NL

Al
PJL
Pcccssay \y
Creoryateson
. . LP e `Ok
C^yr:gb! _ J979 by Qrtg^ a!t^u
7ll r:gb!J rttrttd. r:u!td :u !bt /.3.7
^ at! ^] !b:J ubl:ta!:mi may bt rtr^durtd ^r
!rarnu:!!td :u auy [^tm ^r by auy mtau, tltt!r^u:r ^r
mttbau:tal. :utld:ug b^!^t^y, rtt^rd:ug ^r auy
:u/^rma!:^u J!^ragt aud rt!r:ttal JyJ!tm u^u ku^uw ^r !^
:uttu!td. u:!b^u! trm:J:^u :u ur:!:ug ]nim !bt ubl:Jbtr,
txt:! by a rtt:cutr ub^ u:Jbt !^ q^!t br:t] nagt:
:u t^uutr!:^u u:!b a rtt:tu ur:!!tu [^r :utlJ:^u :u
a magoz:ut. utuJatr ^r br^adta!.
:ufcrma!:^u ru!cu/.
. . u!!^u, . ark 7ttuut,
tu Y^rk. . Y. JUUJ0
L:brar ^] C^ugrtJJ Ca!al^g:ug :u ubl:ta!:^u a!a
a!t:^u, Crtg^j.
:ud aud ua!rt.
lutludtJ :u1x.
Ku^ultdgt, 1bt^t ^/ 1:!lt.
J1.,. J9b J.J
l3. U-`.9-J``9U-.
ubl:Jbtd :mul!aunly :u Cauada by
Claix, lru:u C^mauy :m:!td,
1^r^u!^ aud Vaut^ttr
t:gum by 1bt L!b:zdgtJ
JU 9 b / 0 ` 9
/b-J90
Or
Ora
anni
r

O
LiLa
\\1'
AcknOWIcd_mcnts
. ntrOducttOn
. Lvcry 5chOOIOOy nOWs
.
muIttpIc VcrstOns OIthc OrId
V.
Lrttcrta OI mcntaI rOccss 8
V.
muIttpIc VcrstOns OIKcIattOnshtp 11
V .
hc Lrcat 5tOhasttc rOccscs 1
V . rOm LIassthcattOn tO rOccss
18
7
V .
5O hat:
1
Appcndtx tmc s Lut OIjOtnt 1
LIOssary 11
ndcx 11

P\|\V1'1'
Tbe ork ano tbougbt leaoingto tbis book bave spreao
over many years, ano my oebts go back to incluoe all
tbatere acknoleogeo in tbe preface to my previous
book, Stc: te an I.e/eg ) Mtnd But I bave trieo to
rite to be unoerstanoable to tbose bo bave not reao
Stc: ano tberefore sball acknoleoge bere only oebts contracteo since
Stc: a publ isbeo .
ven so, recent favors bave been many. In sometbing like cbro

olo
gical oroer, I bave to tbank hrst tbe fellosbip oftbe niversity of
al ifornia at Santa Cruz ano especially my frienos in resge College
ary iaz, Robertogar CarterVilson, Carol rouofoot, ano tbesec-
r
eta
riat.
W
N ALK^LLLLN1^5
nd then I have to thank the Lindistarne Association, whose
scholar in residence I was torsixmonthsotthewritingotthis book i l l
Irwin Thompson, Michael at ina agen and Chris and iane
amtord were hosts who combined generosity with brains Vithout
them there wouldhave been no book.
Similarly, in the last stages otwriting the book and tollowing
severe medicaladventures , salen Institute took me in asguest, permit-
ting me to combine writing with convalescence I have to thank anet
Lederman ,ulian Silverman Michael Murphy, ichard ice and many
others . oth at salen and at Lindistae , my debt s real ly to the total
communi ty.
arly in underwent maor surgry and was warned that
time might be short In this emergency, Stewart rand and the in
oundation came to my ad. Stewart made it possi ble tor my daughter
Mary Catherine to come trom Tehran and spend a month with me i n
Ca i tornia working on the manuscript . er employer in ran the eza
Shah abir niversty, generously gave her a protessional leave. The
hrst hve chapters otthe book owe much to her claritying criticism and
sheer hard work. I also thank Stewart r publishing partsotthe manu-
script in C-cr/uttn uartcr/, and tor permitting republication here.
Two students otmine have been active and constructive critics,
odney onadson and avid Lipset many others , by l istening, have
held me to hear when I was talking nonsense.
Myedtor, illVh tehead, and agent ohn rockman, have pa-
tiently nagged me into getting the book written .
My secretary udithan Slooten did much otthe drudgery and
helped compie the index and many others at Lindistarne and saen
and aong the way haveheped.
inaly, my wite, ois stood by, criticized and appreciated and
bore patienty with my varyingexcitements and depressons as the ideas
came and went.
\\ Was Otn :n I'U, Ihc sOn O! :!l:aU aIcsOn a IcaU:n_
tIsh OlO_:sI anU a Oncctn_ _cncI:t:sI bcs:sIn_ laU:!y tcssutcs IO !OI-
!OW :n h:s !aIhcts lOOIsIcs hc cOU!cIcU hs Uc_tcc :n anIhtOO!O_y :nsIcaU O!
Ihc naIUta sc:cnccs anU !c!I Ln_IanU IO UO hc!U WOtk :n `cW Lu:nca I Was
On h:s sccOnU It: Ihctc, :n I', IhaI hc UcI hs !c!!OW anIhtOy!O_sI at-
_atcI caU WhOU hc laIct Uatt:cU; Ihc:t On!y chIU aty (aIhct:nc aIcsOn,
: aIsO an anIhtOOIO_:sI aIcsOn anU caU Wctc U:vOtccU :n I'U, uI Ihcy
cOnI:nUcU IO cOIIaOtaIc tO!css:Onal!y anU Ua:nIa:ncU Ihc:t !t:cnUsh: unI:!
cuUs UcaIh :n '
n Ihc ycars IO IOOW aIcsOn DccaUc a v:s:I:n_ tO!cssOt O! anIhtOOI-
O_y uI latvatU () Was aO:nIcU tcscarch assOc:aIc aI Ihc )an_(cy Ottct
`cu
tOsych:aIt:c nsI:IOIc :n Oan tanc:scO; WOtKcU as LIhnOIO_:sI aI Ihc a!O
/IIO NcIctans /UD:n:sItaI:On lOs1Ia! (Whctc hc Uc\cOcU Ihc UOu!c-DtnU
IhcOty Ol sch2Ohtcn:a anU lOtUuaIcU a ncW IhcOty Ol !catn1n_). lc WOtKcU
W:Ih UOlhns aI Ihc LccanO_tah:c )nsI:IuIc :n laWa: anU Iau_hI at Ihc ln:-
vcts:Iy O laWa:: n I' hc OncU thc lacu!Iy O! Ihc \nvcts:Iy U! (a!:lOtnIa
aI
OnIa (tu,
hc authOt Ol {ain anU ! !o an Lro|ogj oj Atnd. anU cO-auIhOt Ol
ba/r
n:J
Charar!:r, Ltc_Oty aIcsOn huS matcUy :nHucnccU an cnI:tc _cncta-
I:On Ol
sOc:a! sc:cnI:sIs, :nc!uU:n_ Ihc t:I:sh sych:aIt:sI b , a:n_anU hc
:s
cOns
UctcU Onc Ol Ihc `laIhcts Ol Ihc lam:y Ihctay mOVcmcnI. /O:nIcU
D
y
\OvctnOt jctty tOWn as a mcmct Ol Ihc OatU Ol bc_cnIs Ol Ihc \n:Vct-
s:Iy
Ol
(a!:lOtn:a :n , hc nOW !:Vcs :n cn OmOnU (a)lOtn:a, W:I h:s
W:lc O:s, anU Ua_hIct IOta.
i
P
P11

i\\i\
" A ar_c part Ot thts chaptcr Was UcItVcrcU as a
Iccturc at thc LathcUraI Ot5atnt jOhn thc tVtnc t n
cW YOrk On OVcmbcr I, !V.
llo|rnu|h:llu|onr1|r: /j mmn1 o/|h: /lo1om1 undl:ut:1 |hu| /ro |h:r od, uho1:
/mu|j r rntr1r//: und rn/u/l:, lrrd:nr: r:urh:1 un |o h: |hr o/ mr|h hr: /:lou. :
orn| ou| |hu| |h:: /rur/ und mor|ul /|1 ruld no| /: :ndou:d |h u /:uu| 1o rmlu|:
und 1o :xqur1r|:/j urouh|. drd|h:j no| r11u: /rom |h: Lrtrnr|j uhrrh ndl:1lj i:ud:1 ur|h r|1
rntrr: und unrhunrn /:au|j u/ |hrn.
SA ALS1, h: r| ^d
In une ', I tbougbt I bao tbe beginnings of two
books. One I calleoThc F/uttnar, Idca ano tbe otber
Ficr, S.h//, Knu:. Tbe hrst was to be an attempt
to reexamine tbe tbeories ofbiological evolution i n tbe
igbt of cybernetics ano i nformation tbeory But as I
began to write tbat book I founo it oifh cult towrite witb a real auoi
ece in i no wbo I coulo bope woulo unoerstano tbe formal ano
terefore simple presuppositions ofwbat I was saying It became mon-
strously evioent tbat scbooling in tbis country ano in Fnglano ano, I
suppose, in tbe entire Occioent ws so carefu to avoio a crucial issues
t
at I w
oul
o bave to write a secono book to explain wbat seemeo tome
^ taV
Orttc
phrasc
OtLrd NacauIays. mc :s crcdcd Wth, `LVcry schbOy knOWs WhO mp
O
cd Nq
ncu
ma, and WhO stran_cd Atahuapa.
W
M 11Ll1L
elementary ideas relevant toevolution and to almost any other bioogical
or social thi nki ngto daily lite and to the eating otbreaktast . Othcial
education was telling people almost nothing ot the nature ot all those
things on the seashoresand in the redwoodtorests , in the deserts and the
pains. Fven grownup persons with chi ldren ottheir own cnnot givea
reasonable account otconcepts such as entropy, sacrament , syntax, num-
ber , quantity, pattern inear reati on name, class , relevance, energy
redundancy torce probabiity, parts , whole, i ntormti on, tautology,
homology mass (either ewtonian or Christian) , eanation descrip-
tion ule otdimensions , logical type, metaphor, topology, and so on.
Vhat are butteries Vhat are starhsh Vhat are beauty and ugliness
It seemed to me that the writing out otsome otthese very ele-
mentary ideas could be entitled, with a little irony Frcr, S.h//,
Knu:
ut as I sat in Lindistarne working on these two manuscripts
sometimesaddingapiece tooneandsometimesapiece to theother, te
two gradually came together , and the product ot that coming togeter
was what I think is caled a P/atnt. view It seemed to me that i n
'S.h//,. I was laying down very elementary ideas about ctc/g,
(see lossary) , that is, abouthu uc .an knuan,thtng. I nthe pronoun
uc, I ot course included the starhsh and the redwood torest , the seg-
menting egg, and the Senate otthe nited States.
And in thean,thtng which these creatures variously know, I in-
cluded how to grow into hvewaysymmetry, ` `how tosurvivea torest
hre, ` how togrowandstillstay the sameshape , ` `how tolearn, ` `how
towriteaconstitution, how to inventanddriveacar , ``howtocount
to seven, and so on. Marelous creatures with almost miraculous
knowledges andski lls.
Above all , I included `how to evolve, ` because it seemed to me
that bothevolutionand learning must htthesametormal regularitiesor
socalled laws. I was you see, starting to use theideasot'S.h//, to
" |1tu` mut |1muu dt.uvcry .un.crncd thc `rc1|ity` u| td?l. c .0mmuny thtnk th1t 1 dtnncr
pI1tc t `rc1l` ut th1t tt ctr.uI1rtty t unIy 1n tdc1. Uut I1tu nutcd. hrt, th1t thc pI1tc t nut
ttu|y .tr.u1r 1nd, c.und, th1t thc Vur|d .1n bc pcr.ctvcd tu .unt1in 1 vcry l1rgc numbcr u| ubjc.t
Vht.h tmuI1tc, 1ppruxtm1tc, ut trtvc 1|tcr `.tr.ul1ttty. !c thctc|urc 1>rtcd th1t `.tr.u1rtty t
idl (thc 1djc.ttvc dcttvcd |rum iJm) 1nd th1t u.h t dc1l .umpuncnt u| t hc unt vctc 1rc t hc rc1I cx-
pI1n1tuty b1t |ur tt |urm 1nd tru.tutc Iur h|m, |ur t IIt1m UI1kc and m1ny uthcr, th1t
`Lutpurc1| \ntvcrc Vht.h uur ncVp1pcr\ .unt dcr `rc1l V1 umc urt O| ptn-u|| |rum thc truIy
rc1I, n1mcIy thc |urm 1nd t dc1. n thc bcgtnntng V1 thc t dc1.
4 N M!MO AMO MATKE

t
not upon our own nowing but upon tbat utdcr kneutng wbicb
is
b
glue
boloi ng togetber tbestarhsbesanoseaanemonesanoreowooo
or
ess ano buman committees
My tw manuscripts were beoming a single boo because tbere
is
J
s ngle nowing wbicb cbaracterizes evolution as well as aggrcgatc
ot
bum
ans even tbougb committees ano nations may seem stupio to
tw
oleg
geo geniuses lie you ano me
was transcenoing tbat line wbicb sometimes supposeo to
enose tbe human being. In otber woros as I was wri ting mi no be-
came tor me a reection ot large parts ano many parts ot tbe natural
wor outsioe tbe tbiner.
On tbe wbole it was not tbe cruoest tbe si mplest tbe most
ani alistic ano pri mitive aspects ot tbe buman species tbat were re-
ecteo intbe natural pbenomena Itwasratber tbemore complex, tbe
aestbetic tb intri cate ano tbe elegant aspects otpeople tbat reecteo
nature t wa not my greeo mypurposiveness my socalleo `animal
socalleo i nstincts ` ano s otortb tbat I was recognizing ontbe otber
sioe ot tbat mirror over tbere in nature. ` atber , I was seeing tbere
be roots ot buman symmetry beauty ano ugli ness aestbetics , tbe
buman beings very aliveness ano l i ttle bit otwisoom i s wisoom bis
ooily grace anovenbisbabit otmaing beautitul objectsarej ust as
animal as bis cruel ty. tter all tbe very woro animal` means en-
ooweo witb mino o spirit (antu:).
gainst tbis bacgrouno tbose tbeories otman tbat start trom
the
most animalistic ano malaoapteo psycbology turn out tobe improb-
ae hrst
premi ses trom wbicb to approacb tbe psalmist' s question
Loo bat is man
I never coulo accept tbe hrst step ottbeenesis story `In tbe
eg
inni ng tbe eartb was witbout torm ano voo. Tbat primary ta/u/a
raa woulo bave set a tormioable problem i n tbermooynamics tor tbe
net billion years erbaps tbe eartb never was any more a ta/u/a ra:a
tha
ni s, a buman zygotea tertilizeo egg.
It began to seem tbat tbe olotasbi oneo ano sti ll establisbeo
i
+easabout
epistemology especially buman epistemology, werea reec
t

otan obsoletepbysicsanocontrasteoinacuriouswaywitb tbelittle

e
see
m to
now about livng tbings. t was as i t members ot tbe
s
e
c
ies
man
were supposeo to be totally unique ano totally material
W
" N
lMTKCO\CT!CM
istic against the backgrouno ota living universe which was generalizeo
(rather than unque) ano spiritual (rather than materialistic)
here sms to be something like a resham's law ot cultural
evolution accoroing to which the oversimpliheo ioeas will always ois
place the sophisticateo ano the vulgar ano hatetul will aways oisplace
the bautitul. no yet the beautitul persists.
t began to seem as it organizeo matterano know nothing
about unorganizeo matter tthere be anyin even sucha simple set ot
relations as exists n a steam engine with a governor was wise ano
sophisticateo compareo with the picture othuman spirit that orthooox
materialism ano a large part otorthoooxreligion currently orew.
hegermottheseioeas hao beenin myminosince wasa boy.
ut let me start trom two contexts in whichthesethoughtsbegan toin-
sist on utterance n the 0s, hao tw teaching tasks was teaching
psychiatric resioents at a eterans oministration mental hospital in
alo lto ano young beatniks in the Calitornia School otine rts in
San rancisco. want to tell you how those two courses commenceo
how approacheo those two contrasting auoiences. tyou put these two
hrst lectures sioe by sioe, you will see what am trying o say.
o the psychiatrists, presenteo a challenge in the shape ot a
small eampaper, telling them that bytheenootthe course they shoulo
unoerstano the questions in it . uestion askeo tor brietoenitions ot
(a) sacrament ano (b etropy .
heyoungpsychiatristsi nthe 0s were, i ngeneral , unable to
answerctthcr question. ooay, atewmorecoulo begin totalkabout en-
tropy (see lossary) . no suppose there are still some Christians who
coulo say what a sacrament is
was oHering my class the core notions ot , 00 years ot
thought about religion ano science. telt that itthey were going to be
ooctors (meoical ooctors) otthe human soul , they shoulo at least have a
toot on each sioe otthe ancientarguments. hey shoulobetamiliar with
thecentralioeasotbothreligion ano science.
or the art stuoents, was moreoirect t was a small groupot
about ten tohtteen stuoents, ano knew that woulo be walking into
an atmosphere otskepticism boroering on hostility. Vhen entereo it
N b1 ^ ^1b
a

c
lear
that I was epected to be an incarnation of the devi l , who
o
u
ld
ar
gue for the commonsenseofatomic warfare and pesticides In
th
o
se
days (andeventoday) , sciencewasbelieved tobe 'valuefree` and
not
guid
ed by emoti ons . `
I was prepared for that . I had two paper bags , and the hrst of
th
es
l ope
ned , producing a freshlycooked crab, which I placed on the
tab
le. I
then
challenged the class somewhat as fol lows 'I want you to
ro
duce
arguments which will convince me that this obect is the re-

ains of iving thing. You may i magine, ifyou wi , that you are
M
arians and that on Mars you are fami liar with l iving things , being
ind
eed
yourselves alive ut , ofcourse, youhaveneverseencrabs orlob-
sers. numberofob ects l i ke this, manyofthemfragmentary havear-
rivd, perhaps by meteor. You are to i nspect them and arrive at the
conclusion that they are the remains of living things. ow would you
arriveat that conclusi on
Ofcourse, the question set for the psychiatrists was the :ac
vc:tten as that which I set for the artists Is there a biological species of
entropy
oth questions concerned the underlying notion of a dividing
linebetween theworldofthel i ving(wheredt:ttn.tten: aredrawnandd;-
)cn can be a cause) and the world of nonliving bill iard balls and
gaaies (where forces and impacts are the causes ofevents) . hese are
the two worlds that ung (following the nostics) calls .rcatvra (the liv-
ing and/crea (the nonliving) . I was asking Vhat is the difference
between the physca world ofperoma, where forces and i mpacts pro
vide
sufh cient basis ofeplanation, and the .rcatvra, where nothi ng can
be
unde
rstood untild;crcn.c: anddt:ttn.tten: are invoked
In my life, I have put the descriptions ofsticks andstones and
b
illia
rd
balls and galaies i n one bo, the pleroma, and have l eft them
alone. In the other bo, I put living things crabs , people , problems of
beauty, and problems ofdiHerence he contents ofthe second bo are
t
e
subj ect of this book
I was gripingrecently about the shortcomi ngs ofoccidental edu-
atio
n.
It was in a letter to my fellowregents ofthe niversityofCali-
o
nia, and the following phrase crept intomyletter
` L
un_,
St:m Strmooo aJMortuo: (LOnUOn. 5uart atkIns, !V).
W

M lMTKCO\CTlCM
rmk !h: a!!:rn uhtth :onn:t!J !h: t!:m o /:amtng and joa n:tart/j de-
!roj a// qaa/t!j.`
I otter you tbe pbrase thcattcrn ht.h .nnc.t: as a synonym,
anotber possible titletor tbis book.
Thcattcrn uht.h .nnc.t: Vbydo scbools teacb almost notbing
ottbe pattern wbicb connects Is it tbat teacbers know tbat tbey carry
tbe kiss otdeatb wbicb wll turn to tastelessness wbatever tbey toucb
and tberetore tbey are wisely unwi lli ng to toucb or teacb anytbing of
reallite importance Orisit tbat tbeycarrytbekiss otdeatb/c.a:c tbey
dare not teacb anytbing ot real-lite importance Vbat's wrong witb
tbem
Vbat patternconnects tbe crab to tbe lobsterand tbe orcbid to
tbe primrose and all tbe tour ottbem to me And me to you And all
tbesixotus totbeamoebai nonedirection and totbebackwardscbio-
pbrenic i nanotber
I want totell youwbyI bavebeenabiologistallmyli te, wbati t
i stbat I bave been tryi ng t ostudy. Vbat tbougbtscanI sbareregarding
tbe total biological world in wbicb we live and bave our being ow is
it put togetber
Vbat now must be said is dithcul t, appears to be quite ct,,
and is otvery great anddeep importance to you and tome. At tbisbis-
toric uncture, I believe i t to be important to tbe survival ottbe wbole
biospbere, wbicbyou know istbreatened.
Vbat istbepattern wbicbconnects all tbeliving creatures
et me go back to my crab and my class otbeatniks I was very
lucky to be teacbi ng people wbo were not scientists and tbe bias ot
wbose minds was even antiscientih c. All untrained as tbey were , tbeir
bias wasaestbeti c. I woulddehnetbatword tor tbemoment by saying
tbat tbey werent like eter l y, tbe cbaracter otwbom Vordsworth
sang
A rtmro: bj !h rtio` brt
A j://ou rtmro: ua !o htm;
And t! ua no!htng mor:.
atber tbey would meet tbe primrose witbrc.gntttn and cath.
ac:thctt., I mean responsive tothcattcrn uht.h .nnet:. Soyousee, I
was
R ^\ 1 ^1
k
er
bap
s by coincidence, I taced tbem witb wbat was (tbougb I
lu
y.
k
new
it
not)
an
aestbetic question eu arc ,eu c/atcd tetht: .rcaturc
hatatt
crn .ennc.t: ,eu te tt
y
putting tbem on an imaginary planet, Mars , ` I stripped
tb
e
ot
all
tbou
gbtotlobsters , amoebas , cabbages andsoon andtorced
tb
e
diag
n
osis
otite back into identication witbivingset Yeu carry
tb
e
bencb
arks tbe criteria witb wbicb you could lookat tbe crab to
nd tbat
i t, to carries tbesamemarks ` My question was mucb more
sopbisticated tban I knew.
So tbey looked at tbe crab. nd rst otall , tbeycameup witb
tbe
obser
vation tbat i tis:,trt.a/ tbat is , tberigbtsideresembes tbe
ett
`ery good. You ean it's .ee:cd, like a painting (o re
sponse. )
ben tbey observed tbat one claw was bigger tban tbe otber. So
twasnet symetrcal .
I suggested tbat it a number ot tbese objects bad come by e-
teor, tbey would nd tbatin aost alspecimens it was tbe same side
(rigbt or lett) tbat carried tbe bigger claw. o response Vbat's
ateson getting at`)
oing back to symetry somebody said tbat ',c:, ene ./au t:
/tggcr than thc ethcr /ut /eth au: arc dc e) thc :acart:
b Vbat a beautitul and nobe stateent tbat is bow tbe
speaker politey ung into tbe trasb can tbe idea tbat :tzc could be ot
priaryor protound importanceand went atter tbeattcrn uht.h .ennc.t:.
e
discarded an asymmetry in sie in tavor ota deeper symetryin tor-
al reations
Yes,
i ndeed, tbe twoclaws are cbaracteried (ugly word) by em
by
ing
:tt/ar r/atten: /ctcn art:. ever quanti ties , always sbapes,
t
r
s
and
relations. biswas, indeed, soetbng tbatcbaracteried tbe
rab
asa
ember ot.rcatura a living tbing.
Later, i t appeared tbat not only are tbe two caws built on tbe
sa
e
gro
und
plan, `(i . e. , upon corresponding sets otrelations between

e
sp
ond
ing
parts) bu tbat tbese relations between corresponding
p
ar
ts
ext
end
down tbeseries ottbe walking legs . Vecoud recognie in
v
ery
eg
pieces
tbat corresponded to tbe pieces in tbeclaw.
nd in your own body , otcourse, tbesame sort ottbing istrue.
W
V
N |MTKCO\CT|CM
umerus in the upper arm corresponos to femur in the thigh ano
raoiusulna corresponos to tibiabula the carpals in the wrst corre
-
spono to tarsals in the foot hngers correspono to toes.
Theanatomyofthe crab is repetitive ano rhythmical . It is , like
music repetitive with mooulation. Inoeeo the oirection from heao
towaro tail corresponos toa sequence in time In embryology the heao
is oloer than the tai l . ow ofinformation is possible from front to
rear.
rofessional biologists talk about phylogenetic h/g, (see
lossary) for that./a:: offactsofwhich oneexampleistheformalresem
blance between my limb bones ano those ofa horse. nother example is
the formal resemblance between the appenoages ofa crab ano those of
lobster.
That is one class offacts. nother (somehow similar) class of
factsis what they call:crta/h/g,. One exampleis the rhythmic repe-
tition with changefrom appenoage toappenoage oown the length ofthe
beast (crab or man) another (perhaps not quite comparable because of
theoiHerenceinrelationtotime)woulo be the bilateralsymmetryofthe
man or crab.
Let me start again. The parts ofa crab are connecteo byvarious
patterns ofbilateral symmetry ofserial homology ano soon. Letus call
these patterns utthtn the inoivioual growing crabr:t-rdcr .nnc.ttn:.
ut now we look at crab ano lobster ano we again no connection by
pattern. Call it:c.nd-rdo .nnc.ttn. or phylogenetic homology.
owwelook at man orhorseanonothat here again, wecan
see symmetries ano serial homologies. Vhen we look at the tw
together we no the same crossspecies sharing ofpattern with a oif-
ference (phylogenetic homology) . no, ofcourse we also no the same
oiscaroing ofmagnituoes in favor ofshapes patterns ano relations. I n
* nthC sCrIa CasC I t t s Casy t Ctma_InC that CaCh antCrtCr sC_mCnt may _IVC In!CrmatICnt CthC nCxt
sC_mCnt WhICh ts dCVCICQtn_ ImmCdIatCy ChInd It. buCh I n!CrmattCn mt_ht dCtCrmtnC CrtCnta-
tICn, sIC, and CVCn shaQC Cl thC nCW sC_mCnt. ^ltCr a, thC antCrtCr Is asC antCCCdCnt In ttmC and
CCuId C thC uasI-C_tCa antCCCdCnt Cr mdCI !Cr Its suCCCssCr. hC rCattCn CtWCCn antCrtCr and
QCstCrICr WCuId thCn C asymmCtrICa and CCmQICmCntary. t Is CCnCCIVaIC and CVCn cxQCCtaC
that thC symmCtrICa rCIatICn CtWCCn rt_ht and C!t Is dCuy asymmCtrIcaI , t . C. , that CaCh ha
sCmC CCmQCmCntary CCntrCI CVCr thC dCVCICQmCnt Cl thC CthCr. hC Qatr WCud thCn CCnstItutC 8
CtrCutt Cl rt:pr^:al CCntrC . t Is surQrtstn_ that WC haVC aImCst nC knCWCd_C C!thC Vast systCm l
CCmmuntCatICn WhtCh must surCIy Cxtst tC CCntrCI _rCWth and dIl!CrCnttatICn.
!U N NP AP PAV
otb
er
w
ords, tbis distribtion ottormal resemblances isspelled ot , it
S
ot
tbat
gross anatomy exbibits tbree levels or logical types ot
t
r
des
criptive proposit
ions
. Tbe partsotanymember otCrcatura are tobecompared witb
otb
er
part
s ottbesameindividal togive rst-order connections.
. Crabs are tobecompared witblobstersormen witbborses to

d
sim
ilar
relations between parts (i . e. , to give secondorder connec
tio
ns) .
5 Tbe .artn between crabs and lobsters is to be compared
witb
tbe
comparison between man and borse toprovidetbi rd-order con-
nec
tions .
Ve bave constrcted a ladder ot bow to tbink abotbot
wbat Ob yes, tbe pattern wbicb connects.
My central tbesis can now be approacbed IH words Tbeattcrn
uht.h .nnc.t t a ctaattcrn. It is a pattern ot patterns . I t is tbat
metapattern wbicb dehnes tbe vast generaliation tbat , indeed, tttat-
tcrnuhth .nnc.t.
I warned some pages back tbat we wold enconter emptiness,
and indeed i t is so. Mind is empty it is notbing. It exists only in its
ideas , and tbeseagainarenotbings . Only tbe ideas are immanent , em-
bied i n tbeir eamples. nd tbe examples are, agai n, notbings . Tbe
claw, aan cxa/c, is not tbeDtngan t.h,

it is preciselynt tbe thtng

tn ttc atber , i t is wbat mind makes ot it , namely, an cxa/c ot
sometbing or otber .
Let me go back to tbe classroom otyong artists.
Yo willrecall tbat I badtu paper bags . Inoneottbemwastbe
rab.
In tbe otber I bad a beatil large concb sbell . y wbat token, I
as
ked tbem, cold tbey know tbat tbespiral sbell bad been part ota liv
I
tbing

Vben sbe was abotseven, somebodygavemydagbter Catby a

at
s
eye
mon
ted as a ring. Sbe was wearing i t, and I asked ber wbat i t

as.
Sbe said i twas a catseye.
I said, t wbat t i t
Vell , I know it's not tbe eye ota cat . I gess i t ssome sort ot

ne.
W
11
N lMTKCO\|CM
said, Take it offand lookat tbe back ofi t.
be di dtbat and eclaimed Ob, i t sgot a spiraloni t t must
bave belonged to sometbing alive
ctuall y, tbese greenisb disks are tbe opercula (lids) ofa species

oftropicalmarinesnail . oldiers brougbt lots oftbem backfrom tbea

cihc at tbe end of Vorld Var
Catby was rigbt in ber maor premise tbat all spirals in tb
is
worldeceptwbi rlpools, galaies, andspiral wi nds ar, i ndeed, madeby
l ivi ng tbings . Tbere is an etensve lterature o tbis subect , wbicb
somereaders may be interested in lookingup(tbe key words aretn
a..t :crtc: andgdcn :c.ttn)
Vbat comesout ofall tbis is tbat a spiral isa hgure tbatrctatn
tt: :hae (t. e. , ttrrttn:) a tt gu: in one di mension by addition at

tbe open end. You see, tbere are no truly staticspirals .

ut tbe class baddifhculty. Tbey looked for al l tbebeautiful fo
mal cbaracteristics tbat tbey bad oyfully found i n tbe crab Tbey ba
tbe idea tbat formal symmetry, repeti ti on of parts, modulated repeti
tion, and so on were wbat teacber wanted. ut tbe spiral was nt bila
terallysymmetrical it was not segmented.
Tbey bad to discover (a) tbat all symmetry and segmentation
were somebow a resul t, a payoHfrom, tbe fact of growtb and (b) tbat
growtb makes ts formal demands and (c) tbat one oftbese is satihe
(i na matbematical , an ideal , sense) by spiral form.
o tbe concb sbell carries tbe snailsr.hrnt: record o|
bow, tn tt: una:t it successively solved a forml problem in pattern
formation (see lossary) . t, too, proclaims its afhliationunder tbat pat-
tern ofpatterns wbicb connets .
o r , all tbe eamples tbat bave offeredtbe patterns wbich
bave membersbip in tbe pattern wbicb connects , tbe anatomy f crab
and lobster, tbe concb, and man and borsbave been superh ciall
stati c Tbe eamples bave been tbefrozen sbaps, results ofregularie
cbange indee, but tbemselves hnally hed like tbe hgures in eats'
Ode ona recian rn
arr joa!h, b:um!h !h: !r::J, !hoa rao`J! uo! /mt:
1h Joog. oor :to rao !hoJ: !r::J b: bar:,
o/d /oto. octo octo raoJ! !hoa krJJ,
1hoagh uruurog umr !h: goa/_:! do oo! grrct:,
!2 M O AO ATK
\h:
.a
nno! [aJ:. !hoagh !hoa haJ! no! !hj b/tJJ,
ut! lhoa mt, anJ h b [atr'
Yc
haVc ccn ttat ncU tO thn O! Qattctns, Vtth thc cxccQttOn O!
th
Osc
O!
Du
stc as hxcU a8tts. t ts castct anU Iatct that Va ut, O!
cO

tsc.
n
Onscnsc. n ttuth, thc ttQht Va tO cQt ntO thtnk aOut thc
pat
tctn
Vhth cOnnccts ts tO thtnk O! tt rtart/, (VhatcVct that
Dc
ans) a
Uancc O! tntctacttnQ Qatts anU On! sccOnUattI QcQQcU UOVn
Vat
tOus
sOtt8
O! hscaI IDts anU thOsc IDts Vhch OtQansDs
chata
ctcttsttcaII tDQOsc.
hctc ts a stOt Vhtch haVc uscU c!Otc anU sha!I usc aQatn: /
man VantcU tO nOV aOut DtnU, nOt tn natutc, ut tn hts QttVatc IatQc
cOmputct

