Organisms and their environment, including other organisms

Ecology investigates: Resource colonization Resource decomposition and distribution Competition Succession Reproduction and development

Production 6CO2 + 6H20 C6H1206 + 6O2

Decomposition
C6H1206 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H20

Energy = carbon (C) Ultimately measured in kilocalories/calories Nutrients = nitrogen (N) phosphorus (P) potassium (K) magnesium (Mg) Several other elements and compounds

Autotroph

Heterotroph
zymogenous autochthonous

Acquires energy through photosynthesis Plants, algae

Acquires energy through eating Humans, mammals, birds, bacteria, fungi, insects, etc.

Can be viewed from two perspectives: 1. Taxonomy: what is doing the decomposing? 2. Taphonomy: what processes are taking place?

Most decomposition is biologically mediated (minimum 80%)

Microorganisms (bacteria, fungi)

Insects (flies, beetles)

Scavengers

Catalysisenzymatic and chemical reactions transforming complex to simple. Comminutionphysical breakdown of resource. Leachingsoluble material moved by water

Resource Quality

Decomposer Community

Physicochemical environment

Physicochemical Environment
Four primary modulators of decomposition: Moisture Temperature Aeration (oxygen, carbon dioxide) pH

A high quality resource

An ephemeral resource patch/disturbance

carbon:nitrogen Wood 145:1 Straw 100:1 Leaf litter 50:1 Manure 25:1

A source of water
A habitat for microorganisms

Stages of Decomposition 1. Fresh 2. Bloated 3. Active Decay 4. Advanced Decay 5. Skeleton

In reality: Stages do not exist Stage characteristics can blend from one stage into another Stages provide a convenient means for taphonomists to assess decomposition

 Autolysis starts: abiotic breakdown of cells and tissues Associated with start of mortis triad Little release of fluids and disturbance of surroundings Flies first colonize: looking for place to lay eggs. If too cold: microbes and scavengers dominate If outside: vegetation and soil surface covered.

The mortis triad

Algor mortisbody temperature changes to ambient temperature Rigor mortistemporary stiffening of the joints Livor mortissettling and pooling of blood; blood will become fixed after a period of time.

Gunn (2009)

Gunn (2009)

Fresh Stage (biological changes)

Initial insect colonization (response to chemical disturbance, i.e. presence of corpse)
Release of ammonia, sulphuric acid, carbon dioxide, nitrogen

Increased microbial activity (response to physical disturbance)

Initial shift in bacterial and fungal community structure (response to physical disturbance)

Fresh Stage (chemical changes)

Increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) methane (CH4) hydrogen sulfide (H2S) nitrogen (N2) ammonia (NH3) Increase in gravesoil ammonium (NH4+) nitrate (NO3-) phosphorus (P) soil pH

Bloat Stage Decomposition

Enteric microbial community produces gases (putrefaction)

Purge fluids released from orifices: mouth, nose, anus, etc.

Buildup of gas can cause rupturing, fluids released from ruptures in skin. Fly larvae (maggots) are active

Gunn (2009)

Bloated (biological changes)

Maggot activity Elevated microbial activity (CO2 respiration) Shift in bacterial community structure

Bloated (chemical changes)

Increased in gravesoil: ammonium calcium chloride fatty acids (butyric, propionic, valeric) magnesium organic N, ammonium, nitrate phosphorus potassium sodium sulphate

Active Decay
Maggot activity at its peak

Increased release of fluids

Increased marbling, slippage of skin

Exposure of internal organs

Active Decay (biological changes)

Peak insect activity

Death of associated vegetation (not sure why) Elevated microbial activity

Shift in bacterial community structure

Active Decay (chemical changes)

Same elevated concentrations as observed in the bloated stage.
Increased: Lipid phosphorus Enzyme activity Protease activity Phosphodiesterase activity Total nitrogen Total phosphorus

Advanced Decay (biological changes)

Maggots have migrated. Corpse comprises skin, organs, hair and bone. Declining microbial biomass and activity, but still greater than non-gravesoil. Fruiting of postputrefaction fungi.

Shift in bacterial community structure.

Advanced Decay (chemical changes)

Same as observed during bloated and active decay.

Postputrefaction fungus

Skeleton Stage Decomposition Can persist from weeks to millenia

Materials present: bone, teeth, hair, dried skin

Gunn (2009)

Gunn (2009)

Time
Fresh Bloated Active Decay
Advanced Decay

Skeleton

Gravesoil Biology

Initial disturbance Increased microbial activity Shift in bacterial and fungal community structure

Increased microbial activity Shift in bacterial community structure

Increased microbial activity, biomass Shift in bacterial community structure

Declining microbial activity and biomass early phase postputrefactio n fungi Shift in bacterial community structure

Increased microbial activity, biomass Succession of fungi from early phase to late phase Shift in bacterial community

Gravesoil Chemistry

Initial disturbance Increased ammonium, carbon dioxide, nitrate, phosphate

Increased ammonium, butyric acid, calcium, chloride, magnesium, ninhydrinreactive N, nitrate, potassium, phosphate, propionic acid, sodium, sulphate, valeric acid Increased pH

See Bloated Increased lipid phosphorus, protease activity, phosphodiester ase activity, total nitrogen, total phosphorus

See Bloated Increased ammonium, electrical conductivity, ninhydrinreactive nitrogen, lipid phosphorus, total nitrogen, total phosphorus

Increased amino acids, nitrate, ninhydrinreactive nitrogen, total nitrogen, total phosphorus Decreased pH

Gunn A (2009) Essential Forensic Biology. WileyBlackwell.

Hopkins DW (2008) The role of soil organisms in terrestrial decomposition. In: Tibbett M, Carter DO; Soil Analysis in Forensic Taphonomy. CRC Press: 53-66.