The reader should
consult Landaus exhaustive Handbuch der Lehre von der Verteilung
der Primzahlen (Teubner, 1909).]
D. The theory of integral functions.
1. The series
c
n
x
n
will converge for all values of x (real or com-
plex), and so dene an integral function f(x), if and only if
n
_
[c
n
[ 0,
i.e. if [c
n
[ e
n
.
2. The three indices of a function of nite order. The three most
important characters of an integral function f(x) are:
(i)
n
= [c
n
[, the modulus of the nth coecient;
(ii)
n
= [a
n
[, the modulus of the nth (in order of absolute mag-
nitude) zero of f(x);
(iii) M(r), the maximum of [f(x)[ on the circle [x[ = r. M(r) is
known to be an increasing function of r, and in all cases M(r) ~ r
.
A function such that M(r) e
r
is called a function of nite order.

We shall conne our remarks to such functions.
The principal problem of the theory of integral functions is the
determination of the relations between the increases of
n
, 1/
n
,
and M(r). Those which subsist between the two latter functions are
the simplest: when
n
is taken into account the theory is complicated
by the Picard case of exceptionthe case of functions which (like e
x
)
have no zeroes, or whose zeroes are scattered abnormally widely over
the plane.
The nature of the results of the general theory may be gathered
from a statement of a few of the simplest of them.
If
n
n
n
+
,
i.e. if
l(1/
n
) nln,
APPLICATIONS. 74
we call the -index. The index may be dened in all cases without
any assumption as to the existence of a limit for l(1/
n
)/(nln); we
conne ourselves to the simplest case.
If
n
(1/)

n
n
(1/)+
,
we call the -index; and if
e
r
M(r) e
r
+
,
we call the -index: thus
l
n
(ln)/, llM(r) lr.
Then = 1/: and in general = .
Thus for the function
sin(
x)
x
= 1
x
3!
+
x
2
5!
. . .
we have = =
1
2
and = 2, as the reader will easily verify (using
Stirlings Theorem to determine ).
3. Special results. More precise results than these have been ob-
tained in many cases. Thus if
n(ln)
1
. . . (l
n)
1/
n
n(ln)
1
. . . (l
n)
1/
,
then
er
(lr)
1
. . . (l
r)
M(r) er
(lr)
1
. . . (l
r)
+
,
and conversely.
APPLICATIONS. 75
As examples of still more accurate, but more special results, we may
quote the following:
x
n
n
n

_
2
e
x
1/2
e
(/e)x
1/
,
x
n
(n!)
(2)
(1)/2
x
(1)/2
e
x
1/
,
x
n
(n + 1)
(1/)e
x
1/
,
e
n
p
x
n
2
p(p 1)
_
log x
p
_
2p
2p2
e
(p1)
log x
p
p/(p1)
,
where > 0 and in the last formula 1 < p < 2, and throughout x
by positive values.
These results may of course be used to give an upper limit for the
modulus of the particular function considered when x is not necessarily
real, and so for M(r). Thus in the rst case
M(r) r
1/2
e
(/e)x
1/
.
[The reader who wishes to become familiar with the theory of inte-
gral functions should begin by reading Borels Lecons sur les fonctions
entières. Some additions will be found in the notes at the end of the
same writers Lecons sur les fonctions meromorphes. He should then
read two memoirs by E. Lindelof; a short one in the Bulletin des Sci-
ences Mathematiques, t. 27, p. 1, and a long one in the Acta Societatis
Fennicae, t. 31, p. 1. Some of the results of this last paper were proved
independently by Boutroux (Acta Mathematica, t. 28, pp. 97 et seq.);
but M. Boutrouxs important memoir is largely occupied by a discus-
sion of some of the most dicult points in the theory.
Much of the theory has been developed in a very simple and elemen-
tary way by Pringsheim (Math. Annalen, Bd. 58, S. 257); and the reader
should certainly consult a short note by Le Roy (Bulletin des Sciences
Mathematiques, t. 24, p. 245). But, after reading the works of Borel
APPLICATIONS. 76
and Lindel of mentioned above, he will be wise to turn to Vivantis Teo-
ria delle funzioni analitiche (German translation by Gutzmer), which
contains by far the fullest treatment of the subject yet published, and
an exhaustive list of original memoirs.]
E. Power series with a nite radius of convergence.
Suppose that a
1
+a
2
+. . . is a divergent series: for simplicity sup-
pose that a
n
is always positive and steadily increases or decreases as
n increases. Further suppose e
n
a
n
e
n
, so that
a
n
x
n
is con-
vergent if 0 x < 1. Then a large number of interesting results have
been established connecting the increase of a
n
, as n , and that of
f(x) =
a
n
x
n
as x 1. The fundamental result is: if a
n
Cb
n
,
or, more generally, if (a
1
+a
2
+ +a
n
) C(b
1
+b
2
+ +b
n
), and
f(x) =
a
n
x
n
, g(x) =
b
n
x
n
, then
f(x) Cg(x).
From this theorem it may be deduced that
x
n
n
p