)
c askcU tt (nO UOut tn hts cst 1Otttan), `1O Ou cODQutc
that Ou VtII cVct tht nk Itkc a huDan ct nQ hc Dacht nc thcn sct tO
Otk tO anaIc tts OVn cODQutattOnaI hatts. 1t naII, thc Dachtnc
ptntcU tts ansVct On a Qtccc O! QaQct, as such Dacht ncs UO. hc Dan
tan tO _ct thc ansVct anU !OunU, ncatI tQcU, thc VOtUs.
H^ RNI5 N C ^ 5CRY
/ stOt ts a I ttt!c knOt Ot cODQIcx O! that sQcctcs O! cOnncc-
tcUncss Vhth Vc ca!I rcan.c n thc 'Us, stuUcnts Vctc Qhtt nQ !Ot
`tcIcVancc, anU VOuIU assuDc that an / ts tc!cVant tO an t! Oth
/ anU atc Qatts Ot cODQOncnts O! thc saDc `stOt.
/Qat n Vc !acc cOnncctcUncss at DOtc than Onc IccI`
1ttst cOnnccttOn ctVccn / anU Vtttuc O! thctt ctnQ cOD-
QOncnts tn thc saDc stOt.
/nU thcn, cOnncccUncss ctVccn QcOQIc tn that aII thnk t n
tcts O! stOttcs. (1Ot sutcI thc cODQutct Vas ttQht. hts ts t nUccU hOV
Q
cOQ
!c
thtnk.)
OV Vant tO shOV that VhatcVct thc VOtU :tr, Dcans tn thc
t
Ot
Vht
ch
tOIU Ou thc !act O! thtnktnQ tn tctDs O! stOttcs UOcs nOt
I5OIa
tc h

uDan
cQs as sODcth:Q scQatatc !tOD thc stathsh anU thc sca
nc
Oncs, thc
cOcOnut QaIDs anU thc QttDtOscs. Kathct, t! thc VOtIU c
tOn
nc
ctc
U,
t! aD at aII !unUaDcntaII ttQht t nVhat I aD sat nQ, thcn
t
n
tcr: :tc: Dust c shatcU a!! Dt nU Ot Dt nUs, Vhcthct
0u
15
0t
th
Osc O! tcUVOOU !Otcsts anU sca ancDOncs.

|MTKCO\CTlCM
Context ano relevance must be cbaracteristic not only of all so
calleo bebavior (tbose stories wbicb are proj ecteo out into`action ,
but
also ofall tbose internal stories, tbe sequences oftbe builoing up of
tbe
sea anemone. Its embryology must be somebow maoe of tbe stuh
o
stories. Ano bebino tbat , again, tbe evolutionary press tbrougb mil
lions ofgenerations wbereby tbe sea anemone , like you ano like me
came to btbat process, to must be oftbe stuff ofstorres. Tbere
must be relevance in every step ofpbylogeny ano among tbe steps .
rospero says, 'Ve are sucb stuffas oreams are maoe on, an
surely be is nearly rigbt. But I sometimes tbink tbat oreams are only
fragments oftbat stuff. Itis as iftbe stuofwbicb weare maoe weret
tally transparent ano tberefore imperceptible ano as iftbe only appea

ances ofwbicb we can be aware are cracks ano planes offracture in tbat

transparent matrix Dreams ano percepts ano stories are perbaps cracks
ano i rregularities in tbe uniform ano timeless matrix. Vas tbis wbat

lotinus meant by an `i nvisibleano uncbanging beauty wbicb pervaes

all tbings
Vbat is a story tbat it may connect tbe As ano Bs, its parts
Ano is ttruetbattbegeneral facttbatparts areconnecteo intbisways
attbevery rootofwbat it is to bealive I offer you tbe notion of.entext,
ofattern threvgh tte.
Vbatbappens wben, for example, I gotoa freuoian psycboana
lyst I walk intoanocreate sometbing wbicb wewillcall a.entext tbats
at least symbolically (as a piece of tbe worlo of ioeas limiteo an
isolateo by closing tbe ooor. Tbe geograpby oftbe room an tbe ooor is
useo as a representation ofsomestrange, nongeograpbicmessage.
ButI comewitb storiesnot j ust asupplyofstoriestooeliver
tbe analyst but stories built into my very being. Tbe patterns
an
sequences ofcbilobooo experience are built into me. fatber oio so
so my aunt oio sucb ano sucb ano wbattbey oio was outsioe my skin
But wbatever itwastbatI learneo, mylearningbappeneowitbinmy
perientia sequence of wbat tbose important otbersmy aunt ,
m

fatberoi o.
Now I come to tbe analyst, tbis newly important otber wo
must be vieweo asafatber(orperbaps anantifatberbecause notbing bas
meaning except itbeseenasin some context. Tbisviewing is calle te
tran:)eren.e ano isa general pbenomenon in buman relations.

M MlNO ANO NATK

c
.
ct
tc otall interaction between persons because, atter all ,
ve
rsa
the
sha
pe
ot
what happened between you and me yesterday carries over
h
p
e
how
we respond to each other today nd that shaping is, in
t
o
s

a /rrcn trom past learning.

p
n
.

hs
phenomenon ot transterence exemplhes the truth ot the
coput
ers
perception that we think in stories The analyst must be
st
re
tch
ed
or shrunk onto the ocrustean bed otthe patient's childhood
stories ut aso by reterring to psychoanalysis have narrowed the
idea ot story l have suggested that it has something to do with .n-
/x
/.
a
cruci
al oncept partly undehned and theretore to be examined
nd context` is linked to another undehned notion called
eaning ithout context words and actionshave nomeaning atall .
his is true not only othuman communication in words but also otall
comunication whatsoever, otall mental process otall mind, including
that
which tels the sea anemone how to grow and the amoeba what he
should do nxt
am drawing an analogybetween context in the superhcial and
partly conscous business otpersonal relations and context in the much
eeper mor archaic processes otembryology and homology am as-
serting that whatever the word .en/cx/ means , it is an appropriate word
the nc.c::ar, word in the description otall thesedistantly relatedpro-
cesses .
Let us look at homology backwards . Conventionally, people
rove that evolution occurred by citing cases othomology. Let me do
the reverse. Lt me assume that evolution occurred and go on to ask
aout the nature othomology Let us ask what some organ t according
to
the liht shed upon it by evolutionary theory
0ha/ t an c/chan/': /runk Vhat is it phylogenetically Vhat
i
genetics tell it tobe
s
you
know the answer is that the elephant' s trunk is his
o
se. `
(v
en
ipling knew ) nd put the word nose in quotation
ar
ks
bec
ause
the trunk is beingdehned by an internal processotcom-
u
ic
ation in growth The trunk is a 'nose` by a proces ot com

i
ca
tio
n it is the context ot the trunk that identihes it as a nose.
hat
h
ich
stands between two eyes and north ota mouth is a nose `
a

th

7
at
t
at. t the .n/cx/ that hxes the meaning and it must
e
ly
b
h

J
e t
e r
ecevg context that provides meaning tor thegeneticin

M
MTKCO\CTlCM
structions. Vben I call tbat a 'nose ano tbisa 'bano I am_,
or misquotingtbe oeveopmenta instructions in tbe growing Or
a
.
nism, ano quoting wbat tbe tissues wbicb recerveo tbe message tboug

tbemessage intenoeo.
Tbere are people wbo woulo prefer to oehne noses by
Ih0t1

'nctiontbat of smeling. But if you spell out tbose oehnitions
arrive at tbe same place using a temporal insteao of a spatial n
te

Youattacb meaning totbeorgan byseeing it asplayrng agivenpa

sequences of rnteraction between creature ano environment . I call tbat
tcra/ context . Tbe temporal clasihcation crosscuts tbe spatial C!a-
srhcatron of contets. But in embryology tbe hrst oehnition mUt
always be in terms of formal relations. Tbe fetal trunk cannot , in gen
eral , smell anytbing. Fmbryology is)ra/.
Let me i llustrate tbr sspecies of connection tbr s connectingpat
tern, a lrttlefurtber bycr trng a orscovery of oetbe' s. ewas a consio
erable botanist wbo bao great ability rn recognizing tbe nontrivial (i e. ,
in recognrzing tbe patterns tbat connect . e straigbteneo out tbe v
cabulary of tbe gross comparatrve anatomy of owering plants. e os-
covereo tbat a 'leaf is not satrsfactorrly oehneo as 'a at green tbng
or a 'stem as 'a cylrnorical tbing. Tbe way to go about tbe oehn-
tionano unooubteoy somewbere oeep n tbe growtb processes of Ihc
plant , tbis rs bowtbe matter isbanoleois tonote tbat buos(i e. , bab
stems form in tbe anges of eaves. from tbat , tbe botanist construct
tbe oehnrtrons on tbe basis of tbe relatrons between stem, leaf , buo
ange, ano so on.
`A stem rs tbat wbicb bears laves.
'A leaf is tbat wbrcb bas a buo rn rts angle.
'Astem is wbat was once a buo in tbat position,
Al l tbat isor sboulo bfamiliar. But tbe net step i sperbaps
new.
Tbere isaparallel consron rn tbeteacbrng of language tbat
bs
never been straigbteneo out. rofessional lingursts nowaoays may
wbat s wbat , but cbiloren rn scbool are still taugbt nonsense. Tbey
tolo tbat a 'noun is tbe 'name of a person, place, or tbing, tbat
'verb is 'an actron woro, ano so on. Tbat i s tbey are taugbt at

N M!MO AMO MAKE

U
t
a_c
that thc Va tO Uchnc sODcthtn_ ts Vhat tt suQQOscUI t:
cn
c

cI!
nO
t
tts tcattOn tO Othct tht n_s.
I
tt5
,
NOst O! us can tccDct ct n_ tOIU that a nOun ts `thc naDc O!
a
Q
cts
On
, p
Iacc,
Ot thtn_ AnU Vc can tcDcDct thc uttct OtcUOD O!
at
st
_ Ot anaIZtn_ scntcnccs. OUa aII that shuIU c chan_cU. LhtI-
t
cn
cOu
IU
c tOIU
that a nOun ts a VOtUhaVtn_ a ccttatn tcIattOnshtQ tO
a
Qtc
Utca
tc
A Vct has a ccttat n tcIattOn tO a nOun, tts succt. AnU sO
n
K
cIattO
nshtQ cOuIU c uscU as asts !Ot UchntttOn, anU an chtIU
O
.
cO
uIU
thcn
scc that thctc ts sODcthtn_ VtOn_ Vtth thc scntcncc ` `\O ts
a
Vct
tcDcDct thc OtcUOD O! anaIZtn_ scntcnccs anU thc OtcUOD
Iatct, at LaDttU_c, O! Icatnt n_ cODpatattVc anatOD. DOth succts, as
tau_ht Vctc tOttutOusI untcaI Nc .u/d haVc ccn tOIU sODcthtn_
aOut thc Qattctn Vhtch cOnnccts: that aII cODDuntcattOn ncccssttatcs
cOntcxt, that VtthOut cOntcxt. thctc ts nO Dcant n_. anU that cOntcxts
cOn!ct Dcantn_ ccausc thctc ts cIassthcattOn O! cOntcxts. hc tcachct
cOuIU haVc at_ucU that _tOVth anU UtctcnttattOn Dust c cOnttOIIcU
cODDuntcattOn. hc shapcs O! antDaIs anU QIants atc ttans!OtDs O! Dcs-
sa_cs !an_ua_c ts ttsc! a !OtD O! cODDuntcattOn hc stuctutc O! thc
tnput Dust sODchOV c tccctcU a sttuctutc tn thc Output AnatOD
mut cOntat n an anaIO_uc O! _taDDat ccausc a anatOD ts a ttans!OtD
O! Dcssa_c DatcttaI, Vhtch Dust c cOntcxtuaII shaQcU. AnU hnaII,
a a ts OnI anOthct tctD !Otrammar
bO Vc cODc ack tO thc Qattctns O! cOnnccttOn anU thc DOtc a-
sttact, DOtc _cncta (anU DOst cDQt) QtOQOsttOn that, t nUccU, thctc ts
a pattctn O! Qattctns O! cOnnccttOn.
hts OOk ts utIt On thc OQtntOn that Vc atc Qatts O! a ItVtn_
w
Ot,
haVc
QIaccU as cQt_taQh at thc hcaU O! thts chaQtct a Qassa_c
t
OD
batnt
Au_ustt nc tn Vhtch thc sat nts cQtstcDOIO_ ts cIcatI statcU.
Ja
such a
statcDcnt cVOkcs nOstaI_ta. NOst O! us haVc IOst that scnsc
O
untt
O!
tOsQhctc anU huDantt Vhtch VOuIU nU anU tcassutc us aII
Wt
h
an
a!ht
DattOn O! caut. NOst O! us UO nOt tOUa cItcVc that
Wh
atcV
ct
thc
U U ! U I
h l U

ups an OVns \ ctat W1t IH Out tDtc cxQccncc, t1c

t
ct
hOIc
ts pttDattI cautt!uI.
d
c
haVc IOst thc cOtc O! Lhttsttantt Nc haVc IOst bhtVa. thc
n
tct
O!
I
t nUu
tsD VhOsc Uancc at thc tttVtaI IcVcI ts Oth ctcattOn anU
!
N |MTKCO\C|CM
UcsttucttOn ut tn VhOIc ts caut. Nc haVc IOst /taxas, thc
anU cauttuI gOU O! Oth Ua anU ntght tn \nOsttctsD. Nc haVc IOst
tcDtsD, thc scnsc O! QataIIcItsD ctVccn Dans OtgantattOn anU that
thc ant DaIs anU QIants. Nc haVc IOst cVcn thc 1tng \OU
Nc atc cgnnt ng tO Q!a Vtth IUcas O! ccO!Og, anU aI
Vc tDDcUtatc! tttVta!tc thcsc tUcas tntO cODDctcc Ot QO!tttcs, thct
at !cast an tDQu!sc stt!! tn thc huDan tcast tO unt anU thctc
tt thc tOtaI natuta! VOtIU O! Vhtch Vc atc.
\sctVc, hOVcVct that thctc haVc ccn, anU sttII atc, t n
VOtIU Dan Utctcnt anU cVcn cOnttastt ng cQtstcDOIOgtcs Vhtch
ccn aItkc tn sttcsst ng an uIttDatc untt anU, aIthOugh thts ts Icss
Vhtch haVc aIsO sttcsscU thc nOttOn that u!ttDatc untt ts ac:thctt..
unt!OtDtt O! thcsc VtcVs gtVcs hOQc that QcthaQs thc gtcat authOtt
quantttattVc sctcncc Da c tnsu!ctcnt tO Ucn an uIttDatc
caut.
hOIU tO thc QtcsuQQOstttOn that Out IOss O! thc scnsc O!
untt Vas, quttc stDQI, an cQtstcDOIOgtca! Dtstakc cItcVc that
Dtstakc Da c DOtc scttOus than aII thc Dt nOt tnsantttcsthat
tc thOsc OIUc cQtstcDO!Ogcs Vhtch agtccU uQOn thc
unIt.
/ Qatt O! thc stOt O! Out !Oss O! thc scnsc O! untt has
cIcgantI tO!U t n !OVcOs Grcat Chatn )ctng Vhtch ttaccs thc
OD c!asstca! \tcck QhtOsOQh tO tant anU thc cgtnnt ngs O!
tUca!tsD tn thc ctghtccnth ccntut. hts ts thc stOt O!thc tUca that
VOtIU ts/Vas ttDcIcss! ctcatcU uQOn dcdu.ttrc /gt. hc tUca ts cIcat
thc cQtgtaQh !tOD Thc Ctt, ) Gd buQtcDc Nt nU, Ot OgOs, ts at
hcaUO! thc UcUucttVc chatn.DcIOV that atc thc angc!s,thcn QcOQ!c,
aQcs, anU sO On UOVn tO thc QIants anU stOncs. /!I ts t nUcUuctVc
anU ttcU t ntO that OtUct a QtcDtsc Vhtch Qtchgutcs Out sccOnU !a
thctDOUnaDtcs. hc QtcDtsc assctts that thc `DOtc Qct!cct can
c gcnctatcU thc `Icss Qct!cct.
n thc htstOt O! tOIOg, tt Vas ! Datck VhO t nVcttcU
gtcat chat n O! ctng. D t nststtng that Dt nU ts tDDancnt tn ItVtng
"^rthurL. LCVCCy , TheGrmtChaio o/8eio:7 StuJ o/theHitoo/ao|Jm [{mJrt_C.
ntVtrsty rCSS 9i
j. -. Lmat:k, Phi/ osohi: Zo. iue |! bUV) ranSIatCd aS |CCIC_Ica QhICsCQhy. ^n
Wtth rc_ar tC thC natura hIStCty C!antmaS , ttanS . 1_h LIICt (CW YCtk JCnCn:
rcSS , 9)

N b ^ ^b
U
cOu
IU
UctctDt nc thctt ttanstDat:Ons, hc cscaQcU !tOD thc
t

tc
s
a

c
Utt
ct:
OnaI QtD1sc that thc Qct!cct Dust aIVajs QtcccUc thc

cQ
a

U h !

'
h
`
h
t
)c
thcn QtOQOsc a t cOtj \ ttans OtD:sD V ic Vc
t

p
c
c

U
cu!
.) Vhch stattcU !tOD IUsOa QtOtOZOa) anU DatchcU
W
Ou
U

Dan anU VODan.

up
W
at
k h !! h h

hc
!u
Datc tan OsQ ctc Vas 8t a . c unJtj \ cQ18-
tcD
OIO
Qj
Vus
tctat ncU t n sQttc O! a sh:!t :n cDQhas:s !tOD ttansccnUcnt
LO
Os tO :DDancnt D:nU

hc
h!tj jcats that !OIIOVcU saV thc cOncnttaI ttsc O! thc n-
us
tt:aI
KcVOIuttOn, thc tttuDQh O! LnQt nccttnQ OVct NtnU, sO that thc
c
Itu
taI!j
aQQOQttatc cQtstcDOIOQj !Ot thc 0rtgtn Scctc: ( Vas an
attc
mQt tO
cxcIuUc Dt nU asan cxQIanatOtj Qt:nctQIc. :It:nQ at a V:nU-
m:II.
hctc Vctc QtOtcsts Duch DOtc QtO!OunU than thc sht:cks O! thc
unUaDcnta!tsts

baDucI DutIct, 1atVt ns aIcst ct:ttc, saV that thc Uc-

aI O! DtnU as an cxQIanatOtj Qt:nc:QIc Vas :ntOIctaIc anU tt:cU tO takc
cVOIut:Onatj thcOtj ack tO DatcksD. Dut that VOuIU nOt UO ccausc
O!thc hjQOthcssshatcU cVcn j 1atV:n) O! thc `:nhctttancc O! acuttcU
hatactct:st:cs. hts hjQOthcs:sthat thc tcsQOnscs O! an OtQan:sD tO
:ts cVttOnDcntcOuUaUcct thc Qcncttcs O! thc OUsQt:nQVas an ctOt
shaI! atQuc that th:s cttOt Vas sQcctDcaIIj an cQ:stcDOIOQ:caI
cttOt :n IOQ:caI tjQtnQ anU shaII OUct a Uchn:t:On O! tndVctj Utctcnt
!tO thc nOttOns VaQucIj hc!U j Oth 1atVtn anU !aDatck. OtaIj,
sha!! assuDc that thOuQht tcscDIcs cVOIuttOn tn c:nQ a sthast:cscc
L!Ossatj) QtOccss.
n
Vhat :s O!!ctcU :n thts OOk, thc h:ctatch:c sttuctutc O!
thO
Qht,
wh:ch
DctttanU KusscII caIIcU/egt:a/tng, V:II takc thc QIacc
O!
th
c
h:ct
atchtc sttuctutc O! thc \tcat Lha:n O! Dc:nQ anU an attcDQt
w
:II
bc
DaUc tO
QtOQOsc a sactcU unttj O! thc tOsQhctc that VtII cOnta:n
!cw
ct
cQ:
stc
DOIOQ:caI cttOts than thc Vcts:Ons O! that sactcU unttj Vh:ch
t
c
at
:Ou
s
tcI:Q:Ons O! h:stOtj haVc O!!ctcU. Nhat :s :DQOttant s that,
1Q
ht
Ot
V
tOnQ,
thc cQ:stcDOIOQj shaII c cx/tt. LuaIIj cxQI:c:t ct:t:-

Cs

wtII
thcn c QOss:Ic.

bO
thc
:D
DcUtatc task O! th:s OOk :s tO cOnsttuct a Qtctutc O!
0w
th
c
w
IU

Ot
18
)OcU tOQcthct :n :ts DcntaI asQccts. )OV UO tUcas,

0t
IOn ,
stcQ
s O! !OQtcaI Ot QtaQDattc cOns:stcncj anU thc !:kc Dt

' N |MKCO\CTlCM
togetber ow is logi c, tbe classical proceoure for making cbain
s
ioeas , relateo to an outsioe worlo of tbings ano creatures, parts
wboles Do ioeas really occur in cbains , or is tbis li neal (see
structure i mposeo on tbem by scbolars ano pbilosopbers ow is
worlo oflogic, wbicbescbews `ci rcularargument , relateo toa worl
wbicbcircular trains of causationaretberuleratber tban tbe
Vbat bas to be investigateo ano oescribeo is a vast netwo
k
matrix of interlocking message material ano abstract tautologies
ises , anoexemplih cations .
But , as of I'', tbere is no conventional metboo of oescr
sucb a tangle. Ve oo not know even wbere tobegin.
fiftyyears ago, wewoulo bave assumeo tbat tbebest
for sucb a task woulo bave been eitber logcal or quantitative,
Bu we sball see as every scboolboy ougbt to know tbat logic is
cisely unable to oeal witb recursive circuits witbout generating u
ano tbat quantitiesareprecisely not tbe suofcomplexcommuni
systems.
n otber woros, logic ano quantity turn out to be

oevicesforoescribingorganismsano tbeirinteractions ano internal

nization. Tbe particular nature of tbis i nappropriateness will be
iteo inoue course, but for tbe moment, tbereaoerisaskeo to accept
true tbe assertion tbat , as of I'', tbere is no conventional way
explaining or even oescribing tbe pbenomena of bi ological organiat
ano buman interaction.
obnonNeumannpointeoout tbirtyyears ago, inbi sThe
Gac: tbattbebebavioralsciences lackanyreouceomooel wbicb
oo forbiologyanopsycbiatrywbat tbeNewtonianparticleoiofor
IS
Tbere are, bowever , a numberof somewbat oisconnecteo
ofwisoom tbat will aio tbetask of tbis book. sball tbereforeaoopt
metboo of Littleack orner , pulling out plums one after tbe otber
exbibiting tbem sioe by sioe tocreateanarrayfrom wbicb wecango
tolist some funoamental criteria of mental process.
In Cbapter `Fvery Scboolboy nows , I sball gatber
fo
reaoer some examples of wbat I regaro as simple necessary t
necessary hrst f tbe scboolboy is ever to learn to tbink ano tben
20 N MlMO AMO MATKE
ary
b
eca
use , as I believe tbe biological worlo is geareo to tbese

ss
. .
s
i

p
le
p
r
op
s
tns.
In
Cba
pter
5 I sball operate in tbe sameway butsball bring to
h
a
oer
's
attention a numberofcases in wbicb two or more informa-
t

s
ou
rces
come togetber to give information ofa sort oiherent from
n
wh
at
was in
eitber source separately.
At
present , tbere is no existingsciencewbose special inteest IS
th

co
mb
ining ofpieces ofi nformation. ButI sballarguetbat tbeevolu-
ti
on
ar
y
pro
cess must oepeno upon sucb oouble increments of informa
tion. F
very
evolutionary step is anaooi tion ofinformation toanalreaoy
i
stin
g
system. Because tbis is so, tbe combinations barmonies , ano
isc
oros
between successive piecesano layers ofinformation willpresent
anyprob
lems ofsurvival ano oetermine many oirecti ons ofcbange.
Cbapter , 'Tbe Criteria ofMino, will oeal wi tbtbe cbaracter-
istics tbatinfactalways seemtobe combineo in our eartbly biospbereto
ake mino. Tbe remainoer of tbe book will focus more narrowly on
roblems ofbiological evolution.
Tbrougbout , tbe tbesis will betbat it is possibleano wortbwbile
othink about many problems of oroer ano oisoroer in tbe biological
iverse ano tbat we bave tooay a consioerable supply of tools of
ogtwbicb we oo not use, partly becauseprofessors anoscboolboys
likewe are ignorant ofmany currently available insigbts ano partly
ecause we are unwilling to accept tbe necessities tbat follow from a
lrview oftbe buman oilemmas.
- N
lMTKCO\CTlCM

1`11
\|\\\1
|\V ...
bj :du.a!rn m1! hat: bn mr/
3 !h:j b:lr::. b:rau1: !h:j 1 ur: br:d
h:rr:1! .^n!rnu:1 uha! !h: nu: b:an,
And !hu1 !h: .hrld rm1:1 n !h: man.
]OH! 1Y1E!, h: ndand !h: lan!h:r
Science, lieart , religio, commerce, warfare ano even
sleep, is baseo on rce:ttten: t oiffers , bowever
from most otber brancbs ofbuman activity in tbat not
only are tbe patbways ofscientih c tbougbt oetermineo
by tbe presuppositi ons tbe scientists but tbeir goals
are
tbe te
sting ano revision ofolo presppositions ano tbe creation of
e
w
n tbis latter activity, i t i s clery oesirable (but not absolutely
e
ces
sary
for tbe scientist to now consiously ano be able to state bis
n
pre
supposi ti ons t is also convenint ano necessary for scientih c

og
ment
to now tbe presuppositions of colleagues woring in tbe
sa
me
helo. Aboveall it is necessary for be reaoerofscientihc matter to
ow
tbe
presuppositi ons oftbe writer

N EVEKY 5L!LL)ULY K^L5

hac tauQht VattOus tanchcs O! chaVtOaI tOIOQy anU cuItutaI
anthtOQOIOyy tO /Dcttcan stuUcnts, tanQtnQ OD cOIcQc !tcshDcn tO
Qsychtatttc tcstUcnts , tn VattOus schOOIs anU tcachtnQ hOsQttaIs, anU
haVc cncOuntctcU a Vcty sttanyc QaQ tn thctt thtnktnQ that sQtt nys !tOD
a Iack O! ccttat nt O! thOuQht hts Iack ts taht cquuI|y Ut stttutcU
at aI! IcVcIs O! cUucattOn, aDOnQ stuUcnts O! Oth scxcs anU aDOnQ
huDantsts as VcII as sctcntt sts. bQccthaIIy, tt ts Iack O! knOVIcUc O!
thc QtcsuQQOstttOns nOt OnIy O! sctcncc ut aIsO O! cVctyUuy t!c
hts QaQ ts, sttanQcIy , Icss cOnsQtcuOus tn tVO QtOuQs O! stu-
Ucnts that DtQht haVc ccn cQcctcU tO cOnttast sttOnIy Vtth cach
Othct: thc !athOItcs anU thc Natxtsts DOth QtOuQs haVc thOuQht aOut
Ot haVc ccn tOIU a ItttIc aOut thc Iast Z, ;UU ycats O! huDan thOuQht ,
anU Oth QtOuQs haVc sODc tccOQntttOn O! thc tDQOttancc O! QhtIO-
sOQhtc, sctcntthc, anU cQtstcDOIOQtcaI QtcsuQQOstttOns. DOth QtOuQs atc
Ut!hcuIt tO tcach ccausc thcy attach such Qtcat tDQOttancc tO `ttQht
'
QtcDtscs anU QtcsuQQOstttOns that hctcsy ccODcs !Ot thcD a thcat O!
cxcODDuntcattOn `atutaII y, anyOUy VhO !ccIs hctcsy tO c a UanQct
VtII UcVOtc sODc catc tO ctnQ cOnsctOus O! hts Ot hct OVn QtcsuQQOst-
ttOns anU Vt!I UcVcIOQ a sOtt O! cOnnOtsscutshtQ tn thcsc Dattcts
hOsc VhO Iack aII tUca that tt ts QOsstIc tO c VtOnQ can Icatn
nOthtnQ cxccQt knOV-hOV.
h succt Dattct O! thts OOk ts nOaIy cIOsc tO thc cOtc O!
tcItQtOn anU tO thc cOtc O! sctcntthc OtthOUOxy

hc QtcsuQQOstttOns
anU DOst stuUcnts nccU sOD tnsttucttOn tn Vhat a QtcsuQQOstttOn IOOks
Itk atc Dattcts tO c tOuQht Out tntO thc OQcn
hctc ts, hOVcVct , anOthct Ut!hcuIty, aIDOst QccuIta tO thc
/Dcttcan sccnc. /Dcttcans atc, nO UOut , as ttQtU t n thctt QtcsuQQOst-
ttOns as any Othct QcOQIc (anU as ttQtU tn thcsc Dattcts as thc Vtttct O!
thts OOk), ut thcy haVc a sttanQc tcsQOnsc tO any atttcuIatc statcDcn
O! QtcsuQQOstttOn. buch statcDcnt ts cODDOnIy assuDcU tO c hOstt!c O
DOcktnQ OtanU thts ts thc DOst scttOusts hcatU tO caathrttartan.
t thus haQQcns that tn thts IanU !OunUcU !Ot thc !tccUOD O!
tcItQtOn, thc tcachtnQ O!tcItQtOn tsOutIaVcU t n thc statc cUucattOnaI sys-
tcD. NcDcts O! VcakIy tcItQtOus !aDtItcs Qct , O! cOutsc, nO tcItQtOs
ttat nt nQ !tOD any sOutcc OutstUc thc !aDtIy.
LOnscqucnty, tO Dakc any statcDcnt O! QtcDtsc Ot QtcsuQQOs-
tOn t na !OtDaI anU atttcuIatc Vay ts tO chaIIcnQc thc tathct sutIc tcss-
Z M b ^ ^b
tance not ofcontraoiction because tbe bearers oo not know tbe contra
ictory premises nor bow to state tbem , but of tbe cultivateo oeafness
tbat cbi loren use to keep out tbe pronouncements of parents teacbers
ano
religious autborities.
Be all tbat as it may, I believe in tbe importance ofscientih c
resuppositions in tbe notion tbat tbere are better ano worse ways of
onstructing scientihc tbeories ano in insisting on tbe articulate state
ent ofpresuppositions so tbat tbey may be improveo.
Tberefore tbis cbapter is oevoteo to a l ist of presuppositi ons ,
ome familiar some strange to reaoers wbose tbinking bas been pro-
tecteo from tbe barsb notion tbat some propositions are simply wrong.
ome tools oftbougbt are so blunt tbat tbey are almost useless otbers
are sosbarp tbat tbey are oangerous. But tbe wise man will bave tbe use
ofbotb kinos.
It is wortbwbile to attempt a tentative recognition ofcertain
asic presuppositions wbicb all tna: must sbare or conversel y to oe
hne mino by listing a number ofsucb basic communicational cbaracter-
t .
l CIFNCF NFFR ROF ANYTHIN
cience sometimes tric: bypotbeses ano sometims atric:
tbem. Butr)woulo be anotber matter ano perbaps never occurs ex
ept in tbe realms of totally abstract tautology Ve can sometimes say
tba t) sucb ano sucb abstract supposi ti ons or postulates are given thcn
sucb ano sucb must followabsolutely. But tbe trutb about wbat can be
cr
ctica or arriveo at by inouction from perception is sometbin else
gain.
Let us say tbat trutb woulo mean a precise corresponoence be-
tw
een our oescription ano wbat we oescribe or between our total net-
ork ofabstractions ano oeouctionsanosome total unoerstanoing oftbe
outsioe worlo. Trutb in tbis sense isnot obtainable. Ano even ifwe ig
oretbebarriersofcooing, tbeci rcumstancetbatouroescriptionwillbe
in woros or hgures or pictures buttbat wbat we oescribe isgoingtobe
in esb anoblo ano actioneven oi sregaroing tbatburoleoftransla-
tio
n we sball never be able to claim hnal knowleoge ofanytbing wbat-
soe
ver.
W
Z M LNLKY 5LmLLLDLY KL5
A conventional way of arguing tbis matter is somewbat
as
lows Let us saytbatI offeryouaseriesperbaps ofnumbers ,
otber inoicationsano tbat I provioe tbe presupposition tbat tbe
is oroereo. for tbe sake ofsimplicity, let it be a series ofnumbers
, , , , 0,
Tben I ask you, Vbat is tbe next number in tbis series
You
probably say, . `
But ifyou oo, I will say, `Ob, no. Tbe next number is .
otber woros , tbe generalization to wbicb you umpeo from tbe
given in tbe rst instancetbat tbe series was tbe series of
numberswas proveo to be wrong or only approximate by
event.
Let us pursue tbe matterrtber. Let me continue myLCI@
by creating a series as follows
Z, , , , 0, , , , , , , 0, , , Z, , , ,
,
Now i fI ask you to guess tbe next number, you will r
say, `Z. After all you bave been giventbree repetitions oftbeseun
from Z to ano ifyou are a gooo scientist , you will be inuence
tbe presupposition calleo0..a': rar, or tbera/c)ar:ten tbat t8,
preference for tbe simplest assumptions tbat will ht tbe facts On
basisofsimplicity, you willmaketbenextpreoiction. Buttbose
wbataretbeyTbeyarenot, afterall , availabletoyoubeyonotbeen
tbe (possibly incomplete sequence tbat bas been given.
You a::ac tbat you can preoict, ano inoeeo I suggest
e
presuppositiontoyou. Buttbe only basis youbave is your(traine
erence for tbe simpler answer ano your trust tbat my cballenge
meant tbat tbe sequence was incomplete ano oroereo.
nfortunately (or perbaps fortunately, it is so tbat tbenet
is never available. All you bave is tbe bope ofsimplicity, an te
fact mayalways orive you to tbe next level ofcomplexity.
Or letus saytbat for any sequence ofnumbers can
ohe
r ,
will always be a few ways of oescribing tbat sequence wbicb
wt!l

Zb N M!MO AMO MAT\K
b
ut
tb
ere
wil l be an tnnttc number ofal ternative ways not lim-
i

le
,
. .

b
tb
e
criterion ofsmplty.
t
o b

up
po
se
tbe numbers are represente y letters
, -
n

so
on
. ucb
letters coulo stano for any numbers wbatsoever, even
fr
ac
tio
ns . bave only to repeat tbe series tbree or four times in some
e
rb
al
or
vis
ualorotber sensory form, even in tbeformsofpainorkines-
th
esia
,
an
yo
u will begin to perceive pattern n wbat offer you. t
ill
become in yourminoano in minea tbeme, anoi twi l l baveaes-
te
tic
value
. To tbat extent, it wi l l be fami l iarano unoerstanoable.
But tbepatternmaybecbangeo or broken byaooition by repe-
tition, by anytbing tbat wi l l force you to a new perception of i t , ano
these cbanges can never be preoicteo witb absolute certainty because
tbey bave not yet bappeneo
Ve oo not know enougb about bow tbe present will leao into
the ture. Ve sball never be able to say, a Myperception, my ac-
counting for tbat series will inoeeo cover its next ano ture compo-
nents or Next time meet witb tbese pbenomena, sball be able to
reoict tbei r total course.
reoictioncannever beabsolutelyvalioano tberefore sciencecan
neverrc somegeneralization oreventc:t a singleoescriptive statement
no intbat way arrive at hnal trutb.
Tbere are otber ways of arguing tbis i mpossibility. Tbe argu-
ent oftbis bookwbicb agai n, surely, can only convince you insofar

bat
say
hts witb wbat you knowano wbicbmay becollapseo or t
tlly
cbang
eo inafew yearspresupposes tbat science is aj )cr.cti
-,
an
making wbat we may call 'sense of our percepts. But percep-
t
on
op
erates only upon oifference. Al l receipt of
information is
e
e
ssa
rily
tbe receipt ofnews ofatcrcn.c, ano all perception ofoif-
lttn
l

e
is
mteo by tbresbolo. DiHerences tbat are too sligbt or too
l
o
ly
pr
ese
nteo are not perceivable. Tbey are not fooo for perception.
.
t
fol l
ows tbatwbatwe, scientists, canperceive isalwaysl im-
i
t
d
by
tbr
esbo
l o. Tbat i s, wbat is subliminal will not be gristfor our

no
wle
ogeat anygiven moment will be a functionoftbe tbresb-
d
l our
available means ofperception. Tbe invention of tbe mi cro
W
-
' N LNLKY 5LmLLLDLY KL5
scope or tbe telescope or ofmeans ofmeasuring time to tbe fractionof
nanosecono or weigbing quantities ofmatter to milliontbs ofa
all sucb improeo oeices ofperception will oisclose wbat was
unpreoictable from tbe leels ofperception tbat we coulo acbiee
tbat oiscoery.
Not only can we not preoict i nto tbe net instant ot tbe fu
but , more profounoly we cannot preoict into tbe net oimension of
microscopic tbeastronomicallyoistant , or tbegeologicallyancient . As
metboo ofperceptionano tbat is all science can claim to b sci
l ike all otber metboos ofperception, is limiteo in its ability to
tbeoutwaroano isible signs ofwbateer may be trutb.
Sciencer/c: i t oes not proe.
Z

F MA S NO F FRROR A F
NAMF S NO F IN NAMFD
bis principle, maoe famous by Alfreo orzybski ,
many leels. t reminos us in a general way tbat wben we tbink ofLlJ
nuts or pigs , tbere are no coconuts or pigs in tbe brai n. ut in a
abstractway, orzybskis statementasserts tbat in all tbougbt orperce
tion or communication about perception, tbere is a transformation,
cooing, between tbe report ano tbe tbng reporteo, tbe tng an :t
Aboeall , tberelation between tbereportanotbatmysterious tbing
porteo tenos to bae tbe nature of a ./a::p.attn, an assignment of
tbing to a class. Naming is always classifyi ng ano mapping is
tiallytbesame as naming.
orzybski was, on tbe wbole, speaking as a pbilosopber,
tempting topersuaoepeopletooisciplinetbeirmanneroftbi nking.
be coulo not win. Vben wecome toapply bis oictumtotbe natural
tory of buman mental process , tbe matter is not quite so simple.
istinction between tbe name ano tbe tbing nameo or tbe map an
territory isperbaps really maoe only by tbeoominant bemispbere of
brai n. be symbolic ano aectie bemispbere, normally on tbe
.
bano sioe, is probably unable tooistinguisb namefrom tbing ame

iscertainly notconcerneo witb tbissortofoistincton. t tberefore

pens tbat certain nonrational types ofbebaior are necessarily prese
nt
buman life. Ve oo in fact , bae two bemispberes an we canno
t
30 M b1 ^ ^b
a
ay
trom
tbat tact. Facb bemrspbere ooes rn tact , operate somewbat
r
tte
rently
trom tbe otber ano wecannotget away trom tbe tanglestbat
J

tterence proposes .
or eample wrtbtbeoomnantbemrspbere we can regaro sucb
a
b ng
s a ag as a sort otname ottbe country or organrzatron tbat rt
reres
nts.
But tbe rrgbt bemr spbere ooes not oraw tbrsorstr nctron ano
r
egaros
tbe
ag as sacramentally roentrcal wrtb wbat t represents. So

lo
lo
ry rs tbe nrteo States . Itsomebooy steps on rt tbe response
ay
be
rage.
Ano tbrs rage wrll not beormnr sbeo by an explanatron ot
a
te
rrrtory relatrons (Atter all tbe man wbo tramples tbe ag rs
e
ually
roentrrng t wrtb tbat tor wbrcb rt stanos. bere wrll always
ano necessarrly be a large number otsrtuatrons rn wbrcb tbe response rs
no guroeo by tbe logcal orstr nctron between tbe name ano tbe tbr ng
nameo.
5 HFRF I O OBFCIF FFRIFCF
All eperrence r ssubjectrve. brs r s onlya smple corollary ota
ornt maoe rn sectron tbat our brarns make tbe rmages tbat we tbrnk
e`ercerve.
It s srgnr cant tbat all perceptronall conscous perceptr on
as rmage cbaracterrstcs A parn rs local zeo somewbere. It bas a
egrnnng ano an eno ano a locatron ano stanos out aganst a back-
grono. besearetbe elementary componentsotanr mage. Vbensome-
y steps on my toe, wbatI experrence r s, not brs steppr ng on my toe
t my ma ot brs stepprng on my toe reconstructeo trom neural
reports reacbr ng my bran somewbat atter brs toot bas lanoeo on mrne.
perrence ottbeexterror r salways meorateo by partrcular sense organs
n neural
patbways . To tbat extent objects are my creatron, ano my
e
p
erre
nce ottbem s subjectrve, not obectrve.
It rs, bowever , not a trrvral assertron to note tbat very tew per-
sns
at
least
rn occroental culture, ooubt tbe obectrvrty otsucb sense
+ata
asp
arn
or tberrvr sual rmagesottbeexternalworlo. Ourcrvlzatron
is
eep
lybaseo on tbs llusron.

` N EVEKY SCHCLBCY KNCWS

TF ROCFSSFS O IMAF ORMATION
ARF NCONSCIOS
This generaliation seems to be true of everything that happens
between my sometimes conscious action of oi recting a sense organ at
some sourceof information ano myconscious action of oeriving informa-
tionfrom animagethat `Iseem tosee , hear feel taste or smell . Fven
a pain is surely a createo image.
Noooubt men ano oonkeys ano oogs are all conscious of listen-
ing ano even of cocking their ears in the oirection of souno. As for
sight , something moving in the periphery of my visual elo will call
'attention (whatever that means so that I shift myeyes ano even my
heao tolook at it . This is often a conscious act , but it is sometimes so
neayautomat cthat tgoesunnoticeo. Often I am conscious otturning
myheao buunaware of theperipheral sighting that causeo me toturn.
The peripheral retina receives a lot of i nformation that remains outsioe
consciousnesspossibly but notcertainlyin imageform.
Ther.c::c: of perception are inaccessible only therda.t: are
conscious ano, of course, it is the prooucts that are necessary The two
general facts rst that I am unconsci ous ofthe process ofmaking the
images which I consciously see ano, secono, that in these unconscious
processes , l use a whole range of presuppositions which become built
into the nisheo imag are for me, the beginning of empirical ep-
temology.
Ofcourse, weall know that the images which we 'see are in-
oeeomanufactureo bythebrainormino. Butto knowthisinanintellec
tualsenseisveryoifferentfromrealizingthat itistrulyso. Thisaspectof
the matter came forcibly to my attention some thirty years ago in New
York, where Aoalbert Ames, r . , was oemonstrating his experiments
on how we enoowour visual images with oepth Ames was an ophthal
mologist who hao workeo with patients who suereo from anisoconia
that i s , they formeo images ofoifferent sizs in the two eyes . This leo
him to stuoy the subjective components of the perception of oepth.
Because this matteris i mportantanoprovioes theverybasisofempiri cal
or experimental epistemology I will narrate my encounter with the
Ames experiments insome otail .
Ameshao theexperiments set up i na large, emptyapartment in
pZ M MMO AMO MATKE

ewYork Ci ty. There were as recal some hftyexperiments Vhen
riveo to see the show was the ony visitor . Ames greeteo me ano
suggesteo that start t the begi nningofthe seuence ofoemonstrati ons
whi le he went back to work for awhi e in a small room rnisheo as an
ofhce. Otherwi se, the apartment containo no furniture except for two
foloing oeck chairs .
I went om one experiment to the next. Fach containeo some
sort of optical illusion affecting the percept on ofoepth. The thesis of
the whole series was that we use hve ain clues to guioe us in creating
the appearance of oepth in the i mages that we create as we look out
through our eyesat the worlo.
The hrst ofthese clues is sie that is the sie ofthe physical
mage on the retina. Ofcourse we canno:cc this image so it woulo be
more exact to say that the hrst clue to oistance is the ang e which the
objectsubtenos at theeye Butinoeeo thi sangleisalsonotvisi b e. The
clue tooistance which i sreporteo on the opticnerveisperhaps hangc tn
ang/c :a/tcnd. The oemonstration ofthis truth was a pair ofballoons
in a oark area. The balloons themselves were equally llumi nateo, but
her ai r couo bepsseo trom one balloon into the other. The balloons
themselves oio not move but as one grew ano the other shrank it ap-
peareo to the observer that the one whichgrew approacheo ano the one
which shrank retreateo. As the air was shifteo from one balloon to the
other ano backagai n, the balloons appeareo to move alternately forwaro
ano back.
The seconocluewas contrast in brightness . Tooemonstrate this
the balloons stayeo the same sie ano ofcourse, oio not really move.
Only the illumi nation changeo shining hrst ononeballoon ano thenon
the other. This alternation ofillumination i ke the alternation in sie,
gavetheballoons theapranceofapproachi nganoretreating n turnas
the light fell hrstonone anothenon the other.
Then the sequence ofexperiments showeo that these two clues
se ano brightness coulo be playeo against each other togivea contra
oiction. The shrinking balloon now always got the more light . This
o s , 8!Ou uVC vtittCH. C s G! tt8C (!uC8 i 8 nt tH 8tzC
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3 N 1V1KY 5L!LLULY K^L5
combined experiment introduced tbe idea tbat some clues are dominant
overotbers.
Tbe totalseuenceotclues demonstrated tbatday included sze
brigbtness overlap binocular parallax, and parallax created by move
mentsottbebead. Ottbese tbemost stronglydominant wasparallaxby
bead moti on
Atter looki ng at twenty or tbirty sucb demonstrati ons was
ready totakea breakandwent to sit in one ottbetolding deckcbairs . t
collapsed underme. earing tbenoi se Ames cameoutt ocbeck tbatall
was well . e tben stayed witb me and demonstrated tbe two tollowing
experiments.
Tbe rst dealt witb parallax (see lossary. On a table perbaps
ve teet long tbere were two obects a pack otLucky Strike cigarettes ,
supported on a slender spike some incbes trom tbe surtace ot tbe table
and a book otpaper matcbes simi larly raised on a spike, at tbe tar end
ottbe table.
Ames bad me stand at tbe near end ot tbe table and describe
wbat saw tbat is tbe location ottbe two objects and bow big tbey
seemed to be. (n Amess experi ments you are always made toobserve
tbe trutb betore being subj ected to tbe illusions . )
Ames tben pointed out t o me tbat tbere was a wooden plank
witb a plain round bole in it set uprigbt at tbeedge ottbe table at my
end so tbat could look tbrougb tbe bole down tbe lengtb ottbe table.
e bad me look tbrougb tbis boleand tell bimwbat saw. Otcourse
tbe two objects still appeared to be wbere knew tbem to be and to be
ottbeir tamiliar sizes.
Lookingtbrougb tbe bole in tbeplank, badlost tbe crow'seye
view ottbe table and was reduced to tbe use ota singleeye. But Ames
suggested tbat could get parallax on tbe objects by sliding tbe plank
sideways .
As moved my eye sideways witb tbe plank tbe image cbanged
totallyas itby magic. Tbe Lucky Strike pack was suddenly at tbe tar
end ottbe table and appeared to beabout twiceas tall and twiceas wide
asanormalpackotcigarettes . ven tbe surtace ottbepaperotwbicbtbe
packwasmadebadcbangedi ntexture. ts small irregularitieswerenow
seemingly larger Tbebook otmatcbs ontbe otberband suddenly ap
54 N N A A\KL
peared to be otdollbouse size and tobe located baltwaydown tbe lengtb
ot
tbe table in tbe position wbere tbe pack otcigarettes bad tormerly
b
een seen to be.
Vbat bad bappened
Tbeanswerwas simple. nder tbe table wbere I could not see
bem tbereweretwoleversorrods tbat moved tbe two objectssideways
as moved tbeplank. Innormal parallax as weall know wbenwelook
ut tom a moving trai n tbe objects close tous appear tobelett bebind
tast tbe cows beside tbe railroad track do not stay to be obsered. Tbe
distant mountains on tbe otber band are lett bebind soslowly tbat in
contrast witb tbe cows tbeyseemalmost to travel witb tbe trai n.
ntbiscase tbelevers undertbetablecaused tbe nearerobj ect to
move along witb tbeobserer. Tbe cigarette pack was made to act asi t
i were tar away tbe book otmatcbes was made to moe as itit were
close by.
In otber words by movng my eye and witb it tbe plank I
created a reversed appearance. nder sucb circumstances tbe uncon-
sciousprocessesotimagetormationmade tbeappropriateimage. Tbe i n-
tomationtrom tbe cigarettepack was readand builtup tobe tbeimage
ota distant pack but tbe begbt ottbe pack still subtended tbe same
ange at tbe eye. Tberetore tbe pack now appeared to be otgiant size.
Tbebookotmatcbes correspondingl y was brougbt seemingly closebut
sill subtended tbe same angle tbat it subtended trom its true loca-
tion. Vbat I created was an image in wbicb tbe book ot matcbes ap-
peared to be baltas tar away and baltits tamiliar size.
Tbe macbinery ot perception created tbe image i n accordance
witb tbe rules otparallax rules tbat were tor tbe hrst time clearly ver-
balized bypainters intbeRenaissance and tbiswboleprocess tbecreat-
ing ottbeimage witb i ts built-inconclusionstrom tbe clues otparallax
bappened uite outside myconsciousness . Tbe rules ottbe universe tbat
we
tbink we knoware deep buried in our processes otpercepti on
pistemology, attbenatural bistorylevel i s mostly unconscious
and
correspondingly dithcult to cbange. Tbe second experiment tbat
mes demonstratd illustrates tbis dithculty otcbange
Tbis experimentbas been called tbetraci/ n tbiscase
mes bad me inspect a large box about hve teet long tbree teet bigb
5 N LNLK` 5L!LLLDL` KL5
and tbree teet deep trom tront to back. Tbe box was otstrange
zoidal sbape, and Ames asked me to examine it caretully in or
e
learn its true sbape and di mensions.
In tbe tront ottbe boxwasa peepbole big enougb tor two
but betore beginning tbe experi ment , Ames bad me put on a pai
prismatic spectacles tbat would corrupt my bi nocular vision. I was
bave tbe subjective presupposi ti on tbat I bad tbe parallax ot two
wben indeed I bad almost nobinocular clues.
VbenI looked i n tbrougb tbe peepbole, tbe i nterior ottbe
appeared to be uite rectangularand was marked out like a room
rectangular wi ndows Tbe true l ines otpaint suggesting wi ndows
ot course, tar trom simple tbey were drawn to give tbe impression
rectangulari ty, contradicti ng tbetrue trapezoidalsbapeottbe room.
side ottbe box toward wbicb I taced wben looking tbrougb tbe LL|
was I knewtrom my earlier inspection obliuelyplaced, so tbat it
rtber trom meat tbe lett end and closer tome on tbe rigbt.
Ames gave me a stick and asked me toreacb i nand toucb
tbe point ot tbe stick a sbeet ot typewriting paper pi nned to tbe
band wall . I managed tbis tai rly easi ly Ames tben sai d, Do you see
similarpiece otpaper on tbe rigbtbandside I want you to bittbat
ond piece ot paper witb tbe stick. Start witb tbe end ot your
against tbe lettband paper , and bit as bard as you can.
I smotebard. Tbeendotmystickmovedaboutan i ncband
bit tbe back ot tbe room and could move no tartber Ames sai d,
agan
triedperbaps tty times , andmyarm begantoacb. knew
course, wbat correction I bad toimpose on mymovement I bad to
i nas I struck in order toavoid tbat back wall . But wbat I was
erned by my image. I was trying to pull against my own
movement . (I suppose tbat itI bad sbut myeyes, I could bave done
ter, but I did not try tbat.
I neverdi dsucceed i nbitting tbe second pieceotpaper, but
terestingly, my pertormance improved. I was nally able to move
stick several i ncbes betore it bit tbe back wall . And a: I ra.tt.e
irca, a.ttn myi mage cbanged togive me a moretrapezoidal
pression ottbe rooms sbape.
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Cac LCX CItC _itC cCLtatLS Ci CCCS LCt cCLtatL SCHC]ait CItC CLCct.
IIcCUiSC, t ItC _itC tS cCaiSC aLC tCCL]Cct SHaII , a VCiy Iai_C aHCULt
CI t LICiHattCL WtII LC ICSt. (Ha_tLC tC caSC tL Wtc tC CLttiC CLCct
tS SHaIICi taL tC _itC ULt t . C CCScit]t tCL WtI tCL cCLStSt CI LCt
HCiC taL ICUi LCi ICSS taL CLC aIh iHattCL, accCiCtL_ tC CW tC
CtVtSt CLS CItC _itC IaII U]CL tC CL]Cct . ) CWCVCi , ttS tS, tL ]itLct]IC,
CW tC aIItCLC LICcKS CI LCWS]a]Ci tIIUStiattCL aiC tiaLSHtttCC Ly
CICctitc tH]UISC aLC, tLCCCC, CW tCICVtStCL WCiKS .
^CtC tat aII tCSC HCtCCS CI CCScit]ttCL cCLtitLUtC LCttL_ tC
aL cx/anattn CI tC CL] CcttC CXa_CiCctaL_IC. X]IaLattCL HUSt
aIWayS _iCW CUt CICCScit]ttCL, LUt tC CCScit]ttCL IiCH Wtc tt _iCWS
WtII aIWayS LCcCSSaitIy cCLtatL aiLttiaiy caiactCitSttcS SUc aS tCSC CX
CH]Ith CC CiC.
. `L^ b_\^Ib / \^I/D
/ccCiCtL_ tC tC ]C]Uai tHa_C CI SctCLcC, CVCiyttL_ tS,
]itLct]IC, ]iCCtctaLIC aLC cCLtiCIIaLC aLC tI SCHC CVCLt Ci ]iCcCSS tS
LCt ]iCCtctaLIC aLC cCLtiCIaLIC tL tC ]iCSCLt StatC CICUi KLCWCC_C , a
U N MIMO ^MO M^T\KE
I t ttIC HUiC KLUWICC_C aLC, CS]CctaI y, a ItttIC HUiC KLUW-HUW WtII CL-
aLIC US tU ]iCCtct aLC cULtiUI tHC WtIC VaitaLICS.
HtS VtCW tS WiUL_, LUt HCiCIy tL CCtatI , LUt tL ]itLct]IC. t tS
CVCL ]USStLIC tU CCLC Iai_C cIaSSCS UI]HCLUHCLa WHCiC ]iCCtcttUL aLC
cULtiUI aiC StH]Iy tH]USStLIC IUi VCiy LaStc LUt qUttC ULCCiStaLCaLIC
iCaSULS . CiHa]S tHC HUSt IaHtItai CXaH]IC UI tHtS cIaSS UI]HCLUHCLa t S
tHC LiCaKtL_ UIaLy SU]CictaIIy HUHU_CLCUUS HatCitaI , SUcH aS _IaSS .
HC DiUWLtaL HUVCHCLt (SCC LIUSSaiy) UIHUICcUICS tL ItqUtCS aLC _aSCS
S StHtIaiIy UL]iCCtctaLI C.
I tHiUW a StULC at a _IaSS WtLCUW, SHaI I , ULCCi a]]iU]itatC
cticUHStaLcCS , LiCaK Ui ciacK tHC _IaSS tL a Stai-SHa]CC ]attCiL. I Hy
StULC HttS tHC _IaSS aS IaSt aS a LUIICt, tt tS ]USStLIC tHat tt WtII CCtacH
IiUH tHC _IaSS a LCat cULtcaI ]IU_ caIICC a .nc )cr:a::tn. IHy StULC tS
tUU SIUW aLC tUU SHaII , Hay Iat I tU LiCaK tHC _IaSS at aII . iCCtcttUL
aLC cULtiUI WtII LC qUttC ]USStLIC at tHtS ICVCI . caL CaStIy HaKC SUiC
WHtcH UI tHiCC iCSUItS (tHC Stai, tHC ]CicUSStUL cULC , Ui LU LiCaKa_C)
SHaI acHtCVC , ]UVtCCC aVUtC Hai_tLaI StiCL_tHS UI tHiUW.
DUt WttHtL tHC cULCtttULS WHtcH ]iUCUcC tHC Stai-SHa]CC LiCaK,
tt WtII LC tH]USStLIC tU ]iCCtct Ui cULtiUI tHC ]atHWayS aLC tHC ]UStttULS
Ul tHC aiHS UI tHC Stai.
IUitUUSIy CLUU_H , tHC HUiC ]iCctSC Hy IaLUiatUiy HCtHUCS, tHC
HUiC UL]iCCtctaLIC tHC CVCLtS WtII LCcUHC. II USC tHC HUSt HUHU_C
CUUS _IaSS aVat IaLI C, ]UItSH ttS SUiIacC tU tHC HUSt CXact U]ttcaI atLCSS ,
aLC cULtiUI tHC HUttUL UI Hy StULC aS ]iCctSCIy aS ]USSt LIC, CLSUitL_ aL
aIHUSt ]iCctSCIy VCittcaI tH]act UL tHC SUiIacC UItHC _IaSS , aII Hy CIIUitS
Wt II ULIy HaKC tHC CVCLtS HUiC tH]USSt LIC tU ]iCCtct .
I, UL tHC UtHCi HaLC, SciatcH tHC SUiIacC UI tHC _IaSS Ui USC a
]tCcC UI _IaSS tHat tS aIiCaCy ciacKCC (WHtcH WUUIC LC cHCattL_) , SHaII
LC aLIC tU HaKC SUHC a]]iUXtHatC ]iCCtcttULS. Ui SUHC iCaSUL (UL-
KLUWL tU HC) , tHC LiCaK tL tHC _aSS WtII iUL ]aiaIICI tU tHC SciatcH aLC
aLUUt l/ l dd UIaL tLcH tU tHC StCC, SU tHat tHC SciatcH HaiK WtII a]]Cai
UL ULIy ULC StCC UI tHC LiCaK

DCyULC tHC CLC UI tHC SciatcH, tHC LiCaK

WtII VCCi UII UL]iCCtctaLy.
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tS
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Li
CaKS . Thc gcnt. uc .an knu. /at thc :c.p. c/ac: a:. bUHC cHatLS aiC
CCSt_LCC tU LiCaK at a cCitatL tCLStUL aLC at a cCitatL ItLK. DUt a _UUC
4 I N NKY 5LLLLULY l^L5
caIL iS CHC_CLCCUS , aLC LC QiCCIctICL IS QCSSILIC