(1 p)
(1 x)
1p
(p < 1),
F(, , , x)
() ( + )
() ()
1
(1 x)
+
( + > )
F(, , + , x)
( + )
() ()
l
_
1
1 x
_
.
Of further results the following is typical: if
a
n
n
p
/nln. . . l
m1
n(l
m
n)
q
. . . (l
m+k
n)
q
k
,
then
F(x) (p)
__
(1 x)
p+1
1
1 x
l
1
1 x
. . . l
m1
1
1 x
_
l
m
1
1 x
_
q
. . .
_
l
m+k
1
1 x
_
q
k
_
APPLICATIONS. 77
if p > 0, q ,= 1: but
F(x) 1
__
(1q)
_
l
m
1
1 x
_
q1
_
l
m+1
1
1 x
_
q
1
. . .
_
l
m+k
1
1 x
_
q
k
_
if p = 0, q < 1 (if p < 0 or p = 0, q > 1, then
a
n
is convergent).
Thus, e.g.
n
p
x
n
(lx)
q
(p + 1)
__
(1 x)
p+1
_
l
1
1 x
_
q
_
.
As specimens of further results of this character we may quote
x + x
4
+ x
9
+
1
2
_

1 x
,
x + x
+ x
2
+
1
la
l
_
1
1 x
_
(a > 1),
a
n
x
n
2
e
_
1
4
(la)
2
l(1/x)
_
(a > 1),
e
n/ln
x
n
= e
2
u/(1 x) (u 1).
Many similar results have been established about series other than
power series: thus
x
n
n(1 + x
n
)

1
2
l
_
1
1 x
_
,
x
n
1 x
n

1
1 x
l
_
1
1 x
_
.
As an example of a more precise result we may quote the formula
x
n
1 + x
2n
=
1
4
_