/LC LCcaUSC
caLLCt LCW WIc I L IS WCaCSt , WC caLLCt LCW QiCciSCIy
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lWC Cat a cCai IIqUiC (Say, cICaL CIStIIICC WatCi) I L a
SHCCt LCaCi at Wat QCI Lt WiII tC hiSt LULLIC Cl StCaH aQQC
8
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CSC UCStI CLS aiC ULaLSWCiaLICULICSS tCiC IS a tI Ly
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C
StatC, LC QiCCictICL iS QCSSiLIC aLC LCcaUSC WC caLLCt Say WCC
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VCiy cICaL aLC tC LCaCi VCiy SHCCttCiC WIII LC SCHC
IL_. L tC CLC, tC WatCi WiII LCII . L tC CLC, tCiC WiI aWayS b
dq -r-n.: tat caL SCiVC aS tC LUcCUS lCi tC caL_C. L tC CLd,
SUQCiCatCC IIqUIC WIII h LC tiS Ci CiCLtiatCC SQCt aLC Wi
CXQICSiVCy lCi a lCW HCHCLtS ULtiI tC tCHQCiatUiC IS iCCUcCC tC
iC_UIai LCiIiL_ QCi Lt aQQiCQiiatC tC tC SUiiCULCi L_ LaiCHCtiic
SUiC.
C liCC2IL_ Cl IIqUIC iS SIHI ai, aS IS tC laII L_ CUt Cl
liCH a SUQCiSatUiatCC SCUtiCL. / LUcICUStat I S, a C
QCiLt , Wic IL tC caSC Cla SUQCiSatUiatCC SCIUtICL Hay iLCCCd,
HiciCScCQIc ciyStaIi S LCCCCC lCi tC QiCcCSS tC Stait .
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tWCCL StatCHCLtS aLCUt aL iCCLtih CC ILCiVICUaI aLC StatCHCLtS but
caSS . bUc StatCHCLtS aiC Cl ntgt.a/t,c aLC QiCCictiCL liCH
tC tC CtCi iS aIWayS ULSUiC. C StatCHCLt `C I IqUiC I S LCi i L_ s
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tC _C.
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IStCiy, tC tC QiICSCQy LCi LC CVCIUti CLaiy tCCiy, aLC IL _CLCi
CUi ULCCiStaLCiL_ Cl tC WCiIC IL WIc WC IIVC.
L tC CCiy Cl iStCiy, WaiXiaL Qi ICSCQy, lCIICWi L_
ILSiStS tat tC _iCat HCL WC aVC LCCL tC IStCiic LUcICI lCi
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aIIacC
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yCaiS CaiIICi aS a iCSuIt CI NaIIacCS cCHQaiISCL LCtWCCL tC StCaH
c_ILC WIt a _CVCiLCi aLC tHC QiCcCSS CI LatuiaI SCICctICL. Ii QCiaQS
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HC CC8S CI auCC DCiLiC WHC IL tC atC LI LCtCCLtH cCLtuy, CI ScCV-
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cI-cCiiCctIL_.
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=kes ht:tr, unr-dt.ta//- tnt th-utur-. HC WaiXIaL CiiCi IS a SIHQIC
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NKY 5L!LULY KIL5
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t8St tS
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SUccCSStVC ICVCS t n a USSCItan HtCiaicHy , a attCi tC LC CtSc
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USSCI tan HtCiaicHy aiC C CacH CtHCi HCHt C caSS , cIaSS tC c8
CI cIaSSCS Ci aS tHtn_ naHCC C naHC.
NHat tS tH]CitantaLCUtCtVCi_Cnt
SCOtncCS tS tHat CUiCCSct-
ttCn CI tHCH cCncCinS tndtttdua/:, CS]CctaI y t OtVtCUa HCCcUCS. C
ciacK tn tHC _IaSS, tHC hiSt StC] tn tHC LC_t nDt O CItHC LCt t n_ CIW8tC,
anC aII tHC iCSt aiC caSCS tn WHtcH tHC Ccatt Cn a C tnStant CItHC CVCHttS
CCtCiHtnCC Ly SCHC HCHCntaiy cCnStC att Cn Oa SHaII nUHLCi CItHdt
VtCUaI HCICcUCS. btHtIaiI y, any CCScit]ttCn O tHC ]atHWayS CI t nCtVtd-
Ua HCICcUICS tn DiCWntan HCVCHCnt aICWS nC CXtia]CIattCn. 8t
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tt , WCUC nCt _tVC S
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n cCntaSt , tHC HCVCHCnt CI ]IanCtS t n tHC SCai SyStCH, tC
tiCnC CI a cHCHtcaI iCacttCn tn an iCnIc HtXtOC CI SaI tS , tHC tH]8ct I
LtItaiC LaI I S, WHtcH tnVCIVCS HtIItCnS CI HC UICSaII aiC ]iCCtct8OIC
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iCHCHLCiS tHat HtS StatCHCntS HaVC iCICiCncC ODIy tC a__iC_atCS.
n tHtS SCnSC tHC SC-caIICC aWS CI ]tOaLtItty HCCtatC Lct7CCH
CCScit]ttCnS Cl tHC LCHaVtCi CI tHC tnCtVtCUaI
a OC CCScit]ttCnS CI t8t o
tHC _iCSS ciCWC. NC SHaII SCC IatCi tHat tHtS aittcUIai SCit CI CCHtct
LCtWCCn tHC tnCtVtCUa anC tHC StattSttcaI HaS O__CC tHC CCVC]HCHto
CVCIUttCnaiy tHCCiy IiCH tHC ttHC CI aHaic CnWaiC. I aHatC 8d
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tSttcS CI WHCIC ]C]UIattCnS HC WCUIC HaVC tn tn StC] WttH tHc 8tCSt
CnCttc CX]CitHCntS SUcH aS tHCSC CI NaCCt OtCn Cn _CnCttc 8SSt8
tCn, tC LC CtScUSSCC tn IHa]tCi . DUt aa icK anC, tnCCCC, HtS oI
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CIU_
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I tHat aS I t Hay, tL tHC StCcHaStIc ]iCcCSSCS (SCC LICSSaiy) CI-
thCi
UtI CL Ci CI tHCU_Ht , tHC LCW caL LC ]IUcKCC IiCH LCWHCiC
LU
t tCH. /LC tC ]IUcK tHC LCW IiCH tHC iaLCCH, IIaLC WHCL tt
ha]]C
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cCULt H C CL_CIL_ ]CiSIStCLcC CItHC LCW ICCa. bCHCtHIL_ ItKC natu-
ra/
:c/.. , tL aI ttS tiUtSH aLC taUtCC_y, HUSt CLtaI L. C ]CiSI St tHC
LCW L C CI SUcH a Sit tHat tt WI CLCUiC CL_Ci tHaL tHC atCiLa-
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CL_
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UiaI C L IL a LUtSHCI .
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i_U I aiWI L HaC LCt WiIttCL 1ht 0rtgtn Sc.tc:, SCHCLCCy CSC
CU C ]iCCUcCC a SIHIai LCCK WttHtL tHC LCXt VC yCaiSIS aL
ULICC CIICit tC a]]y a tHCCiy tHat WCUIC VICW SCcta ]iCcCSS aS .n-
1 CLtS tLVCVIL_ ULIQUC HUHaL LCtL_S. HC CiiCi IS, a_aI n,
CC c ty]IL_.
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vhor CIHCCICVa aLC HCiC HCCCiL WISC SaWS . HCSC ILcIUCC.
HC IaW CI tHC cCLSCiVatICL CI HattCi aLC ttS cCLVCiSC, tHat
no n t Ci caL LC CX]CctCC tC HaKC aL a]]CaiaLcC IL tHC aLCiatCiy.
|r StC , `^CtHt L_ caL CVCi LC ciCatCC CUt CI LCtHtL_ Ly CtVtLC
ov *)
HC IaW CItHC cCLSCiVattCL CI CLCi_y aLC ItS cCLVCiSC tHat
no L i y caL LC CX]CctCC IL tHC IaLCiatCiy.
. HC ]itLcI]IC CCHCLStiatCC Ly aStCUi, tHat LC LCW IVI L_
tt. C CX]CctCC tC a]]Cai tL tHC aLCiatCiy.
HC ]itLcI]C tHat LC LCW CiCCi Ci ]attCiL caL LC ciCatCC
v th: io]omattn
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LCaiIy tiUC tat aII CXcCQtiCLS aiC CI CXtiCHC iLtCiCSt .
Nat tS CSCciIIy iLtCiCStiL_ iS iUUCL iL tC iCIattCLS LCtWCcL
tcSc QiCICUL LC_atCLS Ci CXaHQIC WC LCW tCUay tat LCtWcCL tC
cCLSCiVatiCL CI CLCi_y aLU tC cCLSCiatiCL CI HattCi, tCiC iS a LitU_C
WCicly Cac CI tCSC LC_atiCLS iS ttSCII LC_atCU Ly aL tLtCicaL_C CI
HattCi iLtC CLCi_y aLU, QiCSUHaLIy , CICLCi_y iLtC HattCi.
L tC iCSCLt cCLLCctiCL, CWCVCi, i t iS tC IaSt CI tC SCitCS
t t iS CI cicI iLtcicSt , tC QiCQCSitiCL tat iL tC iCaIHS CI cCH-
HULicatiCL, Ci_aLiatiCL, tCU_t , ICaiLi L_, aLU CVCIUtiCL, LCtiL_
WiII CHC CI LCtiL_ WitCUt tattn.
iS IaW UiiS IiCH tC cCLSCiVatiVC IaWS CICLCi_yaLU HaSS t L
tt It cCLtaLS LC CIaUSC tC UCLy tC UCStiUttCL aLU ICSS CItLICiHa-
tiCL QattCiL, Ci L_atiVC CLtiCQy. /IaSLUt aISC LC _IaU CI itQattCiL
aLUCi iLICiHatiCL iS aII tCC CaSiIy CatCL UQ Ly tC iaLUCH. C HCS-
Sa_CS aLU _UiUCIiLCS ICi CiUCi cXiSt CLIy , aS it WCiC, iL SaLU aiC Wiit-
tCL CL tC SUiIaC CWatciS. /IHCSt aLy UiStUiLaLcC, CVCL HCiC DiCWL-
iaL HCVCHCLt, WiII CStiCy tCH. LICiHatiCL caL LC ICi_CttCL Ci
lIUiiU. C cCUC LCCS caL LC ICSt.
C HCSSa_CS cCaSC tC LC HCSSa_CS WCL LCLCUy caL iCaU tCH.
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tcL iL _yQtiaL iCiC_IyQS

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,
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tHCiCUy UCcCHC LCW ILCiHatICL. Dut aIWayS a SuQQIy C iaLGCH aQ-
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tHC iCaIH C CQI_CLCSIS, Ci CHUiyCIC_y, aLG tHC CtHCi tHC iCaH C
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CLtia CIG C I LtCiCSt, WHCSC CIG LaHC WaS .m/j/g
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t StiCSSCS tHC
act tHat CVCiy CHUiyCC_Ica StCQ IS aL act C /.mtng (LiCCK gcnc:t:)
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GCaIIy, CQI_CLCSIS SHCuIG iCSCHUIC tHC GCVCICQHCLt C a cCH-
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IS
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O

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tiLSHISSICL IS CaiCC tC CuiLIL_ LCt tC DA HC QiCcCSS Cl
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.
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tC tHC CVCiQacCC HI LC. Dy iCtuiL tC tHC uLCuiLCC aLC
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* usc thc
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tO b
OntO sOn1c surI.icc Or matrIx Or systcm OI cOrUtnatcs. In thc casc Ol an actual _ thc
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M
N
KY
b[jLL]Y t]b
eaten all tbe meat in tbe cups , be maygo totbe plate ano tbere eat tbe
:aoe nuo/e of pieces of meat tbat be got from tbe cups Tbe biro i s
punisbeo ifbeeats moe meat from tbe plate tban w i ntbecups. Tbis
routine be isable to learn.
ow, tbe question is Is tbe ackoaw counti ng tbe pieces of
meat or is be usingsomealternativemetboo ofioentiing tbe number
ofpieces Tbe experiment bas been carelly oesigneo topusb tbe biro
towaro conting. is actions are interrupteo by bis baving to l ift tbe
lios , ano tbe sequence bas been rtber conseo by baving some cups
contain more tban one piece omeat ano some contain none. By tbese
oevices, tbe experimenter bas trieo to make it impossibe for tbe ack-
oa tocreatesomesortofpatternor rbytbm bywbicb to recognize tbe
number oftbe pieces ofmeat. Tbe biro is tbus forceo, so far as tbe ex
peri menter coulo force tbe matter, tocount tbe pieces ofmeat.
It is stillconceivabe, ocourse , tbattbetaingoftbemeatfrom
tbe cups becomessomesortofrbytbmicoance ano tbat tbisrbytbmi si n
some way repeateo wben tbe biro takes tbe meat rom tbe plate Tbe
matteris sti l l conceivaby in ooubt, but on tbe wbole, tbe experimenti s
ratberconvincing i nfavoroftbebypotbesis tbattbe ackoaw iscounting
tbepieces ofmeat ratber tban recognizinga pattern eitberofpieces orof
bis own actions .
It is interesting to ook at tbe biological worlo in terms of tbi s
uestion Sboulo tbe vrious i nstances in wbicb number is exbibiteo be
regaroeoasi nstancesofgestalt , ofcounteo number, or omerequantity
Tere isa ratber conspicuousoierence between, forexampl e, tbe state
ment Tbis single rose bas hvepetals , ano it bs ve sepals, ano inoeeo
its symmetry is ofa pentao pattern` ano tbe statement 'Tbis rose bas
one bunoreo ano twelve stamens, ano tbat otber bas ninety-seven, ano
tbis bas only sixty-four . Tbe process wbicb controls tbe number of
stamens is surely oierent from tbe process tbat controls tbe number o|
petals or sepals . no, interestingly, in tbe oouble rose, wbat seems to
bave bappeneo istbat someoftbestamens bave been converteoi ntopet
als , so tbat tbe process for oetermining bow many petals to make bas
nw become, not tbe norma process oelimiting petals to a pattern o
e but more i e tbe process oetermining tbequanttt, ofstamens. Ve
ay say tbat petas are normally ve in tbe singe rose but tbat
50 N MlO AO AKE
stamens are many where many` isa quantity that will varyfrom one
rose to another.
Vi th this oifference in mino, we can look at the biological
worlo ano ask what is the largest number that the processes ofgrowth
can hanole as a xeo pattern, beyono which the matter is hanoleo as
quantity. o far asI know, the `numbers` two, three, four ano h veare
the common ones in the symmetryofplants anoanimals, particularly in
raoial symmetry.
The reaoer may no peasure in colecting cases ofrigioy con
trolleo or patterneo numbers in nature. for some reason, the larger
numbers seem to be conneo to l i near series ofsegments, such as the
vertebrae ofmammals, the aboominal segments of insects, ano the an
terior segmentation ofearthworms. (t the front eno, thesegmentation
isratherrigiolycontrolleooowntothesegmentsbearinggenitalorgans .
The numbersvarywiththe species but may reach hfteen. fterthat, the
tailhas ' many segments. ) n interestingaooition to these observations
is the common circumstance that an organism, having chosen a number
for the raoialsymmetryofsome set ofparts, will repeat that number i n
other parts. l i l y has three sepals ano then three petals ano then six
stamens anoa trilocularovary.
t appears that what seemeo to be a quirk or pecuiarity of
human operationnamely, that we cioental humans get numbers by
counting or pattern recognition while we get quantities by meaure
mentturns out to be some sort ofuniversal truth. ot only the ack
oawbutalsotheroseareconstraineotoshowthatfor them, too for the
rose in itsanatomyanoforthe ackoaw initsbehaviorano, ofcourse, in
its vertebral segmentation there is this profouno oiherence between
numbers anoquantity.
Vhat ooes this mean That question i s very ancient ano cer-
tai
nly
goes back toythagoras, whoissaio tohaveencountereo a similar
reg
ularity in the relationbetweenharmonics
The hexago-rectangle oiscusseo in section ; provioes a means of
os
ing
these questions Ve saw, in that case, that the components of
oes
cription coulo be quite various. In that particular case, to attach
orevalioityto one rather than toanotherua, e)gantztng theoescrip
t
io
n
woulo be to noulge illusion. But in this matter of biological
W
" I M LNLbY b[1LLLLY tLb .
numbers an

antities, it seems tbat we encounter soetbi n

profouno.
biscaseoiherfromtbat oftbebexagorectangl e
so, bow
I
S
tbat neitber case is as triia as tbe probles
bexagorect seemeo to be at hrst sigbt. Ve go back to tb
eritiesofSugustine Listentotbetbunoeroftbat sai nt , i n
^. L. ` 5 are !, 7 ano bae aways been !, ano
timeano in

ay bae eer been anytbingbut !, 7 ano 5 will

be !. *
o t i n asserting tbecontrast between numbers an
tities I am e to asserting an eternal erity, ano Auusti ne
surely agre
ut an reply to tbe saint, Yes, ery true. Butis tbat
wbat you ;_ no mean to say It isalsotrue, surely, tbat5 an
I, ano tha` o ano are !, anotbat ano ano I ano !
ano l ano ! ano ! ano are 0. In fact, tbe eternal eri
you are tr to assert is mucb more general ano profouno tb
special case by you to carry tbat profouno message. Bt
agree tbat ore abstract eterna eritywi llbeoifhcul ttosta
unambiguo

ecision.
In woros, itispossibletbat manyoftbewaysofoes
mybexagogle coulo beonyoherent surcings oftbe sa
profouno a: ore general tautology (wbere Fuclioean geo
ieweo as ological system).
t i bink, correct to say not only tbat te arious b
of tbe oen of tbe bexago-rectangle ultimately agree abo
tbe oescri tbougbt tbey saw but also tbat tbere is an a
about a ore general ano profouno tautology in ters of
tbeariousriptions are organizeo.
Intense tbeoistinctionbetweennumbers ano quanti
beliee iial ano is sbown to be so by tbe anatomy oft
witb its `

tals ano its 'many stamens, ano I bae put c

marks int oescription oftbe rose to suggest tbat tbe naes c
numbers a f tbe quantities are tbe surfaci ng of formal i oes ,
manent t tbegrowing rose.
uOcd ,cn mLu!!h tn Eodimot: Miod (Lrigc. m rcss, I9651.
5 ^L ^b

NTITY DOFS NOT DFTFRMINF TTFRN

t
is
im
pos
sible, inprinciple, to explainanypattern byinvoing

qu
a
ntit
y.
But note thata ra!/c !u ! au!/!t: is alreaoy

e
.
e
in
ni
ng
of
pattern. In other woros , quantty ano pattern are of
th
c
g
t
lo
gical
type anooo not reaoily ht together in the same thin-
i
er
en

.
at app
ears tobe a genesis ofpattern by quantityariseswhere
thc
att
ern
was
latent before the quantity hao impact on the system.
hc

fa
i
ar
case s that of tension whi ch
wi l l brea a chan at the

est
lin
. no
er change ofa quantity, tension, a
latent oiherence i s
ac

anifest or, asthe photographers woulo say, oevelopeo. The oe-

ent
ofa photogaphi c negative is precisely the maing manifest
0
lt
ent
oifferences laio oown in thephotographicemulsion byprevious
erential exposure to light.
agine a islano with two mountains on i t. quantitative
nge, a rise in the level ofthe ocean may convert this single islano
nt two islanos. This will happen at the point where the level ofthe
n rises higher than the saoole between the two mountains gai n,
alitative pattern was latent before the quantity hao impact oni t
an hen the pattern changeo, the change was suooen ano oiscontin
u0ut
Thereisastrong tenoency inexplanatoryprose toinvoe quanti

ftension,
energy, ano whatnot to explain the genesis ofpattern.
l
ieve
that all such explanations are inappropriate or wrong. from the
nt f view
of any agent who imposes a quantitative change, any
an

fattern which may occur will be unpreoictable oroi vergent.

T
FRF
RF NO MONOTONF 'LFS

OLOY

o
notone value is one that either only increases or only oe
t
ts
cur
ve has no ins that i s, its curve never
changes from
[

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8cu88CO tn 8CmC OCtai iJtCr, C8QCctaly in thC

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,['
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EYE[
Y b[1LLLLY tLb
increase to oecrease or vice versa. Desireo substances , tbings , patterns ,
or sequences of experience tbat are in some sense 'gooo` for tbe
organismitems ofoiet , conoitionsoflife, temperature, entertainment ,
sex, ano so fortbare never sucb tbat more oftbe sometbing is always
better tban less of tbe sometbing. Ratber for all obj ects ano experi-
ences , tbere isa quantity tbat bas optimum value. Above tbat quantity,
tbevariable becomes toxic Tofal l below tbat value istobeoepriveo.
Tbis cbaracteristic ofbiological value ooes not bolo for money.
Money is always transitively valueo. More money is supposeoly always
better tban less money. for example, , 00 is to be preferreo to
, 000. But tbis is not so for biological values. More calcium is not
always better tban less calcium Tbere is an optimum quantity of cal
cium tbat a given organism may neeo in its oiet. Beyono tbi s, calcium
becomes toxic. Similarly, for oxygentbatwe breatbe orfooos orcompo-
nentsofoiet anoprobably all componentsofrelationsbip, enougb isbet
ter tban a feast Ve can even bave too mucb psycbotberapy. A rela
tionsbip witb nocombat in it isoull , ano a relationsbip witb too mucb
combat i n i t is toxic. Vbat isoesirable isa relationsbipwitb a certain
optimum ofcon ict. t is even possible tbat wben we consioermoney
not by itself, but as acting on buman bei ngs wbo own it, we may h no
tbatmoney, too, becomes toxic beyono acertainpoint Inany case, tbe
pbilosopby ofmoney, tbe setofpresuppositions bywbicbmoneyi ssup-
poseoly better ano better tbe more you bave of it, is totally an
tibiological . It seems, nevertbeless, tbat tbis pbilosopby can be taugbt
toliving tbi ngs
. SOMFTIMFS SMALL IS BFATIfL
erbaps novariable brings tbeproblemsofbeingalivesovivioly
anoclearlybeforetbeanalyst's eyed ooes size Tbe elepbant isaficteo
witb tbe problems of bigness tbe sbrew, witb tose ofsmallness But
for eacb, tbere is an optimum size. Tbe elepbant woulo not bebettero
if be were mucb smaller, nor woulo tbe sbrew be relieveo by bein
mucb bigger. Ve may say tbat eacb isat.tcd to tbe size tbat s.
Tbereare purely pbysicalproblems ofbignessorsmallness , prob
lems tbat ahect tbe solarsystem, tbebrioge, ano tbewristwatcb. But i n
5 M mI AI IA\X
ao
oitiontotbese tbere areproblems special toaggregates ofliving mat-
ter, wbetber tbese be single creatures or wbole cities.
Let rst loo at tbe pbysical . roblems ofmecbanicaltn:ta/t/-
,
arise because for eample, tbe forces of gravity oo not follow tbe
samequantitative regularities d tboseofcobesion. largecloo ofeartb
s
easiertobreabyoroppingi ton tbegrouno tban isa small one. Tbe
lacier grows ano tberefore, partly melting ano partly breaing, must
beg n a cbangeo existence in tbe form ofavalancbes smaller units tbat
must fall off tbe larger matrix. Conversely , even in tbe pbysical uni
verse, tbe very small may become unstable/c.au:c tbe relation between
srface area ano weigbt is nonlinear. Ve brea up any material wbicb
we wsb tooissolvebecausetbesmallerpiecesbaveagreater ratioofsur-
face to volume ano will tberefore give more access to tbe solvent. Tbe
larger lumps will be tbe last to oisappear. no so on
To carry tbese tbougbts overintotbe morecompl exworlo ofl iv
ing tbings , a fablemaybe oereo
W
t A C t LYL tLKb
hcy say thc ^OOcI pcOpIc arc sttII cmOarrasscd whcnanyOOdy mcnIOns
pOIypIOtd hOrscs. AnyhOw, !r. . \. OsII, thc grcat LrcwhOnIan gcnc-
ttctst, gOt hts prIzc In thc Iatc IV8Us IOr IggItng wIth thc !^A OI thc
cOmmOn cart hOrsc (qaaJ ru/uHa ) . t was saId that hc madc a grcat
cOntrIOutIOn tO thc thcn ncw scIcncc OI transpOrtOIOgy. At any atc, hc
gOt hIs prIzc IOr lnO Othcr wOrd wOuId Oc gOOd cnOugh IOr a
pIccc OIappItcd scIcncc sO ncarIy usurpIng thc rOIc OIdcItyrcatIng,
say, a hOrsc prcctscIy twIcc thc sIzc OI thc OrdInary IydcsdaIc. t was
twtcc as IOng, twIcc as high, and twIcc as thIck. t was a pOIypIOid,
wIth IOur tImcs thc usuaI numOcr OI chrOmOsOmcs.
. \. OsIIaIways cIaImcd that thcrc was a tImc , whcn thIs wOndcrIuI
anImaI was sttII a cOI t, whcn It was aOIc tO stand On Its IOur Icgs . A
wOndcrmI sIght It must havc Occn' Dut anyhOw, Oy thc tImc thc hOrsc
wa shOwn tO thc puOIIc and rccOrdcd wtth aII thc cOmmuntcatIOnaI
dcvtccs OImOcrn cIvIItzattOn, thc hOrsc was nOt dOIng any standtng. n
a wOrd, tt was tee hm:. t wcIghcd, OIcOursc, cIght ttmcs as much a a
nOrma LlydCdac.
Or a puOIIc shOwtng and IOr thc mcdIa, !r. OsIIaIways I nsIstcd On
turnIng Ohthc hOscs that wcrc cOnttnuOusIy ncccssary tO kccp thc Ocast
55 M EVEKY HCCLCY bILb .
at nOrmaI mammaItan tcmpcraturc. Dut wc wcrc aIways aIratd that thc
tnncrmOst parts wOud Ocgtn tO cOOk. AItcr aII thc pOOr Ocast`s sktn
and dcrmaI Iat wcrc twtcc as thtck as nOrmaI , and tts surIacc arca wa
OnIy IOur ttmcs that OIa nOrmaI hOrsc, sO tt dtdnt cOOI prOpcrIy.
Lvcry mOrntng, thc hOrsc had tO Oc ratscd tO tts Icct wtth thc atd Ot
smaII cranc and hung tn a sOrt OI OOx On whccs, tn whtch tt was sus I
pcndcd On sprtngs, ad]ustcd tO takc haII tts wctght OIItts cgs.
!r. OstIuscdtOcIatm that thcanImaI was OutstandtngIy tntcItgcnt.
had, OI cOursc, ctght ttmcs as much Oratn (Oy wctght as any Othcr '
hOrsc, Out cOuId ncvcr scc that tt was cOnccrncd wtth any gucsttOn
mOrc cOmpIcx than thOsc whtch tntcrcst Othcr hOrscs . t had vcry Itttc
Ircc ttmc what wtth Onc thtng and anOthcraIways panttng , partIy tO
kccp cOOI and party tO Oxygcnatc tts ctght-ttmcs OOdy. ts wtndptpc,
aItcr aI I , had OnIy IOur ttmcs thc nOrmaI arca OIcrOss sccttOn.
And thcn thcrc was ttng. 5OmchOw tt had tO cat , cvcry day c_ht
tmcs thc amOunt that wOuId sattsIy a nOrmaI hOrsc and had tO push a
that IOOd dOwn an csOphagus OnIy IOur ttmcs thc caItOcr OIthc nOma .
hc OI vcsscIs , tOO, wcrc rcduccd tn rcIativc sizc, and ths madc
ctrcuIattOn mOrc dtIhcuIt and put cxtra stratn On thc hcart.
A sad Ocast
Tbefablesbows wbatinevitablybappenswbentwoormorevar
ables wbose curves are oiscrepant interact. Tbat is wbat proouces te
i nteraction between cbange ano tolerance. for instance graoual growt
ina population, wbetberofautomobiles or ofpeople, bas noperceptib

effect upon a tansportation system until:uddcn/, tbe tbresbolo oftoler

ane is passeo ano tbe trafhc ams . Tbe cbanging ofone variableexpose

a critical value oftbe otber.

Ofall sucb cases, tbe best known tooay is tbe bebavior of
sionable material in tbe atom bomb. Tbe uranium occurs in nature an
i s continually unoergoing ssion, but no explosion occurs because n
cbain reaction is establisbeo. Facb atom, as it brks , gives off neutron

tbat , if tbey bi t anotber uranium atom may cause hssion, but man

neutrons are merely lost. nless tbe lump ofuranium isofcritical sie
an average ofless tban one neutron from cb hssion will brk aote
atom, ano tbe cbain will owinol e. ftbe lump is maoe bigger , a lar
e
fractionoftbeneutrons will bit uranium atoms tocausehssion. Tepr
cess will tben acbievepositiveexponentialatn ano becomeanexplosi
on
J M MIMO AMO MAKE
n thc casc Ol thc magnary hOrsc, cngth, surlacc arca, and
vO
umc
Or mass bccOmc dscrcpant bccausc thcr curvcs Ol tncrcasc
ha
vc
mutua
y nOnncar charactcrtstcs . 5urlacc vartcs a thc sguarc Ol
cn
yth
vOumc vartcs as thc cubc Olcngth, and surlacc varcs as thc
Owcr
OlvOumc.
Or thc hOrsc (and lOr a rca crcaturcs) , thc mattcr bccOmcs
m
c
scrOus bccausc tO rcman avc, many ntcrna mOtOns must bc
m
a n
tancd. hcrc s an ntcrna Ogstcs Ol bOOd, lO, Oxygcn, and
cxcr
ctOry prOducts and a Ogstcs OlnlOrmatOn n thc lOrm Ol ncura
and
hOrmOna mcssagcs.
hc harbOr pOrpOsc, whtch ts abOut thrcc lcct Ong, wtth a
a
ckct
Ol bubbcr abOut Onc nch thck and a surlacc arca Ol abOut sx
suarc lcct has a knOwnhcatbudgct thatbaanccs cOmlOrtaby n Arcttc
watcrs . hc hcat budgct Ol a bg wha c, whch ts abOut tcn tmcs thc
cngth Olthc pOrpOsc ( . c. , 000 tmcs thc vOumc and 00 tmcs thc
srlacc) wtth a bubbcrackct ncary twcvc nchcs thck, s tOtaymys-
trOus . rcsumaby, thcy havc a supcrOr Ogstc systcm mOvng bOOd
thrOugh thc dOrsa ns and ta hukcs , whcrc a cctaccans gct rd Ol
hcat .
hc lact Ol grOwth adds anOthcr Ordcr Ol cOmpcxty tO thc
prObcms Olbgncss n vng thngs. grOwth atcr thc prOpOrtOns
Olthc Organsm: hcsc prObcms Olthc mtatOn OlgrOwth arc mct tn
vcry dllcrcnt ways by tcrcnt crcaturcs.
A stmpc casc s that Ol thc pams, whch dO nOt adust thcr
gtrth tO cOmpcnsatc lOr thcr hcght An Oak trcc wth grOwng tssuc
(cmbum) bctwccn ts wd, and ts bark gws tn cngth and wtdth
t
hrOu
ghOu ts lc. Dut a cOcOnutpa m, wOsc Ony grOwng tssuc s at
thc apcx Olthc trunk thc sOcacd mOnarcs saad, wh ch can Ony
bc gOt at tc prcc Ol kng thc pam) , smpy gcts tacr and tacr,
th
sOmc sOw ncrcasc Ol thc bOc at ts bac. Or th s Organtsm thc

t
atOn Olhcght s smpy a nOrmapart Ol tts adaptattOn tOa ntchc.
hc s
hccr
mcchanca nstabtty Ol cxccssvc hcght wthOut cOmpcnsa-
tO
n tn
grth prOvtdcs ts nOrma way Ol dcath.
Nany pants avOd (Or sOvc:) thcsc prObcms Ol thc m tatOn Ol
g
rO
wth by nkng thcr lc-span tO thc cacndar Or tO thcr Own rcprO-
d

tv
c cycc. Annuas start a ncw gcncratOn cach ycar, and pants kc
t
hc
sO
-cacd ccntury pant yucca) may vc many ycars bu , kc thc
W
" M EYEKY SCCCCY KMWS . .
'
'

salmon, inevitablyoie wben tbey reproouce. Fxceptfor multiplebrancb-

ing witbin tbe owering beao, tbe yucca makes no brancbes. Tbe
brancbing i norescence itself is its terminal stem wben tbat bas com-
pleteoitsnction, tbeplantoies. Itsoeatb isnormaltoitswayoflife.
mong some bigber animals, growtb i scontrolleo. Tbe creature
reacbes a size or age or stage at wbicb growtb simply stops i . e. , is
stoppeo by cbemical or otber messages witbin tbe organization of tbe
creature . Tbecells, unoercontrol , cse togrowanooivioe. Vbencon-
trols no longer operate by failure to generate tbe message or failure to
receive it, tbe result is cancer. Vbereoo sucb messages originate, wbat
triggers tbeir senoing, ano in wbat presumably cbemical cooe are tbese
messages immanent Vbat controls tbe nearly perfect external bilateral
symmetry of tbe mammalian booy Ve bave remarkably little knowl-
eoge oftbemessagesystemtbatontrolsgrowtb. Tberemust bea wbole
i nterlocking system as yet scarcely stuoieo.
5 LOIC IS OOR MODFL Of CSF ND
FffFCT
Veuse tbe same woros totalkaboutlogicalsequencesanoabout
sequencesofcause anoeHect . Ve say, I)Fuclio' soehnitionsanopostu
lates are accepteo, thcn two triangles baving tbree sioes oftbe one equal
to tbree sioes oftbe otberareequaleacb to eacb. no we say, 'I)tbe
temperature falls below , thcn tbewater begins tobecome ice .
But tbe . . . thcn of logic i ntbe syllogism i s very oiHerent
from tbe . . thcn ofcause ano eHect.
In a computer, wbicb works by causeano eHect , witb one tran
sistor triggering anotber, tbe sequences of cause ano eHect are useo to
:tu/atc logic. Tbirtyyears ago, weuseotoask Canacomputersimulate
a// tbe processes of logic Tbe answer ws yes, but tbe question was
surelywrong. Ve sboulobaveaskeo Can logic simulateall sequences of
cause ano effect no tbe answer woulo bave been no.
Vbentbesequencesofcauseanoeffect becomecircularormore
complex tban circular , tben tbe oescription or mapping of tbose
sequences onto timeless logic becomes selfcontraoictory. araooxes are
generateo tbatpure logic cannot tolerate. noroinarybuzzercircuitwill
serve as an example, a single instance of tbe apparent paraooxes gen
A J
lturc
erateo i na million cases ofbomeostasis tbrougbout biology. Tbe buzer
circuit (see figure is so riggeo tbat current will passarouno tbe cir
cuit wben tbe armature makes contact witb tbe electrooeatz. But tbe
passage ofcurrent activates tbe electroagnet tbat will oraw tbe arma-
tureaway, breakingtbecontact atz. Tbe current will tbencease topass
arouno tbe circui t , tbe electmagnet will become inactive, ano tbe
armature will return makecontactatz ano repeat tbe cycle.
lowing
Ifwe spell out tbis cycleonto a causalsequence, we get tbe fol
Ifcontact ismaoeatz, tbentbemagnet isactivateo.
Iftbe magnet is activateo, tben contact atz is broken.
IfcontactatA i sbroken, tben tbe magnet i sinactivateo.
Ifmagnet is inactivateo, tben contact is maoe.
Tbis sequence is perfectly satisfactory provioeo it is clearly unoerstooo
tbat tbe . . . thcn unctures are .au:a/. But tbe bao pun tbat woulo
move tbes anothcns over into tbe worlo oflogic will create bavoc
Iftbe contact ismaoe, tben tbe contact is broken.
IfP, tben not P
Tbe . . . thcn ofcausalitycontainsttc, buttbe . . thcn
of
log
i c is timeless . It follows tbat logic is an i ncomplete mooel of
ca

sality.
W
" N EYEKY SCHCLBCY KMCWS .
ASALIT DOFS OT VOR BAVARD
Logic can o|ten be reverseo, but tbe e||ect ooes not preceoe tbe
cause Tbis generaliation bas been a stumbling block |or tbe psycbo-
logicalano biological sciencessincetbetimes o|latoanoAristotle. Tbe
reeks were inclineo to believe in wbat were later calleona/ causes.
Tbey believeo tbat tbe pattern generateo at tbe eno o| a sequence o|
events coulo be regaroeo as in some way causal o|tbe patbway|olloweo
by tbat sequence. Tbis leo to tbe wbole o|teleology, i t was calleo
(tc/e: meaning tbe eno or purpose o|a sequence .
Tbeproblem wbicb con|ronteo biological tbi nkers was tbeprob-
lem o| aoaptation. It appeareo tbat a crab bao claws in oroer to bolo
tbi ngs . Tbe oi|hcultywas always in arguing backwaro |rom tbepurpose
o|clawstotbecausationo|tbeoevelopment o|claws . foralong time, it
was consioereo beretical in biology to believe tbat claws were tbere
/c.au:c tbeywere use|ul . Tbis belie|containeo tbe teleological |allacy, an
inversiono|causality i ntime.
Lineal tbinking will always generate eitber tbe teleological |al -
lacy(tbat enooeterminesprocessortbemytbo|some supernaturalcon-
troll i ng agency.
Vbat is tbecase istbat wbencausalsystems become circular (a
matter to be oiscusseo in bapter , a cbange in any part o|tbe circe
can be regaroeo .au:c |or cbange at a later time in any variable any-
wbere in tbe circl e. It tbus appears tbat a rise in tbe temperature o|tbe
room can be regaroeo tbe cause o|tbe cbange in tbe switcb o| tbe
tbermostat ano, alternatively, tbat tbe action o| tbe tbermostat can be
regaroeo as controlling tbe temperature o|tbe room.
LAAF OMMOLY STRFSSFS OLY OF
SIDF Of AY ITFRATIO
Ve commonly speak as tbougb a single tbing` coulo bave`
some cbaracteri sti c. A stone, we say, is baro, ` smal l , ` beavy, ` yel-
low, ` oense, ` |ragile, `bot , ` moving, ` stationary, ` visible, ` eo-
ible, `i neoible, ` ano so on.
Tbat is bow our language is maoe Tbe stone isbaro. ` Ano so
O M mI AI IAX

`" .
on. no that way oftalking is gooo enough for the marketplace That
isa new brano. The potats are rotten. The eggs are fresh The
container is oamageo. The oiamono is aweo. pouno ofapples is
enough. no soon.
But this way oftalking is not gooo enough in science or epis-
temology. To think straight , it is aovisable to expect all qualities ano
attributes, aoectives, ano so on to refer to at least twe sets ofi nterac
tions in time.
'The stone is haro means a that when pokeo it resisteo pene
tration ano b that certain continual interactions among the molecular
art: ofthe stone in some waybono theparts together.
'The stone is stationary comments on the location ofthe stone
relative to the location ofthe speaker ano other possiblemoving things .
It also comments on matters internal tothe stone i ts i nertia, lack ofin-
ternal oistortion, lackoffriction at the surface, anoso on.
Language continually asserts by the syntax ofsubect anopreoi
cate that things somehow have qualities ano attributes . more
precise way oftalking woulo insist that the things are proouceo, are
seen separate from otherthings, ano are maoe real bytheirinter
nal relations ano by theirbehavior in relationship with other thi ngs ano
with the speaker.
It is necessary to be quite clear about the universal truth that
whatever things may be in their pleromatic ano thingish worlo, they
canonlyentertheworloofcommunicationanomeaningbytheirnames,
their qualities ano theirattributes (i . e. , by reports oftheir i nternal ano
external relations ano i nteractions
. STA8IITY ano 'CANF DFSBF RTS Of
OR DFSRITIOS
Inotherparts ofthis bk, the woro:ta//c ano also, necessarily,
the woro chanc wil l become very important . It i stherefore wiseto ex-
a
ine these woros now in the i ntroouctory phase of our task. Vhat
tra
ps oo these woros contain or conceal
Sta//c is commonly useo as an aoective applieo to a thing.
ch
emical compouno, house, ecosystem, or government is oescribeo
6I M LNLbY tLLLY bILb . . .
stable. Itwe pursue tbis matter rtber, we sball be tolo tbat tbe stable
obectisuncbangingunoertbe impactorstress otsomeparticularexter-
nal or internal ariable or perbaps, tbat it resists tbe passage ottime.
Itwestart toinestigatewbatliesbebinotbisuseot:ta/t/tt,, we
sball hno a wioe range otmecbanisms. At tbe simplest leel we bae
simplepbysical baroness or iscosity, qualitiesoescriptieotrelatons o
impact between tbe stable obect ano some otber. At more complex
leels tbe wbole mass ot interlocking processes calleo /t)c may be in-
oleo inkeeping our obect ina:tatc :) .hanc tbat can maintain some
necessary constants sucb as booy temperature, blooo circulation blo
sugar or een lite itselt.
Tbeacrobaton tbebigb wiremaintains bis stabilitybycontinua
correction otbis imbalance
Tbesemorecomplexexamples suggest tbat wben weuse:ta/t/tt,
i ntalkingabout liing tbings or seltcorrectiecircuits, we sboulo)::
thccxa/c:)the cnttttc: a/:ut wht.h wc arc ta/ktn. for tbeacrobat on tbe
bigb wire bis orber socalleo `balance` is i mportant so tor tbe mam
malian booy, is its temperature. ` Tbe cbanging state ottbese i mpor
tant ariables trom moment to moment is reporteo in tbe com
munication networks ottbe booy. To tollow tbe example ottbe entit
we sboulo oehne stability` always by reterence to tbe :n:tn truth c/
::c d.rtttic r:::ttt:n. Tbe statement Tbe acrobat is on tbe big

wire` continues to be true unoer impact ofsmall breezes ano ibration

ottbewire. Tbis `stability` is tbe resultotconti nual cbanges in oescrp
tions ot tbe acrobats posture ano tbe position otbis or ber balancin
g

pole.
It tollows tbat wben we talk about liing entities statement

about `stability` sboulo always be labeleo by reterence to some oescrip
tieproposition so tbat tbe typing ottbe woro :ta//c, maybeclear. V
sball see later especially in Cbapter , tbatOj oescriptie propositi
o
is to be cbaracterizeo accoroing to logical typing otsubect , preoica
te

ano context.
Similarly, all statements about cbange require tbe same sort
precision. Sucb protouno saws as tbe frencb P/u: a .hanc, /u: .c:t
c .h::c owe tbeir wi seacre wisoom to a muooling otlogical types.

Vbat cbanges` ano wbat stays tbe same` arebotb ottbem oescripti
propositions but ofoierent oroer
5Omc cOmmcnt On thc st OlprcsuppOstOns cxamncd n ths
ch
a
ptcr
s cacd lOr. rst Ol a , thc st s n nO scnsc cOmpctc, and
th
cr
c s nO suggcst On that such a thng a cOmpctc st Olvcrtcs Or
g
cn
cra tcs cOuId bc prcparcd. s t cvcn a charactcrstc Olthc wOrd n
vh
ch
wc vc that such a st shOud bc hntc:
n thc prcparatOn Ol ths chaptcr , rOughy anOthcr dOzcn can-
d
datcs lOr ncusOn wcrc drOppcd, and a numbcr Ol Othcrs wcrc rc-
m
O
vcd
lrOm ths chaptcr tO bccOmc ntcgratcd parts Ol Lhaptcrs , ,
an
d ` .
Owcvcr, cvcn wth ts ncOmpctcncss, thcrc arc a numbcr Ol
pOs
sbc cxcrcscs that thc rcadcr mght pcrlOrm wth thc st .
rst , whcn wc havc a st thc natura mpusc Ol thc sccntst s
tO
start
cassng Or Ordcrng ts mcmbcrs. hs havc party dOnc,
brcakng thc st ntO lOur grOups n whch thc mcmbcrs arc nkcd
tOgcthcr n varOus ways . t wOud bc a nOntrva cxcrcsc tO st thc
ways n whch such vcrtcs Or prcsuppOst Ons may bc cOnncctcd . hc
grOupng havc mpOscd s as lOOws
A hrst custcr ncudcs numbcrs ! tO ` , whch sccm tO bc rcatcd
aspccts Olthc ncccssary phcnOmcnOn OlcOdng. crc , lOr cxampc, thc
prOpOstOn that sccncc ncvcr prOvcs anythng s rathcr casy rccOg-
nzcd as a synOnym lOr thc dstnctOn bctwccn map and tcrrtOry bOth
lOOw lrOm thc Amcs cxpcrmcnts and thc gcncrazatOn Olnatura hs-
tOry that `thcrc s nO Ob cctvc cxpcrcncc.
t s ntcrcstng tO nOtc that On thc abstract and phOsOphca
sdc ths grOup Ol gcncrazatOns hs tO dcpcnd vcry cOscy On sOmc-
t
hng kc Lccams razOr Or thc ruc OlparsmOny. thOut sOmc such
tmatc crtcrOn, thcrc s nO utmatc way Ol chOOsng bctwccn Onc
hypOthcss and anOthcr. hc crtcrOn lOund ncccssary s Ol smpcty
t
cOmpcxty. Dut aOng wth thcsc gcncrazatOns stands thcr cOn-
nctOn w th ncurOphysOOgy, Amcs cxpcrmcnts, and thc kc. Lnc
Ondcrs mmcdatcy whcthcr thc matcra On pcrccptOn dOcs nOt gO
aOng wth thc mOrc phOsOphca matcra bccausc thc prOccss Olpcr-
cptOn Ontans sOmcthng kc an Lccams razOr Or a crtcrOn Olpars-
Ony. hc
dscussOn OlwhOcs and parts n numbcr ` s a spcng Out
O
l
a
cOm
mOn lOrm Ol translOrmatOn that Occurs n thOsc prOccsscs wc

e:.rt
tt:n
.
u
mbcrs , , and B lOrm a sccOnd custcr, dcang wth gucs
t

ns
Ol
thc
randOm and thc Ordcrcd. hc rcadcr w Obscrvc that thc

|
EYEKY SCHCCLBCY KNCWS .

nOttOn that thc ncw can bc puckcd Ony Out Olthc randOm ts tn amOst
tOta cOntradtcttOn tO thc tncvttabttty Ol cntrOpy. hc whOc mattcr Ol
cntrOpy and ncgcntrOpy (scc LOssary) and thc cOntrasts bctwccn thc sct
Ol gcncratttcs assOctatcd wtth thcsc wOrds and thOsc assOctatcd wtth
cncrgy wt bcdcatwtth t nLhaptcr 6 tn thc dtscusstOn OlthcccOnOmtcs
Ol hcxt bttty. crc tt ts Ony ncccssary tO nOtc thc t ntcrcsttng lOrma
anaOgy bctwccn thc apparcnt cOntradtcttOn tn thts custcr and thc dts-
crtmtnattOn drawn tn thc thtrd custcr, tn whtch numbcr ; cOntrasts
numbcr wtth guanttty. hc sOrt Ol thtnktng that dcas wtth guanttty
rcscmbcs tn many ways thc thtnktng that surrOunds thc cOnccpt Ol
cncrgy, whcrcas thc cOnccpt Ol numbcr ts much mOrc cOscy rcatcd tO
thc cOnccpts Olpattcrn and ncgcntrOpy.
hc ccntra mystcry OlcvOuttOn tcs , Ol cOursc, tn thc cOntrast
bctwccn statcmcnts Olthc sccOnd aw Ol thcrmynamtcs and thc Obscr-
vattOn that thc ncw can Ony bc puckcd lrOm thc randOm. It was thts
cOntrast that arwt n party rcsOvcd by hts thcOry Olnatura scccttOn.
hc Othcr twO custcrs tn thc tst asgtvcn arc ; tO Z and tO
6. I wt cavc tt tO thc rcadcr tO cOnstruct hts Or hcrphrastngs OlhO
thcsc custcrs arc tntcrnay rcatcd and tO crcatc Othcr custcrs accOrdtng
tO htshcr Own ways OlthOught .
I nLhaptcr I sha cOnttnuc tO skctch t n thc backgrOund Olmy
thcsts wtth a tsttng Olgcncratttcs Or prcsuppOstttOns. I sha , hOwcvcr,
cOmc cOscr tO thc ccntra prObcms Ol thOught and cvOuttOn, trytng tO
gtvc answcrs tO thc gucsttOn Inwhatwa: cantw: :rcttc: :)tn):ra-
tt:n :r candw:rk t:cthcr tn :::ttt:n hts gucsttOn wtth tts mu-
ttpc answcrs sccms tO mc tO bc ccntra tO any thcOry Ol thOught Or
cvOuttOn.
64 N mI AI IAX

1
`1'\'
\
|1 V\
hu! | !:ou !hr:: !tm:JtJ !ru:.
~IEWlS CARROLL, 1h:un!tn o/!h:nurk

Lhaptcr , `Lvcry 5chOObOy nOws . . . ` has tn-

trOduccd thc rcadcr tOa numbcr Olbastc tdcas abOut thc
wOrd, ccmcntary prOpOstttOns Or vcrtttcs wtth whtch
cvcryscrtOus cptstcmOOgyOr cptstcmOOgtst must makc
pcacc.
n ths chaptcr , gO On tO gcncratzattOns that arc sOmcwhat
m
Orc
cOmpcx t nthat thc gucsttOn whtch ask takcs thc tmmcdtatc, cx
Otc
rtc lOrm ` hat bOnus Or tncrcmcnt OlknOwtng lOOws lrOm .e/tn-
tn
tnlOrmattOn lrOm twO Or mOrc sOurccs:`
Jhc rcadcr may takc thc prcscnt chaptcr and Lhaptcr ` `Nu-
ttp
c
crstOns OlKcattOnshtp` as ust twOmOrcttcms whtch thc schOO-
bOy
shOud knOw. And tn lact , tn thc wrt tt ng Ol thc bOOk, thc hcadtng

wO dcscrtpttOns arc bcttcr than Onc` Ortgtnay cOvcrcd a thts matc-

W
7 M KSlCMS C THE K
rta . Dut as thc mOrc Or css cxpcrtmcnta wrtttng Olthc bOOk wcnt
On
Ovcr abOut thrcc ycars , thts hcadtng aggrcgatcd tO ttscla vcry cOnsdcr
abc rangc Ol sccttOns , and t bccamc cvdcnt that thc cOmbtnattOn
O
dtvcrsc ptcccs Ol tnlOrmattOn dchncd an apprOach Olvcry grcat pOwcr
tO

what l ca (tn Lhaptcr ) `thcpattcrn whtch cOnnccts . arttcuar lac

ct

Ol thc grcat pattcrn wcrc brOught tO my attcnttOn by parttcuar way
n
whtch twO Or mOrc ptcccs Ol tnlOrmattOn cOud b cOmbtncd.
In thc prcscnt chaptcr, I sha lOcus On thOscvartcttcs OlcOm
nattOn whtch wOud sccm tO gtvc thc pcrcctvtng Organtsm nrmattOn

abOut thc wOrd arOund ttscl Or abOut ttscl as a part Ol that cxtcrn

wOrd (as whcn thc crcaturc sccs tts Own t) . l sha cavc lOr Lhaptcr
thc mOrc subtc and, tndccd, mOrc btOOgtca Or crcatura cOmbtnattO
n
that wOud gtvc thc pcrcctvcr mOrc knOwcdgc Ol thc tntcrna rcatOn
and prOccsscs cacd thc :c.
In cvcry tnstancc, thc prtmary gucsttOn I sha ask wt cOnccrn
\
thc bOnus Ol undcrstandtng whtch thc cOmbtnattOn Ol t nlOrmattOn t
lOrds. hc rcadcr t s, hOwcvcr , rcmt ndcd that bchtnd thc stmpc, supcr
cta gucsttOn thcrc ts party cOnccacd thc dccpcr and pcrhaps myttc
gucsttOn, `Ocs thc study Olthtsparttcuar casc, t nwhtch an t nstghtdc
\
vcOps lrOm thc cOmpartsOn OlsOurccs, thrOw any tght On hOw thc un
vcrsc ts tntcgratcd: ` Ny mcthOd Ol prOccdurc wt bc tO ask abOut thc
tmmcdtatc bOnus t n cach casc, but my uttmatc gOa ts an tngutry tntO

thc argcr pattcrn whtch cOnnccts.

l . L LA5L L ILKLPLL
Lla thcsc cxampcs, thc stmpcst but thc mOst prOlOund ts
lact that tt takcs at cast twO sOmcthtngs tO crcatc a dllcrcncc.
prOducc ncws Oldtllcrcncc, t . c. , tn)eratten. thcrc must b twO
(rca Or tmagtncd) such that thc dthcrcncc bctwccn thcm can bc
mancnt t nthcr mutua rcatOnshtp and thc whOc allatr must bc
that ncws Ol thctr dthcrcncc can bc rcprcscntcd as a dthcrcncc i
sOmc tnlOrmattOn-prOccsstng cnttty, such as a bratn Or, pcrhaps , a
putcr.
hcrc ts a prOlOund and unanswcrabc gucsttOn abOut thc
OlthOsc `at cast twO tht ngs that bctwccn thcm gcncratc thc
whtch bccOmcs inlOrmattOn by maktng a dthcrcncc. Lcary cach
7 . A
s

lOr
thc mnd and pcrccptOna nOn-cntty, a nOn-bcng. POt dl
lcr
cnt lrOm bcng, and nOt dhcrcnt lrOm nOn-bcng. An unknOwabc, a

gu
n :t:h a sOund OlOnc hand cappng.
Jhc stub OlscnsatOn, thcn, s a par Olvaucs OlsOmc varabc,
prc
scn
tcd Ovcr a tmc tO a scnsc Organ whOsc rcspOnsc dcpcnds upOn thc
ati O bctwccn thc mcmbcrs Olthc par. (Jhs mattcr Olthc naturc Oldl-
lcrc
ncc w bc dscusscd n dcta n Lhaptcr , crtcrOn . )
. JL LA5L L DIPLL\AK I5ILP
ct us cOnsdcr anOthcr smpc and lamar casc Ol dOubc dc-
scr
ptOn. hat s gancd by cOmparng thc data cOcctcd by Onc cyc
wth thc data cOcctcd by thc Othcr' Jypcay, bOth cycs arc amcd at
thc samc rcgOn Olthc surrOundng unvcrsc, and ths mght sccm tO bc
a wastc usc Olthc scnsc Organs Dut thc anatOmy ndcatcs that vcry
unsdcrabc advantagc must accruc lrOm ths usagc. Jhc nncrvatOn Ol
thc twO rctnas and thc crcatOn at thc Optc chasma Olpathways lOr thc
rcdstrbutOn OlnlOrmatOn s such an cxtraOrdnary lcat OlmOrphOgcn
css as must surcy dcnOtc grcat cvOutOnary advantagc.
In brcl, cach rctna surlacc s a ncary hcmsphcrca cup ntO
whch a cns lOcuscs an nvcrtcd magc Ol what s bcng sccn. Jhus , thc
magcOlwhat s Ovcr tO thc clt lrOnt w bc lOcuscd OntO thc Outcr sdc
ulthc rght rctna and OntO thc nncr sdc Ol thc clt rctna. hat s
surrsng s that thc nncrvatOn Olcach rctna s dvdcd ntO twO sys
tcms by a sharp vcrtca bOundary. Jhus thc nlOrmatOn carrcd by
uptc hbcrs lrOm thc Outsdc Ol thc rght cyc mccts , n thc rght bra n,
wth thc nlOrmatOn carrcd byhbcrs lrOm thc nncr sdcOlthc clt cyc.

mary
, nlOrmatOn lrOm thc Outsdc Ol thc clt rctna and thc nsdc
ul
thc rght
rctna s gathcrcd n thc clt bran.
Jhc b nOcuar magc, whch appcars tObcundvdcd, s n lact a
u
mp
cx
synthcss Ol nlOrmatOn lrOm thc clt lrOnt n thc rght bran
a
a
cOrrcspOndng synthcss Olmatcra lrOm thc rght lrOnt n thc clt
r
a
tcr thcsc twO synthcszcd aggrcgatcs Ol nlOrmatOn arc thcm
scv
cs
syn
thcszcd ntO a sngc subcctivc picturc lrOm which a traccs
u
l
thc
vcrtca bOunary havc dsappcarcd.
rOm ths cabOratc arrangcmcnt, twO sOrts Oladvantagc accruc.
h
c s
ccr
s abc tO mprOvc rcsOutOn at cdgcs and cOntrasts and bcttcr
9 M Vbf fl f
lturc
abc tO rcad whcn thc prtnt ts sma Or thc tumtnattOn pOOr. NOrc tm-
pOrtant , t nlOrmattOn abOut dcpth ts crcatcd. In mOrc lOrma anguagc,
thc dtercn.c bctwccn thc t nlOrmattOn prOvtdcd by thc Onc rcttna and
tha rOvtdcd by thc Othcr s tscl tnlOrmattOn Ola d ocnt /et.a/ tc.
rOm thts ncw sOrt Ol tnlOrmattOn, thc sccr adds an cxtra dtcn:ten tO
scctng.
In tgurc 4, ct A rcprcscnt thc cass Or sct OlcOmpOncnts Olthc
aggrcgatc OltnlOrmattOn Obtatncd lrOm sOmc hrst sOurcc(c. g. , thc rtght
cyc) , and ct 8 rcprcscnt thc cass OlcOmpOncnts Olthc tnlOrmattOn Ob-
ta ncd lrOm sOmc sccOnd sOurcc (c. g. , thc clt cyc) . JhcnA8 wt rcprc-
scnt thc cass Ol cOmpOncnts rclcrrcd tO by nlOrmattOn lrOm bOth cycs
A8 must ctthcr cOntatn mcmbcrs Or bc cmpty.
llthcrc cxtst rca mcmbcrs OlA8, thcn thctnlOrmattOn lrOm thc
sccOndsOurcchastmpOscd a subcassthcattOn upOnA that wasprcvtOus
tmpOsstbc (t . c. , has prOvtdcd, tn cOmbtnattOn wtth A, a Ogtca typc Ol
tnlOrmattOn Olwhtch thc hrst sOurcc aOnc was t ncapabc).
c nOw prOcccd wtth thc scarch lOr Othcrcascs undcr thts gcn-
cra rubrtc and sha spccthcay OOk tn cachcasc lOr thc gcncsts OltnlOr-
mattOn Ol ncw Ogtca typc Out Ol thc uxtapOstng Ol muttpc dcscrtp-
ttOns. In prtnctpc, cxtra dcpth tn sOmc mctaphOrtc scnsc ts tO bc
ccctcd whcncvcr thc t nlOrmattOn lOr thc twO dcscrtpttOns ts dtllcrcnty
cOcctcd Or dtllcrcnty cOdcd.
. JL LA5L L JL APLJ \JL
uman scnsc Organs can rccctvc ncws Oldthcrcncc, and thc
dtllcrcnccs must bc cOdcd tntO cvcnts tnttc (t . c. , tntO chanc:) tn Ordcr
tO bc pcrccptt bc. Lrdtnary stattc dtbcrcnccs that rcmatn cOnstant lOr
mOrc than a lcw sccOnds bccOmc pcrccpttbc Ony by scanntng. 5tmt
T & #& p ^A$

ary, vcry sOw changcs bccOmc pcrccpttbc Ony by a cOmbtnattOn Ol

scanntng and brtngtng tOgcthcr ObscrvattOns lrOm scparatcd mOmcnts tn
thc cOnttnuum Ol ttmc.
An ccgant (t . c. , an ccOnOmtca) cxampc Ol thcsc prtnctpcs ts
prOvtdcd by thc dcvtcc uscd by Lydc ttam JOmbaugh, whO tn
,, whtc stt a graduatc studcnt dtscOvcrcd thcpanct utO.
rOm cacuattOns bascd On dtsturbanccs tn thc Orbtt OlPcptunc
tt sccmcd that thcsc trrcguartttcs cOud bc cxpatncd by gravttatt Ona
pu lrOm sOmc panct tn an Orbtt Outstdc thc Orbtt Ol Pcptunc. Jhc
cacuattOns tndtcatcd t nwhat rcgtOn Ol thc sky thc ncw panct cOud bc
cxpcctcd at a gtvcn ttmc.
Jhc Obcct tO bc OOkcd lOr wOud ccrtat ny bc vcry sma and
dtm (abOut th magnttudc) , and tts appcarancc wOud dtcr lrOm that
Ol Othcr Obccts tn thc sky Ony tn thc lact Ol vcry sOw mOvcmcnt , sO
sOw as tO bc guttc tmpcrccpttbc tO thc human cyc.
Jhts prObcm was sOvcd by thc usc Olan tnstrumcnt whtch as-
trOnOmcrs ca a //tnkcr. hOtOgraphs Olthc apprOprtatc rcgtOnOlthc sky
wcrc takcn at Ongtsh t ntcrvas. Jhcsc phOtOgraphs wcrc thcn studtcd tn
patrs tn thc btnkcr. Jhts tnstrumcnt ts thc cOnvcrsc Ola btnOcuar mt-
crOscOpc t nstcad OltwOcycptcccs and Onc stagc, tt hasOnccycptccc and
twOstagcs and ts sO arrangcd that by thc h tckOla cvcr, what ts sccnat
Onc mOmcnt On Onc stagc can bc rcpaccd by a vtcw Olthc Othcr stagc.
JwO phOtOgraphs arc paccd tn cxact rcgtstcr On thc twO stagcs sO that
a thc Ordt nary hxcd stars prcctscy cOtnctdc. Jhcn, whcn thc cvcr ts
tckcd Ovcr, thc hxcd stars wt nOt appcar tO mOvc, but a panct wt
appcar tO ump lrOm Onc pOstttOn tO anOthcr. Jhcrc wcrc, hOwcvcr
many umpt ng Obccts (astcrOtds) tn thc hcd Ol thc phOtOgraphs , and
JOmbaugh had tO hnd Onc that umpcd /c:: than thc Othcrs .
Altcr hundrcds Ol such cOmpartsOns, JOmbaugh saw utO
ump
.
. JL LA5L L 5PAJIL 5\NNAJILP
S,natt.:uatt:n ts thc tcchntca tcrm uscd tn ncurOphystOOgy
lOr
thOsc t nstanccs tn whtch sOmc ncurOn L ts hrcd Ony by a cOmbtna-
ttOn OlncurOns A and D. A aOnc ts tnsuctcnt tO hrc L, and D aOnc ts
tnsulhctcnt tO hrc L but t lncurOns A and D hrctOgcthcr wtthtn a tm-
W
M NbbLIb L t LK
turc
ttcd pcrtOd Ol mtcrOsccOnds , thcn L ts trtggcrcd (scc tgurc ) . POttcc
that thc cOnvcnttOnaI tcrm lOr thts phcnOmcnOn, :uooatt:n. Oud
suggcst an adtng Ol tnlOrmattOn lrOm Onc sOurcc O tnlOrmattOn lrOm
anOthcr. hat actuaIy happcns ts nOt an addtng but a lOrmtng Ola Og
tca prOduct , a prOccss mOrc cOscy aktn tO muIttptcattOn.
hat thts arrangcmcnt dOcs tO thc tnlOrmattOn that ncurOn A
aOnc cOud gtvc ts a scgmcntattOn Or subcasst hcatOn Ol thc h rtngs OlA
tntO twO casscs, namcy , thOsc hrtngs OlA accOmpantcd by D and thOsc
hrtngs OlA whtch arc nOt accOmpantcd by D. LOrrcspOndtngy, thc hr-
tngs Ol ncurOn D arc subdivtdcd tntO tO casscs thOsc accOmpantcd by
A and thOsc nOt accOmpantcd by A.
. L LA5L L L A\LPAL ALK
Nacbcth ts abOut tO murdcr uncan and tn hOrrOr at hts dccd,
hc haIIuctnatcs a daggcr (Act , sccnc !)
|1 !h1 u Jo uh:h | cc b^rc mc.
1hc hund/c !rd m hund C^mc. lc! mc :lu!:h !h.
| hutc !h:c n^!. undc! | 1cc!hcc 1!ll.
Ar! !h^u n^!, [u!ul t1^n, 1cn1blc
1^[ccln u1 !^ 1h! ur! !h^u bu!
A ducr ^]!hc mnd. u[uc :rcu!^n,
r^:ccdn^m !hc hm!-^rc1Jcd brn
| 1cc !hccc!. n[^rm uJulublc
72 M mI AI IA\X
A: !h:uh:h n^u druu.
1h^u muhull'1! mc !hc u !hu! uu1 ^n
And1u:h un n:!rumcn! uu1 !^ u1:.
Ancc: urc mudc !hc[^^l1 0 !hc ^!hcr 1cn:c:,
r cl1c u^r!h ul!hc rc:!. 1cc !hcc 1!ll
And ^n !h bludc unddudc^n ^u!1 ^[bl^^d,
h:h uu1 n^! 1^ bc[^r:. 1hcrc'1 n^ :u:h !hn
! 1 !hc bl^^d bu1nc1: uh:h nrm1
1hu: !^ mnc c:.
hs tcrary cxampc w scrvc lOr a thOsc cascs Ol dOubc
dcs
crptOn n whch data lrOm twO Or mOrc dcrcnt scnscs arc cOm
ncd. Nacbcth `prOvcs that thc daggcr s Ony an haucnatOn by
hcckng wth hs scnsc OltOuch, but cvcn that s nOt cnOugh. crhaps
hs cycs arc `wOrth a thc rcst. t s Ony whcn `gOuts OlbOOd appcar
On thc haucnatcd daggcr that hc can dsmss thc whOc mattcr
hcrcs nO such thng.
LOmparsOn Ol nlOrmatOn lrOm Onc scnsc wth nlOrmatOn
lrOm anOthcr cOmbncd wth changc n thc haucnatOn, has Ocrcd
Nacbcth thc mctanlOrmatOn that hs cxpcrcncc was mag nary. ln
tcrms Olgurc 4 A8 was ancmpty sct .
6 L LA5L L 5PLPNL\5 APL\ALL5
n many cascs , an ncrcmcnt Ol nsght s prOvidcd by a sccOnd
anguagc OldcscrptOn wthOut thc addtOn Olany cxtra sO-cacd Obcc-
tc nlOrmatOn. wOprOOls Ola gvcn mathcmatca thcOrcmmay cOm-
bnc
tO gvc thc studcnt an cxtra grasp Ol thc rcatOn whch s bcng
dcmOnstratcd.
Lvcry schOObOy knOws that (a /)=a //, and hc may
bc awarc that ths agcbrac cguat On s a rst stcp n a massvc branch Ol
athcmatcs cacd /tn:ta/ thc hc cguatOn tscl s sulhccnty
dcmOnstratcd by thc agOrthm Olagcbrac mutpcatOn, cach stcp Ol
hch s n accOrd wth thc dchntOns and pOstuatcs Ol thc tautOOgy
acd a/gc/raa tautOOgy whOsc subcct mattcr s thc cxpansn
and anayss Olthc nOtOn `any.
Dut many schOObOys dO nOt knOw that thcrc S a gcOmctrc
W
M NbbLIb L t1 L1
^ b
X
^ ^
2
^b
b ^b
lt_urc
dcmOnstratOn Olthc samc bnOma cxpansOn (scc gurc 6) . LOnsdc
thc straght Inc XY. and ct th s Inc bc cOmpOscd Ol twO scgmcnts , M
and /. hc Inc s nOw a gcOmctrc rcprcscntatOn Ol (a /) and thc
sguarc cOnstructcd upOn XYwI bc (a /), that s, t wI havc anarm
ahed (a/).
hs sguarc can nOw bc dsscctcd by markng Oh thc cngth M
aIOng thc I nc XYand aOng Onc Ol thc adaccnt sdcs Olthc sguarc and
cOmpctng thc gurc by drawng thc apprOpratc ncs paraIcI tO thc
sdcs Ol thc sguarc hc schOOIbOy can nOw thnk that hc sccs that thc
sguarc s cut up ntO lOurpcccs . hcrc arc twO sguarcs , Onc Olwhch s
a whIc thc Othcr s /, and twO rcctangIcs , cach Ol whch s Ol arc
(a '/) ( . c. , 2/) .
hus , thc lamIar agcbrac cguatOn (a /) a 2//sO
sccms tO bc truc n Lucdcan gcOmctry. Dut surcy t was tOO much tO
hOpc lOr that thc scparatc pcccs Olthc guanttya2//wOuId st
bc ncaty scparatc n thc gcOmctrc transIatOn.
Dut what has bccn sad: Dywhat rght dd wc substtutc a sO
caIIcd ` cngth lOr a and anOthcr lOr / and assumc that , pIaccd cnd tO
cnd, thcy wOuId makc a straght nc (a/) and sO On: Arc wcure tht
thc Icngths Ol Incs Obcy arthmctc rucs: hat has thc schOObO
y
Icarncd lrOm Our statng thc samc OId cguatOn n a ncw Ianguagc:
In a ccrtan scnsc, n:thtn has bccn addcd. PO ncw nlOrmatO

has bccn gcncratcd Or capturcd by my asscrtng tht

(a /)=a 2// n gcOmctry as wcII as n aIgcbra.
Ocs a /anuae, thcn, d such, cOntan n: nlOrmatOn:
W
M M!O AO NATK
Bt even if matbematical l y notbing bas been aooeo by tbe
litt
le
matbematical conring tri ck, still believe tbat tbe scboolboy
wb
obas never seen tbat tbe trick colo be playeo wil l bave a cbance to
learn sometbing wben tbe trick is sbown. Tbere is a contribtion to
dioactic metb Tbe oi scovery (if it be oiscovery) tbat tbe tw lan-
gages(ofalgebraano ofgeometryare mtally translatable is itselfan
en/thtcncnt.
Anotbermatbematical exampemay belp tbe reaoer toassimilate
tbe
eect ofsing two langages.