l(1/x)
1
_
+ O(1 x)
.
[See
Bromwich, Innite series, pp. 131 et seq., 171 et seq.;
APPLICATIONS. 78
Le Roy, Bulletin des Sciences Mathematiques, t. 24, pp. 245 et seq.;
Lasker, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., (A), vol. 196, p. 433;
Pringsheim, Acta Mathematica, t. 28, p. 1;
Barnes, Proc. Lond. Math. Soc., vol. 4, p. 284; Quarterly Journal,
vol. 37, p. 289;
Hardy, Proc. Lond. Math. Soc., vol. 3, p. 381; ibid., vol. 5, p. 197;
ibid., vol. 5, p. 342;
where further references will be found. These writers also consider the
extensions of such results to the eld of the complex variable.]
APPENDIX III.
SOME NUMERICAL ILLUSTRATIONS.
Mr J. Jackson, scholar of Trinity College, has been kind enough to
calculate for me the following numerical results, which will, I think,
be found instructive as comments on some of the matters dealt with
in the body of this tract and in Appendix II. It will of course be un-
derstood that, except in one or two instances, they are approximations
and sometimes quite rough approximations.
1. Table of the functions log x, log log x, log log log x, etc.
x log x log
2
x log
3
x log
4
x log
5
x
10 2.30 0.834 0.182
10
3
6.91 1.933 0.659 0.417
10
6
13.82 2.626 0.966 0.035
10
10
23.03 3.137 1.143 0.134 2.011
10
15
34.54 3.542 1.265 0.235 1.449
10
20
46.05 3.830 1.343 0.295 1.221
10
30
69.08 4.235 1.443 0.367 1.003
10
60
138.15 4.928 1.595 0.467 0.762
10
100
230.26 5.439 1.693 0.527 0.641
10
1000
2302.58 7.742 2.047 0.716 0.334
10
10
6
2303 10
3
14.650 2.685 0.987 0.013
10
10
10
2303 10
7
23.860 3.172 1.154 0.144
SOME NUMERICAL ILLUSTRATIONS. 80
2. Table of the functions e
x
, e
e
x
, e
e
e
x
, etc.
x ex e
2
x e
3
x e
4
x
1 2.718 15.154 3,814,260 10
1,656,510
2 7.389 1618.2 5.85 10
702
3 20.085 5.28 10
8
10
2.29510
8
5 148.413 2.85 10
64
10
1.2410
64
10 22026 9.44 10
9565
The function log x is dened only for x > 0, log
2
x for x > 1,
log
3
x for x > e, log
4
x for x > e
e
= e
2
, and so on. The values of
the rst few numbers e, e
2
, e
3
, . . . are given above, viz. e = 2.718,
e
2
= 15.154, e
3
= 3,814,260, e
4
= 10
1,656,510
.
3. Table of the functions n!, n
n
, n
n
n
.
n n! n
n
n
n
n
1 1 1 1
2 2 4 16
3 6 27 7.634 10
12
4 24 256 1.491 10
154
5 120 3,125 9.55 10
2,184
6 720 46,656 2.7 10
36,305
7 5,040 823,543 1.4 10
695,974
8 40,320 16,777,216 10
15,151,345
9 362,880 3.8742 10
8
10
369,693,100
10 3,628,800 10
10
10
10,000,000,000
100 9.346 10
157
10
200
10
10
10
9.5710
10
10
10
11
4. Table to illustrate the convergence of the series.
(1)
3
1
nlog n(log log n)
2
. (2)
2
1
n(log n)
2
. (3)
1
1
n
s
(s = 1.1).
(4)
1
1
n
s
(s = 1.5). (5)
1
1
n
s
(s = 2). (6)
1
1
n
s
(s = 10).
(7)
1
1
n
s
(s = 100). (8)
0
x
n
(x = .9). (9)
0
x
n
(x = .5).
(10)
0
x
n
(x = .1). (11) 1 +
1
2!
+
1
3!
+. . . . (12) 1 +
1
2
2
+
1
3
3
+. . . .
(13)
0
x
n
2
(x = .9). (14)
0
x
n
2
(x = .5) (15)
0
x
n
2
(x = .1).
(16)
1
1
1
1
+
1
2
2
2
+
1
3
3
3
+. . . .
Number of terms required to
calculate the sum correctly to
Series Sum 2 10 100 1000
decimal places
1 38.43 10
3.1410
86
2 2.11 7.23 10
86
10
8.610
9
3 10.58 10
33
10
113
10
1013
10
10013
4 2.612 160,000 16 10
20
6 10
200
16 10
2000
5
1
6
2
= 1.64493 200 2 10
10
2 10
100
2 10
1000
6 1.0009846 1 11 1.093 10
11
1.093 10
111
7 1 + (1.27 10
30
) 1 1 10 1.213 10
10
8 10 73 247 2214 21883
9 2 9 36 336 3325
10 10/9 3 11 101 1001
11 e 1 = 1.718282 5 13 70 440
12 1.291286 3 10 57 386
13 3.234989 8 15 46 148
14 1.564468 3 6 19 58
15 1.100100 2 4 11 32
16 1.062500 2 2 3 4
Such a series as (7) is of course exceedingly rapidly convergent at
rst, i.e. a very few terms suce to give the sum correctly to a con-
siderable number of places; but if the sums are wanted to a very large
number of places, even the series (8) proves to be far more practicable.
Mr William Shanks (Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. 21, p. 318) calculated the
value of to 707 places of decimals from Machins formula
= 16
_
1
5

1
3 5
3
+
1
5 5
5
. . .
_
4
_
1
239

1
3 239
3
+ . . .
_
.
He does not state the number of terms he found it necessary to use, but,
in a previous calculation to 530 places, used 747 terms of the rst and
219 terms of the second series. He also (ibid., vol. 6, p. 397) calculated e
to 205 places from the series (11).
5. Table to illustrate the divergence of the series
(1)
1
log log 3
+
1
log log 4
+. . . . (2)
1
log 2
+
1
log 3
+. . . .
(3) 1 +
1
2
+
1
3
+. . . . (4) 1 +
1
2
+
1
3
+. . . .
(5)
1
2 log 2
+
1
3 log 3
+. . . . (6)
1
3 log 3 log log 3
+
1
4 log 4 log log 4
+. . . .
The phrase calculate the sum correctly to m decimal places is used as equiv-
alent to calculate with an error less than
1
2
10
m
. In the case of a very slowly
convergent series the interpretation aects the numbers to a considerable extent.
The numbers would be considerably more dicult to calculate were the phrase
interpreted in its literal sense.
Number of terms required to make the sum greater than
Series 3 5 10 100 1000 10
6
1 1 1 1 116 1800 2.6 10
6
2 3 7 20 440 7600 1.5 10
7
3 5 10 33 2500 2.5 10
5
2.5 10
11
4 11 82 12390 10
43
10
.4310
3
10
.4310
6
5 8690 1.3 10
29
10
4300
10
510
42
6 1 60 to 70 10
10
100
6. Roots of certain equations.
(i) The equation e
x
= x
1,000,000
has a root just larger than
unity (the excess of the root over unity being practically 10
6
)
and a large root in the neighbourhood of 16,610,800. The equation
e
x
= 1,000,000x
1,000,000
has roots nearly equal to those of the above.
The one near unity is practically 12.82x10
6
less than unity, while the
large root exceeds the root of the above equation by about 13.82.
(ii) The equation e
x
2
= x
10
10
has a root somewhere near 357,500.
(iii) The equation e
e
x
= 10
10
x
10
e
10
10
x
10
has a root near 64.7.
The root diers by less than 10
26
from the corresponding root of
e
x
= 10
10
x
10
. The corresponding root of e
x
= x
10
is about 35.8.
(iv) The positive roots of x
x
x
= 1,000,000 and of x
x
x
= 10
1,000,000
are approximately 2.68 and 7.11.
(v) If x
10
= 10
y
, then for x = 100, y = 20; and for x = 10
10
,
y = 100.
If x
10
10
= 10
10
y
, then for x = 100, y = 10.30; for x = 10
10
, y = 11;
and for x = 10
10
10
, y = 20.
If x
10
10
10
= 10
10
10
y
, then for x = 10
10
, y = 10 + (4.3 10
11
); for
x = 10
10
10
, y = 10 + (4.3 10
10
); and for x = 10
10
10
10
, y = 10.30.
7. Some numbers of physics.
The distance to Centauri is roughly 26,000,000,000,000 miles or
1.65 10
18
inches. The number of inches lies between 19! and 20! and
is approximately equal to e
e
3.74
or 16
e
e
. Again, writing 15 letters to the
inch (an average size in print) a line to the star would be sucient for
the writing at length of 10
2.4710
19
. The latter number is approximately
equal to (14 10
17
)!, e
e
e
3.83
, or (10
6.510
12
)
e
e
e
.
If we take the distance to the end of the visible universe to be that
through which light travels in 10,000 years, we nd that this distance
when expressed in wave-lengths of sodium light is measured roughly by
the numbers
1.6 10
26
, 26!, e
e
4.10
, (53.6)
e
e
, 3.29
3.29
3.29
.
If we assume the average distance between the centres of two ad-
jacent molecules of the earths substance to be 10
8
cm., we nd that
the number of molecules in the earth is roughly
10.8 10
50
, 42!, e
e
4.77
, (2333)
e
e
, 3.56
3.56
3.56
.
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In preparation.
THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL, ITS MEANING AND FUNDAMENTAL
PROPERTIES, by E. W. Hobson, Sc.D., F.R.S.
SINGULAR POINTS AND ASYMPTOTES OF PLANE CURVES, by
Miss C. A. Scott.
THE CIRCLE AT INFINITY, by J. H. Grace, M.A., F.R.S.
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE THEORY OF ATTRACTIONS, by
T. J. IA. Bromwich, M.A., F.R.S.
End of Project Gutenbergs Orders of Infinity, by Godfrey Harold Hardy
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The Project Gutenberg EBook of Orders of Infinity, by Godfrey Harold Hardy