Ask yor frienos , 'Vhat i s tbe sm of tbe hrst ten ooo nm-
bers

Tbe answers will probably be statements of ignorance

or attempts to aoo p tbeseries
.
Sbow tbem tbat
Tbesm oftbe hrstoodnmberis
Tbe sm oftbe hrst two ooo nmbers is4.
Tbe sm oftbe hrst tbree ood nmbers is .
Tbe sm oftbehrst foronmbers is .
Tbe sm oftbehrst hve ooo nmbers i s .
nd so on.
Ratbersoon, yorfrienoswi l l saysometbingl i ke 'Ob, tbentbe

m oftbe hrst ten odo nmbers mst be 00. ` Tbey bavel earneo tbe
trtck for aooing series ofooo nmbers .
Bt ask for an explanation ofwby tbis tricku:t work ano tbe
ave
rage nonmatbematician will be nable to answer. (Ano tbe state of
el
ementary eocation is scb tbat many will bave o ioea ofbow to
proceeo in oroer to create an answer .
bat bas tobeoiscovered i s tbe oiherence between tbeerdtna/
n
ae
of tbe given ooo nmber and its .ardtna/ vala oifference i n
lo
gi cal type Veareaccstomeo to expect tbat tbe name ofa nmeral

indcbtcd to rrudc Hcndrix for this, to most oc, unamiliar rcularit. rtrdc
cdrix, arnny y Oiscocry, 7he Ma:hematic: 7eacher J4 (ay I9 I ) . 290299.
W
7J M Nbb1LPb L t WCO

wt bc thc samc d tts numcrtca vauc. ut tndccd, tn thts casc, thc
namc ts nOt thc samc as thc thtng namcd.
Jhc sum OIthc hrst thrcc Odd numbcrs ts . Jhat t s, thc sum ts
thc :quarc )thc rdtna/ nae and tn thts casc , thc Ordtna namc OI ts
5) OI thc argcst numbcr tn thc scrtcs tO bc summcd. LrtI O
tkctt ts thc sguarc OI thc nu/cr :) nu/cr: tn thc scrtcs tO bc
summcd. Jhis ts thc vcrba statcmcnt OI thc trtck.
O prOvc that thc trtck wt wOrk, wc havc tO shOw that thc dtt
Icrcncc bctwccn twO cOnsccuttvc summattOns OI Odd numbcrs ts cgua
and a/wa: cgua tO thc dtcrcncc bctwccn thc sguarcs OI thctr Ordtna
namcs.
Or cxampc, thc sum OI thc hrst hvc Odd numbcrs tnu: thc
sum OI hrst IOur Odd numbcrs must cgua

4 . At thc samc ttmc

wc must nOttcc that , OIcOursc, thc dtIIcrcncc bctwccn thc twO sums ts
tndccd thc Odd numbcr that was ast addcd tO thc stack. InOthctwOrds,
thts ast addcd numbcr must bc cgua tO thc dtIIcrcncc bctwccn thc
sguarcs.
LOnstdcr thc samc mattcr tn a vtsua anguagc. c havc tOdcm-
Onstratc that thc ncxt Odd numbcr wt awas add tO thc sum OI thc
prcvtOus Odd numbcrs ust cnOugh tO makc thc ncxt tOta cgua thc
sguarc OI thc Ordtna namc OI that Odd numbcr.
Kcprcscnt thc hrst Odd numbcr ( ) wtth a untt sguarc

1
cprcscnt thc sccOndOdd numbcr |5)wtth thrcc untt sguarcs

Add thc twO Itgurcs tOgcthcr
3
" Altcrnativcly, wc may say tha thc numbcr o numbcrs n a sct s not thc amc as thc sum
numbcrs in hc mc sct. nc way or thc othcr, wc cnountcr adiscontinuity in loyical typny.
M N1L ^L ^b
prcscnt thc thtrd Odd numbcr ( ) wthvc untt sguarcs

. b

Add thts tO thc prcvtOus gurc

turc
hat s , 4 .
And sOOn. hc vtsua prcscntattOn makcs t t rathcr casy tOcOmbtnc Or
dnas , cardtnas and thc rcguarttcs Olsummng thc scrcs.
hat has happcncd ts that thc usc Ola systcm OlgcOmctrtc mct-
aphOr has cnOrmOusy lactt tatcd undcrstandtng Olhew thc mcchantca
trck cOmcs tO bc a ruc Or rcguartty. NOrc mpOrtant , thc studcnt has
ccn madc awarc Ol thc cOntrast bctwccn appytng a trtck and undcr-
standtng thc ncccssty Oltruth bchtnd thc trtck. And stt mOrc tmpOr
tant, thc studcnt has pcrhaps unwttttngy, had thc ccrtcncc Ol thc
cap lrOm taktng artthmcttc tO taktng a/eut arthmcttc. POt nu/cr:
ut nu/o: e)nu/o:.
l t was thcn, tn aacc 5tcvcnss wOrds ,
That the raes seemm atto.
The x ran eut e/his he!e.
. L LA5L L L L 5L7L5
On Pcumann Oncc rcmarkcd, party tn cst , that lOr scl
rcp
tcatt On amOng machtncs tt wOud bc a ncccssary cOndtttOn that twO
ac
ht ncs shOud act n cOabOrattOn.
ssOn wth rcptcatOn s ccrtany a bastc rcgutrcmcnt Ol tlc,
w
h
cthcr tt bclOr muttptcatOn Or lOr grOwth, and thc btOchcmtsts nOw
W
M VEKSlCMS C TE WCO

knOw brOady thc prOccsscs Ol rcpItcattOn OlPA. Dut ncxt cOmcs dtl-
lcrcnttattOn, whcthcr tt bc thc (surcIy) randOm gcncrattOn Ol vartcty t n
cvOIuttOn Or thc Ordcrcd dthcrcnttattOn OlcmbryOOgy. tsstOn, sccm-
tngIy, :t bc punctuatcd by lustOn, a gcncraI truth whtch cxcmpcs
thc prtnctpc Ol tnlOrmattOn prOccsstng wc arc cOnstdcrtng hcrc namcy
that twO sOurccs Ol tnlOrmattOn (Ocn cOntrttng mOdcs Or an-
guagcs) arc cnOrmOusIy bcttcr than Onc.
At thc bactcrta Icvc and cvcn amOng prOtOzOa and sOmc lungt
and agac thc gamctcs rcman supcrh ctaIy tdcnttca but tn aI mctazOa
and pIants abOvc thc ngaI IcvcI , thc :cxc Ol thc gamctcs arc dtsttn-
gutshabIc Onc lrOm thc Othcr.
hc btnary dthcrcnttattOn Olgamctcs, usuaIy Onc scsstcand Onc
mObtIc, cOmcs hrst. OIOwtng thts cOmcs thc dtllcrcnttattOn tntO twO
ktnds Ol thc muIttccuar tndtvduas whO arc thc prOduccrs Ol thc twO
ktnds Olgamctcs.
tnaI y, thcrc arc thc mOrc cOmpcx cyccs caIcd a/tcrnatten e)
cncratten: tn many pants and antmaI parasttcs .
AI thcsc Ordcrs Ol dthcrcnttattOn arc surcIy rcatcd tO thc t nlOr-
mattOna ccOnOmtcs OlhsstOn, s On, and scxuaI dtmOrphtsm.
5O, rcturntng tO thc mOst prtmtttvc hsstOn and lustOn wc nOtc
that thc hrst cllcct Or cOntrtbuttOn OllustOn tO thc ccOnOmtcs Olgcncttc
tnlOrmattOn ts prcsumabIy sOmc sOrt Ol.hc.ktn.
hc prOccss Ol chrOmOsOma lustOn ts csscnttaIIy thc samc tn a
pIansand anmas and whrcvcr t Occurs hc cOrrcspOndtn strtngs Ol
PA matcrtaI arc sct stdc by stdc and, tn a luncttOnaI scnsc arc .e-
arcd. l dtlcrcnccs bctwccn thc strtngs Ol matcrta lrOm thc rcspccttvc
gamctcs arc tOO grcat , lcrttItzattOn (sO cacd cannOt Occur.
I n thc tOtaI prOccss OlcvOutt On, lustOn, whtcht s thc ccntra lact
Olscx has thc luncttOn OlItmtttng gcncttcvartabtItty. Lamctcs that, lOr
whatcvcr rcasOn, bc tt mutattOn Or Othcr , arc tOO dthcrcnt lrOm thc sta-
ttsttca nOrm arc ItkcIy tO mcct tn scxuaI lustOn wtth mOrc nOrm
a
gamctcs Ol OppOsttc scx, and tn thts mcctt ng, thc cxtrcmcs OldcvtattO
l bclicvcthatthisvasrstaryucd byC. P. MartininhisPs.boleg, EvolutiooaodSt, I95.
ucl ucr (inMtNotdook: o/SamtI8utlo. itcd by lcstny)oncs) makcs a simiar poin in s
cussiny parthcnoycncss. Hc aryucs that asdrcams arc to thouyht, so prthcnoycncsis s to scu
rcproduction. Thouyht is stabilicd and tcstcd ayainst thc tcmplatc cxtcrnal rca ity, bt drca
run losc. Similarly, parthcnoycncss can bc cxpcctcd to run losc; vhcrcas yyotc tormation
s
stabilizcd by thc mutual comparison ofyamctcs.
W
d M I AI IAX
wt bc ctmtnatcd. (POtc, tn passt ng, that thts nccd tO ctmt natc dcvta-
ttOn ts tkcy tO b tmpcrlccty mct tn `tnccstuOus mattng bctwccn ga
mctcs lrOm cOscy rcatcd sOurccs . )
Dut athOugh Onc mpOrtant ncttOn Ol thc lustOn Olgamctcs tn
scxua rcprOducttOn wOud sccm tO bc thc mt tattOn Ol dcvtancc, tt t s
asO ncccssary tO strcss thc cOntrary luncttOn tncrcastng phcnOtyptc
vartcty. hc lustOn OlrandOmpatrs Olgamctcsassurcs that thc gcncpOO
Ol thc parttctpattng pOpuattOn wt bc hOmOgcncOus tn thc scnsc Ol
ctng wc mtxcd. At thc samc ttmc , tt assurcs that cvcry vtabc gcntc
cOmbtnattOn wtthtn that pOO sha bc crcatcd. hatts , cvcryvtabcgcnc
ts tcstcd tn cOnuncttOn wtth as many Othcr cOnstcattOns OlOthcr gcncs
as ts pOsstbc wtthtn thc tmtts Olthc parttctpattng pOpuatt On.
As usua tn thc panOrama Ol cvOuttOn wc hnd that thc stngc
rOccss ts anus-I tkc, lactng tn twO dtrccttOns n thc prcscnt casc, thc
lustOn Olgamctcs bOth paccs a tmttattOn On tndtvtdua dcvtanccandcn-
surcs thc muttpc rccOmbtnattOn Ol gcncttc matcrta .
B L LA5L L DLA5 AP NLK

LPLNLPA
ntcrcsttng phcnOmcna Occur whcn twO Or mOrc rhythmtc pat-
tcrns arc cOmbtncd, and thcsc phcnOmcna tustratc vcry apty thc cn-
rtchmcnt Ol tnlOrmattOn that Occurs whcn Onc dcscrtpttOn ts cOmbtncd
wtth anOthcr. l nthc casc Ol rhythmtc pattcrns, thc cOmbtnattOn Ol twO
uch pattcrns wt gcncratc a tht rd. hcclOrc, tt bccOmcs pOsstbc tO tn
vcsttgatc an unlamttar pattcrn by cOmbtntng tt wtth a knOwn sccOnd
pattcrn and tnspccttng thc thtrd pattcrn whtch thcy tOgcthcr gcncratc.
hcstmpcst casc Olwhat amcatng thc:trhcnecn:n ts thc
cknOwn prOducttOn Olbcats whcn twO sOunds Oldthcrcnt lrcgucncy
arc
cOmbtncd hc phcnOmcnOn ts cxpatncd by mapptng OntO stmpc
art
thmc
ttc, accOrdtng tO thc ruc that tl Onc nOtc prOduccs a pcak tn
cvcry n ttmc untts and thc Othcrhas a pcak t n cvcry ttmc untts, thcn
thc cOmbtnattOn wt prOducc a/cat tncvcry' n untts whcn thc pcaks
c
Otn
ctdc. hc cOmbtnattOn has ObvtOus uscs tn ptanO tuntng. 5tmt ary,
tt
ts
pOsstbc tO cOmbtnc twO sOunds Ol vcry htgh lrcgucncy tn Ordcr tO
p
rO
ducc bcats Ol lrcgucncy Ow cnOugh tO bc hcard by thc human car .
O
nar
dcvtccs that Opcratc On thts prtnctpc arc nOw avat abc lOr thc
t
nd. A bcam Olhtgh-lrcgucncy sOund ts cmtttcd, and thc cchOcs that
W
79 M Nbb1LIb L HE L
thts bcam gcncratcs arc rccctvcd back tntO an `car tnwhtch a Owcr but
stt tnaudtbclrcucncy tsbctnggcncratcd. Jhc rcsuttng bcatsarc thcn
passcd On tO thc human car.
Jhc mttcr bccOmcs mOrccOmpcx whcn thc rhythmtc pattcrns,
tnstcad Ol bctng tmttcd, d lrcucncy ts, tO thc stngc dtmcnstOn Ol
ttmc, cxtst tn twO Or mOrc dtmcnstOns. In such cascs , thc rcsut OlcOm-
btntng thc twO pattcrns may bc surprtstng.
Jhrcc prtnctpcsarc tustratcd by thcscmOtrphcnOmcna trst,
any twO pattcrns may, il apprOprtatcy cOmbtncd, gcncratc a thtrd. 5cc-
Ond, any twO Olthcsc thrcc pattcrns cOud scrvc d basc lOr a dcscrtpttOn
Olthc thtrd. Jhtrd, thc whOc prObcm Oldchntng what ts mcant by thc
wOrd attcrn can bc apprOachcd thrOugh thcsc phcnOmcna. O wc, tn
lact , carry arOund wtth us (tkc thc btnd pcrsOns sOnar sampcs Ol
vartOus sOrts Ol rcguartty agatnst whtch wc can try thc inlOrmattOn
(ncws Olrcguar dthcrcnccs that cOmcs tn lrOm Outstdc' O wc, lOr cx-
ampc, usc Our habtts Ol what is cacd `dcpcndcncy tO tcst thc chaac-
tcristtcs OlOthcr pcrsOns'
O antmas (and cvcn pants havc charactcrtsttcs such that tn a
gtvcn ntchc thcrc ts a tcsttng Ol that ntchc by sOmcthing Iikc thc mOr
phcnOmcnOn'
Lthcr ucsttOns artsc rcgardtng thc naturc Olac:thctt. cxpcrtcncc
Octry, dancc, mustc , and Othcr rhythmtc phcnOmcna arc ccrtainy vcry
archatc and prObaby mOrc anctcnt than prOsc. t ts , mOrcOvcr , charactcr-
istic Ol thc archatc bchavtOrs and pcrccptiOns that rhythm s cOnttnuay
mOduatcd that ts, thc pOctryOr music cOntatns matcrtas that cOud bc
prOccsscd by :ucr::tn .:art::n by any rccctvtng Organtsm wtth a lcw
sccOnds Ol mcmOry.
Is tt pOsstbc that thts wOrdwtdc arttsttc, pOcttca , and mustca
phcnOmcnOn is sOmchOw rcatcd tO mOr' l sO, thcn thc tndtvtdua
mtnd ts surcy dccpy Organtzcd tn ways whtch a cOnstdcrattOn Ol mOtr
phcnOmcna wt hcp us tO undcrstand. n tcrms Olthc dchntttOn Ol`c
panattOn` prOpOsc tn sccttOn , wc sha say that thc lOrma mathcmat
tcs Or `Ogtc OlmOtr may prOvtdc an apprOprtatc tautOOgy OntO whtch
thcsc acsthctic phcnOmcna cOud bc mappcd.

d M mI AI IAb
L LA5L L `L5LKLP, `A\LLL,
AP `L7APALP
AmOng human bcngs , dcscrptOn and canatOn arc bOth
h
ghy vaucd, but ths cxampc Ol dOubcd nlOrmatOn dihcrs lrOm
mOst Ol thc Othcr cascs Ollcrcd in ths chaptcr n that cxpanatOn cOn-
tains nO ncw nlOrmatOn dihcrcnt lrOm what was prcscnt n thc dcscrip-
On. ndccd a grcat dca Olthc nlOrmatiOn that wasprcscnt n dcscrp-
iOn is cOmmOny thrOwn away and Ony a rathcr sma part Olwhat was
tO bc cxpancd s, in lact cxpa ncd. Dut cxpanatOn s ccrtany Ol
cnOrmOus impOrtancc and ccrtany:cc: tO gvc a bOnus Olnsght Ovcr
and abOvc what was cOntancd n dcscrptOn. s thc bOnus Ol insight
whch cxpanatOn gvcs sOmchOw rcatcd tO what wc gOt lrOm cOmbn-
ing twO anguagcs in scctiOn abOvc:
O cxamnc ths casc t is ncccssary rst brichy tO ndcatc dch
ntiOns lOr thc thrcc wOrds dc:.rttt:n, taut:/:,. and cx/anatt:n.
A purc dcscriptOn wOud ncudc a thc lacts . c. , a thc chcc-
ivc dhcrcnccs) immancnt n thc phcnOmcna tO bc dcscrbcd but wOud
indicatc nO nd Ol cOnncctOn amOng thcsc phcnOmcna that mght
akc thcm mOrc undcrstandabc. Or cxampc, a h m with sOund and
pcrhaps rccOrdngs Ol smc and Othcr scnsc data might cOnsttutc a
cOmpctc Or sul ccnt dcscrptOn Olwhat happcncd n lrOnt Ola battcry
ulcamcras at a ccrtan timc. Dut that hm w dO ttc tO cOnncct thc
cnts shOwn On thc scrccn Onc with anOthcr and wi nOt by itscllur-
nsh any cxpanatiOn. Ln thc Othcr hand an cxpanatiOn can bc tOta
withOut bcing dcscrptvc. `LOd madc cvcrythng thcrc s s tOtay cx-
p
anatOry but dOcs nOt tc yOu anything abOut any Olthc th ngs Or thcir
rca
tiOns.
n sccncc, thcsc twO typcs Ol OrganatiOn Oldata dcscriptOn
an
d cxpanatOn) arc cOnncctcd by what s tcchncay acd taut:/:.
xampcs Ol tautOOgy rangc lrOm thc smpcst casc, thc asscrtOn that
l is truc, thcn s truc tO such cabOratc structrcs as thc gcOmc-
t
ry
Ol
Lucd whcrc `l thc axiOms and pOstuatcs arc truc thcn y-
th
agOras thcOrcm is truc. AnOthcr cxampc wOud bc thc axOms, dch-

it
Ons , pOstuatcs , and thcrcsOlOn Pcumann shcOryOlLamcs. n
ch an aggrcgatc OlpOstuatcs and axiOms and thcOrcms , i t s OlcOurc
W
8 I M KSICMS CF t WCK
nOt cIatmcd that any Olthc axtOms Or thcOrcms s n any scnsc `truc n
dcpcndcntIy Or truc n thc Outstdc wOrId.
Indccd, On Pcumann, tn hs lamOus bOOk, cxprcssIy pOtnts
Out thc dtllcrcnccs bctwccn hts tautOIOgtcaI wOrId and thc mOrc cOmpIcx
wOrId Ol human rcIattOns . AII that ts cIa| mcd ts that tl thc axtOms bc
such and such and thc pOstuIatcs such and such, thcn thc thcOrcms wtII
bc sO and sO. In Othcr wOrds , aII that thc tautOIOgy ahOrds ts :nnc.tt:n

/ctwccnr:::tt:n:. hc crcatOr Ol thc tautOIOgy stakcs hts rcputattOn On

thc vaIdtty Olthcsc cOnnccttOns .
autOIOgy cOntatns nO nlOrmattOn whatsvcr, and cxpIanattOn
(thc mapptng Ol dcscrtptOn OntO tautOIOgy) cOntans OnIy thc tnlOrma
ttOn that was prcscnt tn thc dcscrtpttOn. hc `mapptng asscrts tmpItc-
ttIy that thc Inks whtch hOId thc tautOIOgy tOgcthcr cOrrcspOnd tO rcIa
tOns whtch Obtan n thc dcscrtptOn. cscrtpttOn, On thc Othcr hand,
cOntans tnlOrmatOn but nO IOgtc and nO cxpIanattOn. Or sOmc rcasOn,
human bcngs cnOrmOusy vauc thts cOmbntng Ol ways Ol Organtng
tnlOrmattOn Or matcrtaI .
O IIustratc hOw dcscrpttOn, tautOIOgy, and cxpIanattOn pI
tOgcthcr, Ict mc cttc an asstgnmcnt whtch I havc gtvcn scvcra tmcs tO
cIasscs. I am ndcbtcd tO thc astrOnOmcr ch cargIc lOr thts prObIcm,
but I am rcspOnsbIc lOr thc sOIuttOn. hc prObIcm s
A man ts shavt ng wtth hts razOr tn hts rtght hand. mc OOks tntO ht
mtrrOr and tn thc mtrrOr sccs hts tmagc shavtng wtth tts IcIt hand. m
says , `Lh. hcrcs bccn a rcvcrsaI Ot rtght and IcIt. hy ts thcc nO
rcvcrsa OttOp and bOttOm
hc prObcm was prcscntcd tO thc studcnts tn thts lOrm and
thcy wcrc askcd tO unravcI thc muddIc tn whtch thc man cvdcntIy s
and tO dtscuss thc naturc Ol cxpIanattOn altcr thcy havc accOmpItshcd
tht s.
hcrc arc atIcast twO twsts tnthc prObIcm as sct . Lnc gtmmtck
dstracts thc studcnt tO lOcus On rtght and Iclt . In lact , what has bccn
rcvcrscd ts lrOnt and back, nOt rght and Iclt . Dut thcrc ts a mOrc subtIc
trOubIc bchtnd that, namcIy , that thc wOrdsrtht and/c)t arc nOt tn thc

VOn Pcumann, . , and mOrgcnstcrn, . Tbc Tbco o/ Camc: aoJL:ooomi: 8cbavior (rtnccto.
rtnctOn \ntvcrsty rcss, I944).
d2 M mI A IAX
sam
c
anguagc as thc wOrds ts and /sts. ktght and /jt arc wOrds Olan
ncr anguagc whcrcas ts and /stts arc parts Olan cxtcna anguagc.

thc
man ts OOktng sOuth and hts tmagc ts OOktng nOrth, thc tOp ts
pward tn htmscland tt ts upward tn hts tmagc. ts cast stdc ts On thc
cast stdc tn thc tmagc, and hts wcst stdc ts On thc wcst stdc tn thc
tmagc. Fa:t andwe:t arc tn thc samc anguagc as ts and /stts whcrca
rtght an arc tn a dtllcrcnt aguagc. hcrc ts thus a Ogtca trap tn
thc
prObcm as sct.
ts ncccssary tO undcrstand that rtght and /jt cannOt bcdchncd
and
that yOu wt mcct wtth a Ot Ol trOubc tl yOu try tO dchnc such
vOrds. lyOugO tO thc 0x)srdFng/t:h Dt.ttsnar, yOuwt hnd that/jtts
dchncdas dtsttncttvccptthctOlthchandwhtchtsnOrmay thcwcakcr.
hc dtcttOnary makcr Opcny shOws hts cmbarrassmcnt. l yOu gO tO
cbstcr , yOu wt hnd a mOrc usclu dchntttOn, but thc authOr chcats .
Lnc Ol thc rucs Olwrtttng a dtcttOnary ts that yOu may nOt rcy On Os-
tcnstvc cOmmuntcattOn lOr yOur matn dchntttOn. 5O thc prObcm ts tO
dchnc wtthOut pOtnttng tO an asymmctrtca Ob cct . cbstcr ( )
says, `that stdc Ol Oncs bOdy whtch ts tOward thc wcst whcn Onc laccs
nOrth , usuay thc stdc Ol thc css-uscd hand . ` hts ts ustng thc asym-
mctry Ol hc sptnntng carth.
n truth, thc dchntttOn cannOt bc dOnc wtthOut chcattng. A:
ctr s casy tO dcnc, but thcrc arc nO vcrba mcansand thcrc .an bc
nOnlOr tndtcattng whtch Ol twO (mtrrOr-tmagc havcs ts tntcndcd.
An cxpanattOn has tO pOvtdc sOmcthtng mOrc than a dcscrtp-
ttOn prOvdcs and, tn thc cnd, an cxpanattOn appcas tO a tauts/sg,
whtch, as havc dchncd tt, ts a bOdy OlprOpOstttOns sO tnkcd tOgcthcr
that thc tnks /etween therss:tttsn: arc ncccssarty vatd.
hc stmpcst tautOOgy ts `l ts truc, thcn ts tuc.
A mOrc cOmpcx tautOOgy wOud bc `l lOOws lrOm , thcn
Q lOOws lrOm . rOm thcrc, yOu can butd up tntO whatcvcr cOm-
pcxtty yOu tkc. Dut yOu arc stt wtthtn thc dOmatn Ol thc t) causc
p
rOvtdcd, nOt by data, but bysu. hat ts a tautOOgy.
Ow, an cxpanattOn ts a mapptng Olthc ptcccs Ola dcscrtpttOn
OntO a tautOOgy, and an cxpanattOn bccOmcs acccptabc tO thc dcgrcc
th
at yOu arc wttng and abc tOacccpt thc tnks Olthc tautOOgy. lthc
tn
ks arc sclcvtdcnt (t . c. , tlthcy sccm undOubtabc tO thc sclthat ts
y
Ou , thcn thc canattOn butt On that tautOOgy ts sattslactOry tOyOu.
dp M KSlCMS Cl t WC
hat tsa . l t ts aways a mattcr Olnatura htstOry, a mattcr Olthc latth
tmagtnattOn, trust , rtgtdtty, and sO On Olthc Organtsm, that ts OlyOu Or
mc.
ct us cOnstdcr what sOrt OltautOIOgy wtI scrvc as a lOundattOn
lOr Our dcscrtpttOn OlmtrrOr tmagcs and thctr asymmctry.
Our rtght hand ts an asymmctrtca , thrcc-dtmcnstOna Obcct
and tO dchnc t t, yOu rcgutrc tnlOrmattOn that wtI tnk at cast thrcc
pOartttcs. O makc tt dtllcrcnt lrOm a clt hand, thrcc btnary dcscrtpttvc
causcs must bc xcd. trccttOn tOward thc pam must bc dtstt ngutshcd
lrOm dtrccttOn tOward thc back Olthc hand, dtrccttOn tOward thc cbOw
must bc dtsttngutshcd lrOm dtrccttOn tOward thc hngcrttps, dtrccttOn
tOward thc thumb must bc dtsttngutshcd lrOm dtrccttOntOwardthc htth
hngcr. POw butd thc tautOOgy tO asscrt that a rcvcrsa Ol any Onc Ol
thcsc thrcc btnary dcscrtpttvc prOpOstttOns wt crcatc thc mtrrOr tmagc
(thc stcrcO-OppOsttc Olthc hand lrOm whtch wc startcd (t . c. , wtII crcatc
a `clt hand).
lyOu pacc yOur hands pam tO pam sO that thc rtght pa
laccs nOrth, thc clt wtII lacc sOuth, and yOu wtI gct a casc stmtar tO
that Olthc man shavtng.
POw, thc ccntra pOstuatc OlOur tautOOgy ts thatr:ier:a/tnen:
dt:n:ten a/: gerate: the :tee-ette. rOm thts pOstuatc, tt lO
Owscan yOu dOubt tt:that rcvcrsa tntwe dtmcnstOns wt gcncratc
thc OppOsttc Ol thc OppOsttc (t. c. , wt takc us back tO thc lOrm lrOm
whtch wc startcd). Kcvcrsa tn thrcc dtmcnstOns wt agatn gcncratc thc
stcrcO-OppOsttc. And sO On.
c nOw csh Out Our cxpanatOn by thc prOccss whtch thc
Amcrtcan Ogtctan, C. S. ctrcc cacd a/du.tten, that ts, by hndtng
Othcr rccvant phcnOmcna and argutng that thcsc, tOO, arc cascs undc
r
Our ruc and can bc mappcd OntO thc samc tautOIOgy.
lmagtnc that yOuarc an Od-lashtOncd phOtOgraphcr wttha bac
cOth Ovcr yOur hcad. Ou OOk tntO yOur camcra at thc grOundga
scrccn On whtch yOu scc thc laccOlthc man whOsc pOrtratt yOu arc ma
tng. hc cns ts bctwccn thc grOund-gass scrccn and thc subcct. n thc
scrccn, yOu wt scc thc tmagc upstdc dOwn and rtght lOr clt but st
lactng yOu. ll thc subcct ts hOdtng sOmcthtng tn hts rtght hand, hc w
W
d M MlI A IAX
s
tt bc hOdtng tt tn hts rtght ha n thc ccn but rOtatcd 0
d
cgrccs
IlnOw yOu makc a hOc tn t nt Ol t amcra and OOk tn at
t
hc tmagc lOrmcd On thc grOund-grccn O thc h I m, thc tOp Ol
ts hcad wtII bc at thc bOttOm. ts wtI bc thc tOp. ts clt wt
c Ovcr tO thc rtght stdc, and nO c ts la htmscl. Ou havc
rcvcrscd thrcc dtmcnstOns . 5O nOw y cc agat s stcrcO-OppOsttc.
LxpanattOn, thcn, cOnststs tdng utOOgy, cnsurtng as
cst yOu can thc vatdtty Olthc tnks hctaut y sO that tt sccms tO
y
Ou tO bc sclcvtdcnt, whtch ts t cnd r tOtay sattslacOry
ccausc nObOdy knOws what wtI bc vcrcd !e
IlcxpanattOn ts as l havc dcsd t t, e ay wc wOndcr what
Onus human bctngs gct lrOm achtc
such a bcrsOmc and tndccd
ccmtngy unprOhtabc rtgamarOc. is a guc n Olnatura htstOry,
and I bctcvc that thc prObcm ts at party s! whcn wc Obscrvc
hat human bctngs arc vcry carcIcss ctr cOcttOn Ol thc tautOI-
Ogtcs On whtch tObasc thctr cxpanat In suc casc , Onc wOud sup-
Osc that thc bOnus wOuId bc ncgat but th sccms nOt tO bc sO,
udgng by thcpOpuIartty Olcxpana whtch e sO tnlOrmaI as tO bc
tscadtng. A cOmmOn lOrm Ol cmpanatt s thc appca tO what
havc caIcd dOrmtttvc prtnctpcs , Owtng re wOrd dsrtttve lrOm
OIirc. hcrc ts a cOda tn dOg tt OItrc Ma/adeIagtnatre,
and tn thts cOda, wc scc On thc stag cdtcva a dOctOra cxamtna
On hc cxamtncrs ask thc candtdat y Optu ut pcOpc tO sccp.
hc candtdatc trtumphanty answcrs causc, ncd dOctOrs , tt cOn-
tatns a dOrmtttvc prtnctpIc. `
c can tmagtnc thc candtdat cndtng re rcst Ol hts tlc ac-
tOna
ttng Optum tn a btOchcmtstry I d suctvcy tdcnttlytng tn
htch lracttOn thc sO-caIcd dOrmtttv

ctpc atncd.
A bcttcr answcr tO thc dOctO csttOn d tnvOIvc, nOt thc
O
tu
aIOnc, but a rcatt Onsh p bct thc Opt and thc pcOpc. ln

l
t wOrds, thc dOrmtttvc cxpIanatt
tuaIy l hcs thc truc lacts Ol
l
t asc but what ts, I bcItcvc, tmpO t s that mtttvc cxpanattOns
st

ott a/du.tten. avtng cnunci

a gcnc ty that Optum cOn-

t
ns
a dOrmtttvc princtpc, tt ts thc stbc tO se thts typc Olphras-
in
g
lO a vcry argc numbcr Ol Othc nOcn~ c can say, lOr cx
W
85 M KS!CMS Cl THE WC
ampc, that adrcnatn cOntatns an cnItvcntng prtnctpc and rcscrptnc a
tranguttztng prtnctpIc. hts wt gtvc us , abctt tnaccuratcIy and cpts-
tcmOOgtcaIIy unacccptaby handIcs wtth whtch tO grab at a vcry Iargc
numbcr Ol phcnOmcna that appcar tO bc lOrmay cOmparabIc. And, tn-
dccd, thcy arc lOrmay cOmparabc tO thts cxtcnt , that tnvOktng a prtn-
ctpc tn:tdc snc .ssncnt ts tn lact thc crrOr that ts madc tn cvcry Onc Ot
thcsc cascs.
hc lact rcmatns that as a mattcr Ol natura htstOryand wc arc
as tntcrcstcd tn naturaI htstOry as wc arc tn strtct cptstcmOIOgyabduc-
ttOn ts a grcat cOmlOrt tO pcOpIc, and lOrma cxpanattOn ts Oltcn a bOrc.
`Nan thtnks tn twO ktnds Oltcrms Onc, thc natura tcrms , sharcd wtth
bcasts, thc Othcr, thc cOnvcnttOnaI tcrms (thc IOgtcas) cnOycd by man
aOnc. `
hts chaptcr has cxamtncd vartOus ways tn whtch thc cOmbtntng
OltnlOrmattOn Oldthcrcnt sOrts Or lrOm dthcrcnt sOurccs rcsuts tn sOmc-
thtng mOrc than addtttOn. hc aggrcgatc ts grcatcr than thc sum Ot tt
parts bccausc thc cOmbtntng Ol thc parts ts nOt a stmpc addtng but t
Olthc natrc O a mttpItcattOn Or a lracttOnattOn, Or thc ccattOn Ola
IOgtca prOduct . A mOmcntary gcam Olcntghtcnmcnt .
5O tO cOmpIctc thts chaptcr and bctOrc attcmpttng cvcn a tsttng
Olthc crttcrta Ol mcnta prOccss, tt ts apprOprtatc tO OOk brtchy at tht
stucturc tn a much mOrc pcrsOna and mOrc untvcrsaI way.
I havc cOnststcnty hcd my anguagc tOan `tntccctua Or Ob-
ccttvc mOdc, and thts mc ts cOnvcntcnt lOr many purpOscs (Ony t
bc avOtdcd whcn uscd tO avOtd rccOgntttOn Ol thc Obscrvcrs btas and
stancc) .
O put away thc guast Obccttvc, at Icast tn part , ts nOt dtlhcut
and such a changc tn mOdc ts prOpOscd by such gucsttOns as hat t
thts bOOk abOut hat ts tts pcrsOnamcantng tO mc: hatam trytng
tO say Or tO dtscOvcr:
hc gucsttOn `hat am I trytng tO dtscOvcr: ts nOt as un
swcrabc as mysttcs wOud havc us bcItcvc. rOm thc manncr Ol thc
scarch, wc can rcad what sOrt Ol dtscOvcry thc scarchcr may thcrcb
" t ! tam OI Lcham, I 2dI p4V, QuOt y arrcn mclh tn hs Emtmos
,
m. . . rcss. !VJ.