), where is any positive number, formed by all

and (ii) that it is not logically

The relations f , f are mutually exclusive but not exhaustive: f

It is clear that the three assertions

I am indebted to Mr Littlewood for the substance of these remarks.

Thus the rst method, with = x, gives the scale x, x

), where is any positive number.

, where is any positive number less

We can, however, construct a new scale of func-

that when x is large the order of magnitude of this function

But the simplest choice here is 1/a

Messenger of Mathematics, vol. 34, p. 101.

which is of sucient intrinsic interest to deserve a formal

Let (x) be any function (such as the square of ) such that ~ .

American Journal of Mathematics, vol. 14, p. 214.

Lecons sur les series `a termes positifs, p. 27.

x). It is very generally (though not always) true that if (

Acta Mathematica, t. 18, pp. 319 et seq.

See Hadamards original paper quoted above.

We have dened f ~ to mean f/ , or, what is the same

Memorie della Accademia delle Scienze di Bologna (ser. 4, t. 5, p. 739).

1. However rapid the increase of f, as compared with that of ,

Pincherle, l.c.; Du Bois-Reymond, Math. Annalen, Bd. 8, S. 390 et seq.

It is easy to deduce that

) and the functional symbols

An L-function is of order zero if it is purely algebraical; of order 1

See my tract The integration of functions of a single variable (No. 2 of this

of the derivative of the latter func-

If F(x, y) is a function of x and y which vanishes for x = a, y = b, and has

. The rst part of this result is easily established; the

. We shall nd this result very useful in the sequel.

. We have agreed to express the fact that,

has an increase less than

Let us now consider the functions

are positive and not equal to 1. If r = r

, the same relations hold according as

Here , as usual, denotes any positive number however small. Of course, in

. Leaving these cases aside, suppose s > s

it is clear that f . If r > r

according as > 1 or < 1, being

, the second falling from be-

, and never overlapping.

, possess a similar property. This property is

, (a, A, > 0).

for any value of less than unity. For,

lx, and (5) =

. This is not true in the second; but lf x

, so that the term

) is more important than any power of x. Thus

where the symbols l

Elementare Theorie der analytischen Funktionen, S. 112.

If x > y > 0, we can nd an integer n such that ny > x.

l.c. (see p. 18 above).

Borel preserves the three laws (i), (ii), (iii), the

He would denote the orders of

(a +b)c = ac +bc, but in general a(b +c) ,= ab +ac.

originally dened f to be `a croissance

who use inequalities of the form

Lecons sur les fonctions enti`eres, p. 107.

Boutroux, Acta Mathematica, t. 28, p. 97; Lindelof, Acta Societatis Fennicae,

has used, in connection with the theory of the conver-

, or log ~ . Thus f is certainly monotonic if

( > 1). It is convenient to write a + 1 for . Then, since