d M mI A IAX
rcach and knOwtng thts , wc may suspcct that such a dtscOvcry ts what
thc scarchcr sccrcty and uncOnsctOusy dcstrcs .
hts chaptcr has dcncd and cxcmptcd a anner e):ear.h, and
thcrclOrc thts ts thc mOmcnt tO ratsc twO gucsttOns Or what am
scarchtng: O what gucsttOns havc lty ycars Olsctcncc cd mc:
hc manncr Olthc scarch ts patn tOmc and mtght bc cacd thc
ethede)deu//e u/tt/e .eart:en.
LOnstdcr thc casc OlbtnOcuar vtstOn I cOmparcd what cOud bc
sccn wtth Onc cyc wtth what cOud bc sccn wtth twO cycs and nOtcd that
tn thts cOmpartsOn thc twO-cycd mcthOd Ol scctng dtscOscd an cxtra
dtmcnstOn cacddeth. Dut thc twO-cycd way Olscctng ts ttsclan act Ol
cOmpartsOn. In Othcr wOrds , thc chaptcr has bccn a scrtcs OlcOmparattvc
studtcs Ol thc cOmparattvc mcthOd. hc sccttOn On btnOcuar visiOn (scc-
ttOn )was such a cOmparattvc study OlOnc mcthOd OlcOmpartsOn, and
thc sccttOn On catchtng utO (sccttOn ) was anOthcr cOmparattvc study
Olthc cOmparattvc mcthOd. hus thc whOc chaptcr, tn whtch such tn-
stanccs arc paccd stdc by stdc, bccamc a dtspay tnvtttng thc rcadcr tO
achtcvc t nstght by cOmpartng thc t nstanccs Oncwtth anOthcr.
tnay a that cOmpartng Ol cOmpartsOns was btt up tO prc-
parc authOr and rcadcr lOr thOught abOut prObcms Ol Patura Ntnd.
hcrc, tOO, wc sha cncOuntcr crcattvc cOmpartsOn. It ts thc atOntc
thcsts Ol thc bOOk that cptstcmOOgy ts an tndtvtstbc, tntcgratcd mcta-
sctcncc whOsc subcct mattcr ts thc wOrd OlcvOuttOn, thOught , adapta-
ttOn cmbryOOgy, and gcncttcsthc sctcncc Olmt nd tn thc wtdcst scnsc
Olthc wOrd.
hc cOmpartng Ol thcsc phcnOmcna (cOmpartng thOught wtth
cv
OuttOn and cptgcncsts wtth bOth) ts thc annere):ear.h Olthc sctcncc
cacd `cptstcmOOgy.
Lr, t n thc phrastng Ol thts chaptc , wc may say that cpts-
tc
mOOgy ts thc bOnus lrOm cOmbtntng tnstghts lrOm a thcsc scparatc
g
cncttc sctcnccs.
Dut cptstcmOOgy ts aways and tncvttabyer:ena/. hc pOtnt Ol
"hc
rcadcr WtI prhaps nOttcc tha cOscOusncss ts mtsstn_ trOm thts ;s. prctcr O usc that
Ord, nOt as a _cncra tcrm, bu spccthcay tO that stran_c cpcrtcncc Whccby Wc (and pcrhaps
Othcr
mammaIs) arc sOmcttmcs cOnscOus Ot thc prOducts Ot Or pcrccptIOn and thOu_ht but uncOn
sctOus Othc _rcatcrpart Otthc prcsscs.
W
87 M NbbLIb L t Lb1
thc prObc ts aways tn thc hcart Ol thc cOrcr hat ts answcr tO
thc gucsttOn Ol thc naturc OlknOwtng: surrcndcr tO thc bctcl that my
[ knOwtng tsa sma part Ola wtdcr ntcgratcd knOwtng that kntts thc cn-
ttrc bOsphcrc Or crcattOn.

88 M mI AI IAbL
N
\i1iP
\
1P
\\1''
Co_|o, cr_o 1um.
OESCARTE$, Lt1tour:c on Ac|hod
Jhs chaptcr s an attcmpt tO makc a st Olcr tcra such
that l any aggrcgatc OlphcnOmcna, any systcm, sats-
h cs a thc crtcra stcd, I sha unhcstatngy say that
thc aggrcgatc s atndand sha cxpcct that , lI am tO
undcrstand that aggrcgatc, I sha nccdsOrts Olcxpana-
tOn
dhcrcnt lrOm thOsc whch wOud sulh cc tO cxpan thc charactcr-
st
ics Ol ts smacr parts .
Jhs st s thc cOrncrstOnc Ol thc whOc bOOk. PO dOubt Othcr
c
rt
cra
cOud bc adduccd and mght pcrhaps rcpacc Or atcr thc st Ol-
crcd
hcrc. crhaps Out Ol L. 5pcnccr-DrOwns u :) :r Or Out Ol
c
n
JhO s .ata:tr:he the:r, dccp rcstructurng Ol thc lOundatOns Ol
athcmatcs and cpstcmOOgy may cOmc. Jhs bOOk must stand Or la ,
Ot by thc partcuar cOntcnt Olmy st , but by thc vadty Ol thc dca
W
9 M mIA bLL1bb
that sOmc such structurtng OI ctstcmOOgy cvOuttOn, and cptgcncsts t
pOsstbc. I prOpOsc that thc t nd-bOdy prObcm ts sOubc aOng tnc
stmtar tO thOsc hcrc Outtncd.
hc crttcrta OImt nd that sccm tO mc tO wOrk tOgcthcr tO supp
thts sO utt On arc hcrc tstcd tO gtvc thc rcadcr a prctmtnary survcy
Ol
what ts rOpOscd.
l . A tndt:anaggregate e) tntera.ttngart: er.eenent:.
Thetntoa.tten /etweenart:e)tndt:trtggoed/d; eren.e,
dtIIcrcncc ts a nOnsubstantta hcnOmcnOn nOt Ocatcd tn spacc Or ttmc
dtIIcrcncc ts rcatcd tO ncgcntrOpy and cntrOpy rathcr than tO cncrgy.
. Menta/re.e: requtre: .e//atera/ energ.
4 . Menta/re.e:: requtre: .tr.u/ar (erere.e/ex) .hatn: e)detot-

natten.

Inenta/re.: thee))e.t: e)dten.earete/eregardeda:tra-
)er: (t. e. .edd ier:ten:) e) eient: wht.h re.eded the. hc rucs OI uch
transIOrmattOn must bc cOmparattvcy stabc ( t . c. , mOrc stabc than th

cOntcnt)
but arc thcmscvcs su cct tO transIOrmattOn.
The de:.rtttenanda::q.atten e) the:ere.e: e) tran:)eratte
dt:./e:e a hterar.h e)/egt.a/te: tanent tn theheneena.
sha argucthat thchcnOmcna whtch wc catheught, e/utte
e.e/eg, /t)e, /mrntng, and thc t c Occur On tn systcms that satt sI
crttcrta.
I havc arcady prcscntcd tO cOnstdcrabc batchcs OI
t ustratt ng thc naturc OImcnta prOccss. In Lhaptcr , thc rcadcr
gtvcn amOst dtdattc advtcc aOut hO tO thtnk, and tn Lhaptcr ,
Or shc was gtvcn cucs tO hOw thOughts cOmc tOgcthcr. hts
bcgtnnt ng OI a study OI hOw tO thtnkabOut thnkng.
c nOw gO tO usc thcsc crttcrta tO dtIIcrcnttatc
mcna OItheught IrOm thc much stmpcr phcnOmcnacacd aterta/
LLKIP l . A IP I5 AP ALLKLLAL L
IPLKALIPL AK5 LK LLNLPLP5
In many cscs, sOmc arts OI sch an aggrcgatc may
satts a thc crttcrta and t n thts casc thc, tOO, arc tO bc rcgardc
d
U N mII AI IA
:n Or :u/:nd:. Aways , hOwcvcr, thcrc s a Owcr cvc Ol dvsOn
su
ch that thc rcsutng parts , whcn cOnsdcrcd scparatcy, ack thc cOm-
pcxty ncccssary tO achcvc thc crtcra Olmnd.
n a wOrd, dO nOt bccvc that sngc subatOmc partccs arc
mnds` n my scnsc bccausc I dO bccvc that mcnta prOccss s aways a
scgucncc Ol ntcractOns /etween parts. hc ex/anat::n Ol mcnta phcnO
mcna must aways rcsdc n thc OrganzatOn and ntcractOn Olmutpc
parts.
O many rcadcrs , t w sccm unncccssary tO nsst upOn ths
hrst crtcrOn. Dut thc mattcr s mpOrtant , lOny tO mcntOn and ds-
card thc cOntrary OpnOns, t s cvcnmOrc mpOrtant tOstatc thc rcasOns
lOr my ntOcrancc. 5cvcra rcspcctcd thnkcrs , cspccay 5amuc Dutcr,
tO whOm havc Owcd much pcasurc and nsght, and, mOrc rcccnt y,
chard dc Lhardn, havc prOpOscd thcOrcs OlcvOutOn whch assumc
sOmc mcnta strvng tO bc charactcrstc Olthc smacst atOmcs.
As scc t , thcsc hypOthcscs ntrOducc thc supcrnatura by thc
backdOOr. O acccpt th s nOtOn s, lOr mc, a sOrt Olsurrcndcr. t s say-
ing that thcrc arc n thc unvcrsc cOmpcxtcs Ol actOn whch arc
ncxpcabc bccausc thcy cxst ndcpcndcnt Ol any suppOrtng cOmpcx
ty n whch thcy cOud bc suppOscd tO bc mmancnt thOut dllcrcn-
tatOn Olparts , thcrc can bc nO dbcrcntat On Olcvcnts Or nctOnng.
l thc atOmcs arc nOt thcmscvcs ntcrnay dbcrcntatcd n thcr nd-
vdua anatOmy, thcn thc appcarancc OlcOmpcxprOccss can Ony bc duc
tO ntcractOnbctwccn atOmcs.
Lr l thc atOmcs arc ntcrnay dbcrcntatcd, thcn thcy arc by
my dch ntOnn:tatOmcs , and sha ccct tO nd st smpcr cnttcs
that w bc dcvOd Olmcnta nctOnng.
naybut Ony as thc ast rcsOrtl dc Lhardn and Dutcr
arc
rght n suppOsng that thc atOmcs havc nO ntcrna dbcrcntatOn
and st arccndOwcd wth mcnta charactcrstcs , thcn a cxpanatOn s

mpO
ssbc, and wc, as sccntsts, shOud cOsc shOp and gO hshng.
hc whOc Olthc prcscnt bOOk w bcbascd Onthc prcmsc that
m
cnta lunctOn s mmancnt n thc ntcractOn Oldbcrcntatcd `parts.
hOcs` arc cOnsttutcd by such cOmbncd ntcractOn.
n ths mattcr, prclcr tO lOOw amarck, whO, n scttng up
Ost
uatcs lOr a sccncc Ol cOmparatvc psychOOgy, ad dOwn thc ruc
t

at nO mcnta lunctOn sha bc ascrbcd tO an Organsm lOr whch

95 M IA bLLbb
thc cOmpcxtty Ol thc ncrvOus systcm Ol thc Organtsm s tnsul ctcnt.
n Othcr wOrds , thc thcOry Ol mtnd prcscntcd hcrc ts hOtsttc
and, tkc a scrtOus hOism, ts prcmtscd upOn thc dthcrcnttattOn and tn
tcracttOn Olparts.
LKLKLP . L PLKLLP DLLLP AK5
L NP 5 KLLLKL D LKLPLL
hcrc arc, Ol cOursc, many systcms whtch arc madc Ol many
parts rangtng Om gaatcs tO sand duncs tO tOy OcOmOttvcs. ar bc tt
lrOm mc tO suggcst that a Ol thcsc arc mtnds Or cOntatn mt nds Or
cngagc t nmcnta prOccss . hc tOy OcOmOttvc may bccOmc a par tn that
mcnta systcm whtch tncudcs thc chtd whO pays wtth t t, and thc
gaaxy may bccOmc part Ol thc mcnta systcm whtch tncudcs thc as-
trOnOmcr and hts tccscOpc. Dut thc Obccts dO nOt bccOmc thtnktng
subsystcms tn thOsc argcr mtnds. hc crttcrta arc usclu Ony tn cOmbt
nattOn.
c prOcccd nOw tO cOnstdcr thc naturc Olthc rcattOnshtps bc-
twccn parts. Ow dO parts tntcract tO crcatc mcnta prOccss:
crc wc mcct wtth a vcry markcd dtllcrcncc bctwccn thc way tn
whtch wc dcscrtbc thc Ordtnary matcrta untvcrsc (ungs pcrOma) and
thc way tn wht ch wc arc lOrccd tO dcscrtbc mtnd. hc cOntrast tcs tn
thts that , lOr thc matcrta untvcrsc, wc sha cOmmOny bc abc tO say
that thc `causc Olan cvcnt ts sOmc lOrcc Or tmpact cxcrtcd upOn sOmc
part Olthc matcrta systcm by sOmc Onc Othcr part. Lnc part acts upOn
anOthcr part . ln cOntrast, tn thc wOrd Oltdcas , tt takcs are/attsht c
thcr bctwccn twO parts Or bctwccn a part at ttmc ! and thc samc part at
ttmc , tO acttvatc sOmc thtrd cOmpOncnt whtch wc may ca thcre.et
Philo:ohitZoo ique ( I 809), rs cdtttOn, csQCtay art III, Lhaptcr . marCks titc c 5
hcc rcprOduCcd and a transattOn IOOws.
OOOgtCaI htOsOphy Or stttOn OILOnstdcrattOns rcattvc tO thc natu htstOry OI ntD8$,
thc dtvcrstty Ot thctr tntcrna| OrgantzattOn and Ot thc {mcnta| taCuttcs whtCh thcy gct trOm th
{OrgantzattOn|, and rcattvc tO thc phystCaI Causcs whtCh matntatn i tc tn thcm and gtVc spaCc tOthc
mOvcmcnts whtCh thcy cxcCutc, and hnaIy, rcattvc tO thOsc phystCa Causcs| whiCh prOduCc, sOc
Ot thcm thc QrCcpttOn and Othcrs thc tntctgcnCc OI thOsc {antmas| whtCh arc cndOwcd wtth thO5r
]IaCuttcs].
hc rcadcr wt nOtc that cvcn On his tttc pagc mak ts Carc tO nstst upOn an t
and arttCuatc statcmcnt OtrcattOns ctwccn `phystCa Causc, `Organtzatt On, `scnttmcnt anO
tcItgcnCc. (hc transIattOn OI thc nCh wOrds , :totimtot andiott|limct, ts dtICut. As rcad t,
:eotimmt ts COsc tO what ngtsh spcaktng psyChOOgtsts wOud Ca `pcrCcpttOn, andiottitntt

CIOsc tO what wc wOud Ca `tntccCt. )

94 M mU A ^b

"

c 1t
,

de t
irc a
c
- e e 1 t
t e

'at0ca 0 0

- -

,
.

,
. -" ,

,
.
4

s , W

4A
A
|:a

|a
,
,
-
.

4eHane ).

hat thc rccctvcr (c. g. , a scnsOry cnd Organ) rcspOnds tO ts adteren.e Or

a .hange.
n ungs pcrOma, thcrc arc nO dhcrcnccs, nO dtsttncttOns. t t
that nOnmcnta rcam Ol dcscrtpttOn whcrc d;eren.e bctwccn twO part
nccd ncvcr bc cvOkcd tO cxpatn thc rcspOnsc Ola thtrd.
t ts surprtstng tOhnd hOw rarc arc cascs tn thc nOnOrgantc wOr
tn whtch sOmc A rcspOnds tO a dtoen.e bctwccn sOmc D and sOmc C.
hc bcst cxampc can thnk Ols thc casc Olan autOmObtc travctng
Ovcr a bump n thc rOad. hts t nstancc cOmcs cOsc, at cast , tO mccttng
Our vcrba dchntOn Ol what happcns tn prOccsscs Ol pcrccpttOn by
mt nd. Lxtcrna tO thcautOmObtc thcrc arc thc twO cOmpOncnts Ola dtl
lcrcncc thc cvc Ol thc rOad and thc cvc Ol thc tOp Olthc bump. hc
car apprOachcs thcsc wtth tts Own cncrgy OlmOttOn and umps tntO thc
atr undcr tmpact Ol thc dthcrcncc, ustng tts Own cncrgy lOr thts rc
spOnsc. hts cxampc cOntatns a numbcr Ol lcaturcs cOscy rcmtntsccnt
Olwhat happcns whcn a scnsc OrganrcspOnds tO Or cOccts a ptccc Oltn '
lOrmattOn.
hcscnscOltOuch t sOnc Olthc mOst prtmttvc andstmpc Olthc
scnscs , and what scnsOry t nlOrmattOn ts can casty bc ustratcd by ustng
tOuch as an cxampc. n ccturtng, cOmmOny makc a hcavy dOt wtth
chak On thc surlacc Olthc backbOard, crushtng thc chak a tttc agatnst
thc bOad tO achtcvc sOmc thtckncss tn thc patch. nOw havc On thc
bOard sOmcthtng rathcr kc thc bump tn thc rOad. l Owcr my
hngcrttpa tOuch-scnsttvc arcavcrtcay OntO thc whttc spOt , sha
nOt lcc t t. Dut tl mOvc my hngcr acrOss thc spOt, thc dllcrcncc tn
cvcs s vcry cOnspcuOus. knOw cxacty whcrc thc cdgc Ol thc dOt t
hOw stccp t t s, and sO On. (A thts assumcs that havc cOrrcct OptntOn
abOut thc OcazatOn and scnsttvtty Olmy hngcrttp, lOr many anctary
sOrts OlnlOrmattOn arc asO nccdcd. )
hat happcns t s that a statc, unchangtng statc Olahatrs , cxtt
tng, suppOscdy , n thc Outstdc untvcrsc gutc rcgardcss Ol whcthcr wc
scnsc tt Or nOt , bccOmcs thc causc Olan cvcnt , a stcp ncttOn, a sharp
changc tn thc statc Olthc rcattOnshtp bctwccn my hngcrttp and thc sur
lacc Olthc backbOard. Ny hngcr gOcs smOOthy Ovcr thc unchangcd sur
lacc untt cncOuntcr thc cdgc Ol thc whttc spOt . t that mOmcnt tn
tte, thcrc s a dtscOnttnut ty, a stcp, and sOOn altcr, thcrc ts a rcvcrs
c
stcp as my hngcr cavcs thc spOt bchnd.
96 M mI AI IA
hts cxampIc, whtch ts typtcaI Ol aII scnsOry cxpccncc, shOws
h
Ow Our scnsOry systcmand surcIy thc scnsOry systcms Ol aII Othcr
cr
caturcs (cvcn pIants:) and thc mcntaI systcms bchtnd thc scnscs
( t . c. ,
th
Osc parts Olthc mcntaI systcms tnstdc thc crcaturcs)an OnIy Opcrat

vtth eent: whtch wc can caII .hange:.

hc unchangtng ts tmpcrccpttbIc unIcss wc arc wtIItng tO mOvc
rcIattvc tO t t.
n thc casc OlvtstOn, tt t s truc that wc thtnk wc can scc thc
unchangtng. c scc what IOOks Itkc thc stattOnary, unmarkcd bIack-
bOard, nOt ust thc OutItncs Ol thc spOt. Dut thc truth Ol thc mattcr ts
that wc cOnttnuOusIy dO wtth thc cyc what was dOtng wtth my hngcr-
t. hc cycbaII has a cOnttnuaI trcmOr, caIIcd t.rsn:tagu:. hc cyc-
baII vtbratcs thrOugh a lcw sccOnds Olarc and thcrcby causcs thc Opttca
tmagc On thc rcttna tOmOvc rcIattvc tO thc rOds and cOncs whtch arc thc
cnstttvc cnd Organs. hc cnd Organs arc thus tn cOnttnuaI rccctpt Ol
cvcnts that cOrrcspOnd tOsut/tne: tn thc vtstbIc wOrId. cdraw dtsttnc-
ttOns, that ts , wc puII thcm Out. hOsc dtsttncttOns that rcmatn un-
drawn arc nst. hcy arc IOst lOrcvcr wtth thc sOund Ol thc laIItng trcc
whtch DtshOp DcrkcIcy dtd nOt hcar. hcy arc part OltIItam DIakcs
cOrpOrcaI `PObOdy knOws Ol tts wcIItng Iacc tt ts tn aIIacy, and
its xtstcncc an mpOsturc.`1
POtOrtOusIy tt ts vcry dtlhcuIt tO dctcct graduaI changc bccausc
IOng wtth Our htgh scnstttvtty tO raptd changc gOcs aIsO thc phcnOmc

On Ol accOmmOdattOn. Lrgantsms bccOmc habttuatcd. O dtsttngutsh

ctwccn sIOw changc and thc (tmpcrccpttbIc) unchangtng, wc rcutrc tn-

OrmattOn Ola dtllcrcnt sOrt, wc nccd a cIOck.

hc mattcr bccOmcs cvcn wOrsc whcn wc try tO udgc thc trend-
JhC tshCQ 8r_uCU th8t Cny thC QCrCCtVCU ts `rC8 8nU th8t thC trCC WhtCh !8suobmrJ m8kCs nu
un
U. WCuU 8r_uC th8t 8tCnt Ut!!CtCnCCs, t . C. , thCsC Whtch !Cr Wh8tCVCr rC8sCn UC nCt m8kC 8
]
Ut!!
CrCnCC, 8rC nCt io}orwtioo . 8nU th8t `rts , `WhCCs, trCCs , 8nU `sCunUs CxIst 8s suCh Cny
i n quCt8ttCn m8rks. t tsucWhC Ut!!CtCntt8tC trCC !rCm `8tr 8nU `C8rth, `WhCIC !rCm `Q8rt,
,.nU sC Cn. utUCnCt !Cr_Ct that thC `trCC ts 8tVC 8nU thCrC!CrC ttsCI!C8Q8C C!rCCCtVtn_ CCrt8tn
;-
Ctts
C! tn!Crm8ttCn. t t m8y UtsCrtmtn8tC `WCt !rCm `Ury.
n thts k h8VC m8ny ttmCs usCU uCt8ttCn m8rks tC rCmtnU thC rCaUCr C! thCsC truths.

trt
Cty s8ktn_, CVCryWCrU tn thC Ck shCuU tn quCt8ttCn m8rks, thus. ':oito' 'cro 'um.
C
atalouc}ortbc Ycar II0 8kC s8ys CsCWhCrC, NtsC mCn sCC CuttnCs 8nU thCrC!CrC thCy UraW
hCm. |C Is ustn_ thC WCrUJrau In 8UI!!CrCnt sCnsC!rCm th8t In WhICh WC s8y WC Ur8W UIstInC-
Cns, ut hCUtaWsstmtI8r CCnCustCns. ^ttnC8VC h8s UCmCnstr8tCU th8t tn!Crm8ttCn ( t . C. , QCrCCQtt-

.IC
Ut!!CtCncC Cr UtsttnCttCn) ts nCCCss8rty CCnCCntr8tCU 8t CuttnCs. bCC )rCUCttCk ^ttnC8VC, Alica
ioos
o}|o}ormatioo Tbco to P::bolog (`CW YCrk. |CIt, )tnCh8rt 8nU NtnstC, (959).
97 N bL ^ )LlLbb
tng OIphcnOmcna that arc charactcrtsttcay changcabc. hc wcathcr , IOr
cxampc, ts cOnttnuay changtngIrOm hOur tO hOur, IrOm day tO day,
IrOm wcck tO wcck. Dut ts tt changtng IrOm ycar tO ycar: 5Omc ycars arc
wcttcr and sOmc hOttcr , but ts thcrc a trcnd t n thts cOnttnua ztgzag:
ny stattsttca study, Ovcr pcrtOds Ongcr than human mcmOry, can tc
us . In such cascs wc nccd t nIOrmattOn abOut ua::e: OIycars.
5tmt ary tt ts vcry dtIhcut IOr us tO pcrcctvc changcs tn Our
Own sOcta aatrs , tn thc ccOOgy arOund us , and sO On. Ow many pcO-
pc arc cOnsctOus OIthc astOntshtng dccrcasc tn thc numbcr OIbuttcrhtcs
tn Our gardcns: r OI btrds: hcsc thtngs undcrgO drasttc changc, but
wc bccOmc accustOmcd tO thc ncw statc OI aIIatrs bcIOrc Our scnscs can
tc us that tt ts ncw.
hc Icntng OI a bOxcr, whO makcs mOvcs as tI tO htt wtth hts
cIt hand wtthOuthttttng, dccctvcs us tntObctcvtngthatthatcIt handts
nOt gOtng tO httuntt tt dOcs htt , and wc arc unpcasanty surprtscd
t ts a nOntrtvta mattcr that wc arc amOst aways unawarc OI
trcnds tn Our changcs OIstatc. hcrc ts a guastsctcntthc Iabc that tIyOu
can gct a IrOg tO stt gutcty tn a sauccpan OIcOd watcr, and tIyOu thcn
ratsc thc tcmpcraturc OIthc watcrvcrysOwyandsmOOthysO thatthcrc
ts nO mOmcntarked tO bc thc mOmcnt at whtch thc IrOg shOud ump,
hc wt ncvcr ump. c wt gct bOtcd. Is thc human spcctcs changtng
tts Own cnvtrOnmcnt wtth sOwy tncrcastng pOuttOn and rOtttng tts
mtnd wtth sOwy dctcrtOrattng rctgtOn and cducattOn tn such a saucc-
pan:
Dut I am cOnccrncd at thts mOmcnt Ony wtth undcrstandtng
hOw mtnd and mcnta prOccss must ne.e::art/ wOrk. hat arc thctr tm-
ttattOns: And, prcctscy bccausc thc mtnd can rccctvc ncws Ony OI dtI-
Icrcncc, thcrc ts a dtIhcuty tn dtscrtmtnattng bctwccn a:/sw .hange and
a:tate. hcrc ts ncccssarty a thrcshOd OIgradtcnt bcOw whtch gradtcnt
cannOt bc pcrcctvcd.
tcrcncc, bct ng OI thc naturc OIrcattOnshtp, ts nOt Ocatcd tn
ttmc Or tn spacc. c saythat thc whttc spOt ts `thcrc, n thc mtdd

OI thc backbOard, but thc dthcrcncc bctwccn thc spOt and thc back-
bOard ts nOt thcrc. t ts nOt tn thc spOt tt s nOt tn thc backbrd t
ts nOt tn thc spacc bctwccn thc bOard andthc cha k. I cOud pcrhaps tI
thc chak Oh thc bOard and scnd tt tOAustra ta, but thc dthcrcncc wOud

98 M wL ^L ^H
nOt bc dcstrOycd Or cvcn shltcd bccausc dllcrcncc dOcs nOt havc Oca-
tOn.
hcn 1 wpc thc backbOad, whcrc dOcs thc dlcrcncc gO: n
Onc scnsc, thcdllcrcncc s randOmzcdand rrcvcrs bygOnc, as sha
bc gOnc whcn ! dc. n anOthcr scnsc, thc dllcrcncc w cndurc as an
dcaas part Olmykaras Ong as ths bOOk s rcad, pcrhaps as Ong
s thc dcas n ths bOOk gO n tO lOrm Othcr dcas , rc ncOrpOratcd ntO
Othcr m nds. Dut ths cndurng karmc nlOrmatOn w bc nlOrmatOn
abOut an mag nary spOt On an magnary backbOard.
ant argucd Ong agO that ths pccc Olchak cOntans a m On
pOtcnta lacts (Tat:a.hen)but that Ony a vcry lcw OlthcscbccOmc truy
lacts by ahcctng thc bchavOr Olcnttcs capabc OlrcspOndng tO lacts.
Or ants Tat:a.hen, wOud substtutcd eren.e: and pOnt Outthat thc
numbcr Ol stentta/dhcrcnccs n ths chak s nhntc but that vcry lcw
Ol thcm bccOmc ee:ttie dhcrcnccs ( . c. , tcms Ol nlOrmatOn) n thc
mcnta prOccss Ol any argcr cntty. In)srattsn cOnssts Ol dhcrcnccs
that makc a dhcrcncc.
w
att

he u+Tcrcncc bctwccn thc chak and a pccc

Olchccsc, yOu w bc ahcctcd by that dhcrcncc, pcrhaps avOdng thc
cat ng Olthc chak, pcrhaps tastng t tO vcrly my ca m. ts nOnchccsc
naturc has bccOmc an chcctvc dllcrcncc. Dut a mOn Othcr dl-
lcrcnccspOstvc and ncgatvc, ntcrna and cxtcrna tO thc chak
rman atcnt and ncllcctvc.
DshOpDcrkccywasrght, atcastnasscrtng thatwhathappcns
n thc lOrcst s eantng/e:: lhc s nOt thcrc tO bc ahcctcd by t.
carc dtscuss ng a wOrd Ol eantng a wOrd sOmc OlwhOsc dc-
tas and dllcrcnccs , bg and sma n sOmc parts Ol that wOrd, gct
rer
e:ented n rcatOns bctwccnOthcr parts Olthat tOta wOrd. A changc
n my ncurOns Or n yOurs must rcprcscnt that changc n thc lOrcst , that
lang Olthat trcc. Dut nOt thcphysca cvcnt Ony thcdea Olthc phys
ca cvcnt . And thc dca has nO OcatOn n spacc Or tmcny pcrhaps
n
an :dea Olspacc Or tmc.
hcn thcrc s thc cOnccpt `cncrgy whOsc prccsc rclcrcnt s
las
hOnaby cOnccacd by cOntcmpOrary lOrms OlObscurantsm. 1 am nOt
a
physcst , nOt up tO datc n mOdcrn physcs, but ! nOtc that thcrc arc
t
wO cOnvcntOna dcntOns Or a:ett: (s that thc wOrd O`cncrgy.
havc a dlhcuty n undcrstandng thcsc twO dcntOns s muta
W
99 M PA bLLbb
ncOusythcy sccm tO cOnh tct. Dut tt ts ccar tOmc that nctthcr dchnt
ttOn ts rccvant tO what am tatng abOut .
Lnc dchntttOn asscrts that `cncrgy` ts Ol thc samc Ordcr Ol ab
stracttOn as mattcr that bOth arc sOmchOw :u/:tan.e: and arc mutuay
cOnvcrttbc Onc tntO thc Othcr. Dut dthcrcncc ts prcctscy net substancc.
Jhc Othcr dchntttOn ts mOrc OdlashtOncd and dcscrtbcs cncrgy
as havtng thc dtmcnstOns M |

. LlcOursc, dtllcrcncc, whtch ts usuay a

ratte bctwccn stmtars , has nO dtmcnstOns . t ts qua/ttattve, nOt quanttta-
ttve 5cc Lhaptcr , tn whtch thc rcattOn bctwccn guanttty and guatty
Or pattcrn was cxamtncd. )
Or mc, thc wOrd :ttu/u: dcnOtcs a mcmbcr Ola cass OltnlOr-
mattOn cOmtng tn thrOugh a scnsc Organ. Or many spcakcrs, tt sccms tO
mcan a push Or shOtOl`cncrgy. `
lthcrc arc rcadcrs whO stt want tO cguatc t nlOrmattOn and dtl
lcrcncc wtth cncrgy wOud rcmtnd thcm that O dtllcrs lrOm ene and
can thcrclOrc trtggcr rcspOnsc. Jhc starvtng amba wt bccOmc mOrc
acttvc hunttng lOr lOOd, thc grOwtng pant wt bcnd away lrOm thc
dark, and thc t ncOmc tax pcOpc wt bccOmcacrtcd by thc dccarattOn
whtch yOu dtd nOt scnd. Lvcnts wht.h are net arc dthcrcnt lrOm thOc
whtch mtght havc bccn, and cvcnts whtch arc nOt surcy cOntrtbutc n
cncrgy.
LKlJLKlLP . NLPJA KLLL55 KL\KL5
LLAJLKA LPLKL
AthOugh tt ts ccar that mcnta prOccsscs arc trtggcrcd by dl
lcrcncc at thc stmpcst cvc) and that dthcrcncc ts net cncrgy an
usuay cOntatns nO cncrgy, tt rcmatns ncccssary tO dtscuss thc cncrgctc
Olmcnta prOccss bccausc prOccsscs Ol whatccr ktnd, rcgutrc cncrgy.
tvtng thtngs arc subcct tO thcgrcat cOnscrvattvc rcguartttcs
phystcs. Jhc aws Ol cOnscrvattOn Ol mass and Ol cncrgy appy cOm
pctcy tO tvtng crcaturcs. Jhcrc ts nO crcattOn Or dcstructtOn Olcncrg
y
(M|) tn thc bustncss Ol tvtng. Ln thc Othcr hand, thc :ntax lOr thc
dcscrtbtng Ol thc cncrgcttcs Oltlc ts a dthcrcnt syntax lrOm that whch
was uscd 00 ycars agO tO dcscrtbc thc cncrgcttcs Ol lOrcc and tmpact.
Jhts dtllcrcncc Olsyntax ts my thtrd crttcrtOn Olmcnta prOccss.
Jhcrc ts a tcndcncy tOday amOng subatOmtc phystctsts tO uc
W
\ OO A1^1 P^1 ^b
mctaphOrs takcn lrOm lc tO dcscrbc thc cvcnts nsdc thc accccratOr
PO dOubt ths trck Olspccch, tcchncaIIy cacd thcathett.)aha. s as
vrOng as that Ol vhch l cOmpa n, athOugh css dangcrOus O kcn
thc mOuntan tO a man and tak Ol ts `humOr` Or ragc dOcs ttc
harm. Dut tO kcn thc man tO thc mOuntan prOpOscs that a human
rcatOnshps arc vhat Nart n Dubcr mght caItt Or pcrhaps tt-tt rca-
tOns. hc mOuntan, pcrsOnhcd n Our spccch, wII nOt bccOmc a pcr
sOn, v nOt /earn a mOrc pcrsOna way Olbcng. Dut thc human bcng
dcpcrsOnhcd n hs Ovn tak and thOught , may ndccd carn mOrc
thngsh habts OlactOn.
n thc Opcnng paragraph Ol ths scctOn, thc wOrd trtggcrcd vas
uscd vth ntcnt . hc mctaphOr s nOt pcrlcct, but t s at cast mOrc
apprOpratc than a thc mctaphOrc lOrms vhch ascr bc rccvancc tO thc
cncrgy cOnta ncd n thc stmuus cvcnt . Dardba physcs prOpOscs
that vhcn ba A hts ba D, Agtic: cncrgy tO D whch rcspOnds u:tng
hs cncrgy whch A gavc t hat s thc OId syntax and s prOlOund y,
dccpy nOnscnsc. Dctwccn bard bas , thcrc s, OlcOursc nO `httng
Or `gvng Or `rcspOndng Or `usng. ` hOsc wOrds cOmc Out Ol thc
habt Ol pcrsOnng th ngs and, suppOsc, makc t cascr tO gO lrOm
hat nOnscnsc tO thngng pcOp sO that vhcn vc spcak Ol thc
rcspOnsc` Ol a vng thng tO an `cxtcrna stmuus, wc sccm tO bc
takng abOut sOmcthng kc what happcns tO a b ard ba whcn t s
ht by anOthcr.
hcn kck a stOnc, gvc cncrgy tO thc stOnc, and t mOvcs
th that cncrgy and whcn kck a dOg t s truc that my kck has a
party PcvtOnan chcct . l t s hard cnOugh, my kck mght put thc
dOg ntO PcvtOnan Orb t , but that s nOt thc csscncc Ol thc mattcr
hcn kck a dOg, t rcspOnds vth cncrgy gOt lrOm mctabOsm. n
hc cOntrO OlactOn by nlOrmatOn, thc cncrgy s arcady ava abc n
thc
rcspOndcnt , n advancc Ol thc mpact Olcvcnts.
hc trck, whch lc pays cOntnuay but whch undOmcs
" Iircarms arca sOmcwhat t napptOprtatc mctaphOr bccausc t n mOst stmpc hrcarms , thcrc ts Ony a
I i ncaI scQucncc OI cncrgcttC dcpcndcnCtcs. hc trtggcr rcascs a pin Or hammct whOsc mOVcmcnt,
whcn ccascd, i s cncrgtzcd by a sprtng. hc hammcr hrcs a pctcussOn cap whtch ts cncrgicd by
hcmca cncrgy tO prOtdc an t ntcnsc cxOthcrmtc raCtiOn, whtch scts atght thc matn suppy OIcx
Ostc tn thc Cartrtdgc. !n nenrmting hrcarms, thc marksman mst nOw rcpacc thc cncrgctt
hatn, nsctttng a ncw Catttdgc wtth ncw rCusstOn cap. n btOIOgtca systcms, hc cnd Ot thc
nca scQucnCc scts up OndtiOns IOr a Iuturc rcpcttttOn.
I! M mP bLLbb
ticateo matter plays only rarely, s fmi l iar. t is tbe tricko|tbe|aucet,
tbe switcb, tbe relay tbe cbain reaction, ano so onto name a few i n-
stances in wbicb tbe nonliving worlo ooes inoeeo simulate true livingi n
a gross way.
nall tbesecases, tbe energy for tberesponse orehect was avail-
able in tbe responoent before tbeeventoccurreo wbicbtriggereo it . be
kios wbo say tbey are turneo on by certain experiences of sigbt or
souno are using a metapbor wbicb almost makes sense. bey woulo oo
betterstill iftbeysaio tbattbemusicortbeprettyface 'releaseo` tbem
nlifeano its aairs, tbere are typically twoenergetic systems i n
i nteroepenoence ne is tbesystem tbat uses itsenergyt oopen or cose
tbe faucet or gate or relay tbe otber is tbe system wbose energy 'ows
tbrougb` tbe faucet or gate wben it is open.
Tbe C position of tbe switcb is a patbway for tbe passage o|
energy wbicb originates elsewbere Vben turntbefaucet , mywork i n
turning tbe faucet ooes not pusb or pull tbe ow of tbe water . ba
work is oone by pumps or gravity wbose force is set free by myopeni n
tbe faucet . , in control oftbe faucet , am 'permissive or 'constrain
i ng tbe ow oftbe water is energieo from otber sources . partyoe-
termine wbat patbways tbe water wil take ifit ows at all . 0heho t
owsisnot my immeoiate busi ness.
be combining of tbe two systems (tbe macbi nery ofoecsion
ano tbesourceofenergymakestbetotal relationsbip i ntoone ofparti
mobilityoneacb sioe. oucan takeaborsetotbe water, but you cannot
make bim orink. be orining isbis busi ness . But even ifyour borse is
tbirsty, be cannot orink unless you take bim. Tbe taking is your bus-
ness.
But oversi mpitbematterbyfocusing onlyontbeenergetcs
Tbere is also tbe generaliation (criterion ) tbat only oifference cn
trigger response. Ve bave to combine tbat generaliationwitbwba

een sai

aout tbetypical reation ofenergy sources anowi tbte

remaini ng criteria of mental press, namely , tbe organization ut
triggereo events into circuits , cooing, an tbe genesis of bierarcbies o|
meani ng.
LKILKILP 4 NLPA KLLL55 KL\IKL5
LIKL\AK (LK NLKL LLNL7 LAIP5 L
LLKNIPAILP
Il mcrc survtva , mcrc cOnttnuancc, 1 Ol tntcrcst , thcn thc
h
ardcr sOrts Ol rks , such as granttc, havc tO bc put ncar thc tOp Olthc
tst as mOst succcss amOng macrOscOptc cnttttcs. hcy havc rctatncd
thctr charactcrtsttcs unchangcd stncc guttc carIy tn thc lOrmattOn Ol thc
crths crust and havc achtcvcd thts tn many vartcd cnvtrOnmcnts lrOm
Ocs tO trOptcs . Il thc stmpIc tautOIOgy Olthc thcOry Ol natura scccttOn
bc statcd as thOsc dcscrpttvc prOpOstttOns whtch rcmat n truc lOr
Ongcst ttmc rcmatn truc IOngcr than thOsc that bccOmc untruc sOOncr ,
thcn granttc tsa mOrc succcssl cnttty than any spcccs OlOrgantsm.
Du thc rOcks way Ol staytng tn thc gamc ts dtcrcnt lrOm thc
way Ol tvtng thtngs . hc rOck, wc may say rc:t:t: changc, tt stays put ,
nchangtng. hc Itvtng thtng cscapcs changc ctthcr by cOrrccttng
changc Or changtng ttscl tO mcct thc changc Or byt ncOrpOrattng cOnttn-
al changc tntO tts Own bctng. 5tabttty may bc achtcvcd ctthcr by rt
gtdtty Or by cOnttnuaI rcpcttttOn OlsOmc cyccOlsmacr changcs, whtch
cyclc w rcturn tO a tatu: qu untc altcr cvcry dtsturbancc. Paturc
avOtds (tcmpOrarty) what OOks Itkc trrcvcrstbc changc by acccpttng
phcmcra changc. `hc bambOO bcnds bclOrc thc wnd, tn apancsc
ctaphOr and dcath ttsclts avOtdcd by a gutck changc lrOm tndtvtdua
subcct tO cass . Paturc, tO pcrsOntly thc systcm, alOws Od man cath
(asO pcrsOnthcd) tO havc hts tndtvtdua vtcttms whtc shc substttutcs
that
mOrc abstract cnttty, thc css Or taxOn, tO kt whtch cath must
wOrk lastcr than thc rcprOducttvc systcms Ol thc crcaturcs. tnaIy, tl
cath shOuId havc hts vtctOry Ovcr thc spcctcs, Paturc wtI say, `ust
hat I nccdcd lOr my ccOsystcm.
A thts bccOmcs pOsstbc by cOmbtnattOn Ol thOsc crttcrta Ol
mc
ntal prOccss that havc al rcady bccn mcntOncd wth ths lOurth crttc-
t
that thc OrgantzattOn Ol Itvtng thtngs dcpcnds upOn ctrcuar and
Orc cOmpcx chatns OldctcrmtnattOn. A thc ndamcnta crtcra arc
c
Om
btncd tO achtcvc succcss tn that mOdc Olsurvtva whtch charactcrtzcs
ilc.
hc tdca that ctrcuIar causattOn ts Olvcry grcat tmpOrtancc was
s
t gcncratzcd at thc cnd Ol Ord ar II by POrbcrt tcncr and
W
I05 N META PKCCESS
LLVcKLK

|LYVmccL _ _
_
_ ||cL

LYLl LcK
lrur:
perbaps otber eng neers wbo were working witb tbe matbematics ot
nonliving systems (i . e. , macbines) . Tbis matter is best unoerstooo b
means ofa bigbly simpliheo mecbanical oiagram ( figure ) .
Imagine a macbine i n wbicb we oistinguisb, say, four pats
wbicb I bave loosely calleo ywbeel , 'governor , el , ano cyln
oer . In aooition, tbe macbine isconnecteo to tbe outsioe worlo in tw
ways , energy i nput ano loao, wbicb is to be imagineo d variable
ano perbaps weigbing upon tbe ywbeel . Tbe macbine is circular in te
sense tbat ywbee orives governor wbicb altersfuel supply wbic ee
cylinoer wbicb, in turn, orives ywbeel .
Because tbe system i s circular, ehects of events at any point n

te circuit can be carrieo all arouno to proouce cbanges at tbat pointot

origi n.
I n sucb a oiagram, arrows are useo to inoicate oirection
cause to ehect , ano i t is possible to imagi ne any combination oftypes
ot
causation from step to step. Tbe arrows may be supposeo to repres
en

matbematical functions or equations sbowing tbe tc: :) c.t tbat

su

cessiveparts bave on eacb otber. Tbus, tbe angleoftbearms oftbe

I0 M mU A AK
ernor

to be eresseo as a nction of tbe angular velocity of tbe

ywbeel . Ano so on.
In tbe simplest case, all tbearrows represent eitbern:gatn or::-
tticgatn from part to part. In tbis case tbe governor will be connecteo
tbe fue supply in a way wbicb no engineer woulo approve, namely
so tbat tbemoretbearms oftbegovernor oiverge, tbemoretbefuel . So
riggeo, tbe macbine wi l l go i nto a runawa,, operating exponentially
faster ano faster, until eitbersomepart breaks orperbaps tbe el ouct
can oeliverel at no greater rate.
But tbesystemmigbtequallybesetupwitb oneormorei nverse
relations at arrow unctures. Tbis is tbe usual way ofsetting up gover
nors , ano tbe nameg:icrn:r is applieo to tbat part wbicb provioes tbe
rst balfofsucb a relation. In tbis case, tbe:rc tbe arms oiverge, tbe
/c. tbe fuel supply.
As a matter of bistory, systems witb postve ga, variously
calleo c:.a/attng or it.t:u: circles, were anciently fami liar . In my own
ork witb tbe Iatmul tribe on tbe Sepik River i n ew uinea, I bao
founo tbat various relations among groups ano among various types of
in were cbaracterizeo by intercbanges ofbebaviorsucb tbat tbe more A
ebibiteo a given bebavior , tbe more B was l ikely to exbibit tbe same
bebavi or. Tbese I calleo:,ctrt.a/ intercbanges . Conversel y, tbere were
alo stylieo i ntercbanges in wbicb B' s bebavior was oifferent from, but
/cntar, to, tbat ofA. In eitber case tbe relati ons werepotentially
bect to progressive escalation, wbicb I calleo:.ht::gcnc:t:.
I noteo at tbat time tbat eitber symmetrical or complementary
cb
ismogenesis coulo conceivably l eao to rnawayano tbe breakoown of
tbe system Tbere was positive gain at eacb intercbange ano a sufhcient
ply of energy from tbe metabolism of tbe persons concerneo to oe-
troy tbe system in rage or greeo or sbame. It takes ratber li ttle energy
') to enable a buman being tooestroyotbersor tbe integration ofa
o
ciety.
In otber woros , in tbe s I was alreaoy famil iarwitb tbe ioea
rnway ano was alreaoy engageo in cassifying sucb pbenomena
an
o even speculating about possi ble combinations of oifferent rts of
r
naway But at tbat time, I bao no ioea tbat tbere migbt becircuits of

a
sation wbicb woulo contain one or more negative l i nks ano migbt
tb
ere
fore be self-corrective or, ofcourse
oio I see tbat runaway sys-
W
I05 N w^/ bLLbb
tcs, such as pOpuattOn grOth, mtght cOntatn thc sccds Olthcr
Ow
0

scl-cOrrccttOn tn thc lOrm Ol cpidcmtcs, ars, and gOvcrnmcnt
pr

grams.
Nany sclcOrrccttvc systcms crc asO arcady knOn. ha
t

tndvtdua cascs crc knOn, but thc :n.:/e rcmatncd unknOn

.

0
" '
dccd, Occtdcnta mans rcpcatcd di scOvcry Ol tnstanccs and tnabt
y
t
pcrccvc thc undcryng prncipc dcmOnstratc thc rgtdtty Ol hts

tcmOOgy. tscOvcrtcs and rcdiscOvcrtcs Ol thc prtnctpc t ncudc

mark s translOrmtsm ( 0, amcs atts tnvcnttOn Ol thc
lOr thc stcam cngtnc (atc ctghtccnth ccntury , lrcd ussc
pcrccptOn Ol natura scccttOn ( ) , Lark Naxcs mat

anayss Ol thc stcam cngtnc th a gOvcrnOr ( ) , Laudc 1C11|
:/:eu :ntenc, cgcian and Narxan anayscs Ol sOca prOccss,
LannOns w::d the 8d , and thc vartOus mutuay cc
dcnt stcps tn th dcvcOpmcnt Olcybcrncttcs and systcms thcOry
and mmcdatcy altcr Ord ar ll .
tnay, thc lamOus papcr tn Ph:/:h, )S.:en.e by
icncr, and DtgcO prOpOscd that thc sccOrrcctvc crcut a
many vartants prOvtdcd pOsstbtttcs lOr mOdctng thc adapttvc actO
Organsms . hc ccntra prObcm Ol Lrcck phtOsOphythc prObc
purpOsc, unsOvcd lOr , 00ycarscamc ithtn rangc OlrgOrOus
sts. It as pOsstbc tO mOdc cvcn such marvcOus scgucnccs as tc
ump ttmcd and dtrcctcd tO and hcrc thc mOusc t bc hcn thc
ands .
ln passtng, hOcvcr, tt ts Orth asktng hcthcr thc dh cuty
rccOgntzing this basc cybcrncttc prtnctpc as duc Ony tO JU1 @
azncss hcn askcd tO makc a basic changc n thc paradtgms ot
thOught Or hcthcr thcrc crc Othcr prOccsscs prcvcntng acccpta
hat sccms tO havc bccn, as c OOk back a vcry smpc tdca.
Odcr cptstcmOOgy itscl rctnlOrccd by scl-cOrrcctvc Or runaay
cutts
rathcrdctatcd accOunt Olthc ntnctcnthccntury htstOry ot
stcam cngtnc th gOvcrnOr may hcp thc rcadcr tO undcrstand ot
ctrcutts and thc btndncss Ol thc tnvcntOrs. 5Omc sOrt Ol gOvcr
O
addcd tO thc cary stcam cngtnc, but thc cngt nccrs ran ntO
Koscnlcth, J. I. Wincr, a . Byclw, 'Bchavor, Pusc and Tclcooy,
:: \0 O943). I8-24
' ^1^1 A)
IA

hcy camc tO Lark Naxwc wth thc cOmpant tat thcy cOud nOt
rv a bucprnt lOr an cngnc v tha gOvcrnOr. hcy had nO thcOrctca
asc lrOm vhch tO prcdct hOw thc machnc that thcy had dravn vOud
ch
a
vc
whcn but and runnng.
hcrc wcrc scvcra pOssbc sOrts Ol bchavOr 5Omc machncs
c
nt
ntO runaway, cxpOncntay maxmzng thcr spccd unt thcy
rOkc Or sOwng dOwn unt thcy stOppcd. Lthcrs Oscatcd and sccmcd
unabc tO scttc tO any mcan. Lthcrsst vOrsmbarkcd On
scucnccs OlbchavOr n vhch thc amptudc Ol thcr OscatOn vOud
ts
cl
Oscatc Or vOud bccOmcgrcatcr and grcatcr.
awc cxamncd thc prObcm. c vrOtc Out lOrma cguatOns
lOr
rc
atOns bctwccn thc varabcs at cach succcssvc stcp arOund thc cr-
cut. c lOund as thc cngnccrs had lOund, that cOmbnng ths sct Ol
cguatOns vOud nOt sOvc thc prObcm. nay, hc lOund that thc cng-
ccrs vrcat laut n nOt cOnsdcrng tt. Lvcry gvcn systcm cmbcd
rcatOns tO tmc, that s was charactcrzcd by tmc cOnstants dctcr-
ncd by thc gvcn wh:/c. hcsc cOnstants wcrc nOt dctcrmncd by thc
cguatOns Ol rcatOnshp bctwccn succcssvc parts but wcrc mcrcnt
rOpcrtcs Olthc systcm.
magnc lOr a mOmcnt that thc cngnc s runnng smOOthy and
ccOuntcrs a Oad. l t must gO uph Or drvc sOmc appancc. mmcd-
tcy, thc anguar vcOcty Ol thc hyvhcc v la Oh. hs v causc
tc gOvcrnOr tO sp n css last . hc vcghtcd arms Ol thc gOvcrnOr w
l , rcducng thcangc bctwccn arms andshalt . As ths angcdccrcascs ,
Orc luc v bc ncctcd ntO thc cyndcr, and thc machnc v spccd
,
chang
ng thc anguar vcOcty Ol thc hywhcc n a scnsc cOntrary tO
t
at
changc whch thc Oad had nduccd.
Dut vhcthcr thc cOrrcctvc changc w prccscy cOrrcct thc
a
ngcs that thc Oad nduccd s a gucstOn OlsOmc dlhcuty. Altcr a ,
t
c
hOc
prcss Occurs ntmc. At sOmc tmc , thc Oad was cncOun-
t
crc
d.
hc
changc n thc spccd Ol thc hyvhcc )::ued tmc . hc

a
ngcs n
thc gOvcrnOr lOOvcd st atcr. nay thc cOrrcctvc mcs-
a
g
c
rachcd thc hyvhcc at sOmc tmc , atcr than tmc . Dut thc

nt
Ol
thc cOrrcctOn was dctcrmncd by thc amOunt Ol dcvatOn at
t
i

c
.
Dy
tmc , thc dcvatOn w havc changcd.
At
ths pOnt , nOtc that a vcry ntcrcstng phcnOmcnOn has Oc-
rrcd
t
hn Our dcscrptOn Ol thc cvcnts. hcn vc vcrc takng as l
W
I0
M w^/ bLLbb
we were i nsioetbe circui t we noteo cbanges in tbe bebavioroftbeparts
wbose magnituoeano timing wereoetermineo byforces anoimpactsbe
tween tbe separate components of tbe circui t. Step by step arouno tbe
circui t , my language bao tbe general form A cbange in A oetermines a
cbange in B. Ano so on. But wben tbe oescription reacbes tbe place
from wbicb it (arbitrarily) starteo tbere is a suooen cbange in tbis syn
tax. Tbe oescription now must comparecbange witb cbangeano usetbe
resultofthat comparison toaccount for tbe nextstep.
n otber woros a subtle cbange bas occurreo i n tbe subect of
oiscourse, wbicb, i n tbe j argon of tbe last section (criterion ) of tbis
cbapter we sball call a cbange i n/sgt.a/ ttng It is tbe oiHerence be
tween talkingin a languagewbicbapbysicist migbtusetooescribebow
onevariableactsuponanotber anotalkingi nanotber languageabouttbe
circuit as a wboe wbicb reouces or increases oHerence. Vben we say
tbat tbe system exbibits `steaoy state ( i . e . , tbat i nspite ofvariation, it
retains a meoianvalue) wearetalking about tbecircuitasawbole, not
about tbe variations witbin it Similarly tbe question wbicb tbe engi-
neers brougbt to Clark Maxwell was abou tbe circuit as a wbole How
canwe plan it to acbievea steaoy statebeyexpecteo tbe answerto be
in terms ofrelations between tbe inoivioualvariables . Vbat was neeoe
ano supplieo by Maxwellwas an answerin termsoftbe time constants of
tbe total circuit . Tbis was tbe brioge between tbe two levels of ois-
course.
be entities ano variables tbt h tbe stage at one eve ofois-
course vanisb into tbe backgrouno at tbe nextbigber or -lower level.
bis may be conveniently illustrateo by consioering tbe referent oftbe
woro :utt.h. wbicb engineers t times call a gatc or rc/a. Vbat goes
tbrougb is energizeo trom a source tbat is oiHerent from tbe energ
source wbicbopens tbe gate.
At hrst tbougbt a switcb is a small contraption on tbe wl
wbicb turns tbe igbt on or off. r, witb more peoantry, we note tbt
tbe ligbt isturneo on or oHby buman banos using tbeswitcb. An so
on
Ve oo not notice tbat tbe concept switcb is of quite a if
ferent oroerfrom tbe concepts `stone 'table, ano tbe like. Closerex
amination sbows tbat tbe switcb, consioereo as a part ofan electric ci
uit , dsc: nstcxt:t wben it is i ntbe on posi tion. from tbe point ofvie
I08 N m!I AI IAb1
oftbe circuit it is not oiherentfrom tbe conouctingwirewbicb leaos to
ano tbewire wbicb eaosawayfromi t. t ismerey moreconouctor
Conversely but similarly wben tbe switcb is oh, i t ooes not existfrom
tbe point ofview oftbe circui t. t is notbi ng a gap between two con
ouctors wbicb tbemselves exist only as conouctors wben tbe switcb is
on.
In otber woros tbe switcb i snt except attbemoments of its
bangeofsetting, anotbeconcept switcb` bas tbus aspecialrelationto
tt-. t is relateo to tbe notion 'cbange` ratber tban to tbe notion 'ob
ject .
Sense organs as we bave alreaoy noteo, aomit only news ofoif
ference ano are inoeeo normally triggereo only by cbange i . e. , by
events or by tbose oiherences in tbeperceiveo worlo wbicbcan bemaoe
into events by moving tbe sense organ. n otber woros tbe eno organs
of sense are analogous to switcbes. Tbey must be turneo on` for a
single moment by external impact. Tbat single moment is tbe generat-
ing of a single impulse in tbe afferent nerve. Tbe tbresbolo (i e. tbe
amount of event requireo to tbrow tbe switcb) is of course, anotber
matter ano may be cbangeo by many pbysologcal circumstances , in
cluoing tbe state oftbe neigbboring eno organs.
Tbe tutb oftbematter is tbat every circuit ofcausation in tbe
bole of biology in our pbysiology, in our tbinking, our neural pro-
cesses , i nourbomeostasis , ano in tbe eclogical ano cultural systems of
bicb we are partsvery sucb circuit conceals or proposes tbose para-
ooxes ano confusions tbat accompany errors ano oistortions in logical
typing. Tbis matter closely tie botb to tbe matter ofcircuitry ano to
tbe matter ofcing (criterion ) , will be consioereo more fully i n tbe
oiscussionofcriterion .
CRTFR . MFTA RCFSS THF FffFCTS
f DffFRFCF ARF T BF RFARDFD AS
TRASfRMS (i . e. CDFD FRSS) f THF
DffFRFCF VHCH RFCFDFD THFM
Attbisint wemustconsioerbow tbeoifferences examineoin
tbe
oiscussion ofcriterion anotbeirtrains ofehect i npromoting otber
iHerences becomematerial ofinformation, reounoancy, pattern ano so
W
IV M MEMTA! PKCCES
on. first, webave tonote tbat any object, event , or oiherence in tbe so-
calleo outsioe worlo can become a source ofi nformationprovioeo tbat
it is i ncorporateo into a circuit witb an appropriate network of exible
materialinwbicbitcanprooucecbanges. n tbi ssense, tbesolareclipse,
tbe print of tbe borses boof, tbe sbape of tbe leaf, tbe eyespot on a
peacocks featberwbatever it may ban be incorporateo into mino
ifit toucbesohsucbtrains ofconsequence.
Ve proceeo, tben, to tbe broaoest-possible statement of or-
zybskis famous generalization. He asserteo tbat the a t: nt the terrt-
tr. ooking at tbe matter i ntbeverywioeperspectivetbat we are now
usg, we see tbe map as some sort of ehect summating oiherences,
organizing news of oifferences in tbe territory. orzybski' s map s a
convenient metapbor ano bas belpeo a great many people, but boileo
oown to its ultimate simplicity, bis generalization asserts tbat tbe effect
is not tbe cause.
Tbistbefact ofoiherence between effect anocause wben botb
are i ncorporateo into an appropriately exible systemis tbe pmary
premise ofwbat we may call tran:)rattn or dtng.
Some regularity in tbe relation between ehect ano cause i s, of
course, assumeo. Vitbout tbat , no mi no coulo possibly guess at cause
from effect. But granteo sucb a regularity, we can go on to classify tbe
various sorts of relationsbip tbat can obtain between ehect ano cause
Tbis classihcation will later embrace very complex cases wben we en-
counter cmplex aggregates of i nformation tbat may be calleoatter,
atn :equen:e:, ano tbe like.
Fven greater variety oftransformation or cooing arises from tbe
fact tbat tbe responoent to oifference is almost universally energizeo b
y
collateral energy. (riterion above ) Tbere tben neeo be no simple
relation between tbe magnituoeoftbeevent or oiherence wbicb triggers
tbe responseano tbe resulting response.
However , tbe hrst oicbotom tbat wisb to impose on tbe mu
tituoinous varieties of trans

ormation is tbat wbicb woulo oivioe tbe

cases in wbicb response isgraded accoroing to some variable in tbe tri
gerevent , asopposeo totbose in wbicb tbe response isamatterofon
o

tbresbolos. Tbe steam enginewitba governor provioesa typical instan

e
ofone type, in wbicb tbe angle oftbe arms oftbe governor is contnu
ously variable ano bas a continuously variable ehect on tbe fuel suppl
y

W
I I0 M MlI A ATKE

In contrast, tbe bouse tbermostat is an on-ohmecbanism in wbicb tem-

peraturecauses a tbermometer to tbrowa switcb at a certain l evel . Tbis
is tbe oicbotomy betweenana/sgt. systems (tbose tbat vary continuously
ano i n step witb magnituoes in tbe trigger event) ano dtgtta/ systems
(tbose tbat bave tbe on-offcbaracteristic).
otice tbat tbe oigital systems more closely resemble systems
containi ng number wbereas analogic systems seem to be oepenoent
more on quantity. Tbe oiherence between tbese two genera ofcooing is
anexampleoftbegeneralization(oiscusseo i nCbapter )tbat number is
oiHerent from quantity. Tbere is a oiscontinuity between eacb number
ano tbe next , as i n oigital systems tbere is oiscontinuity between 're
sponse ano no response. Tbis is tbe oiscontinuitybetween 'yes ano
'no.
In tbe early oaysofcybernetics, we useo toargue about wbetber
tbe brain i s, on tbe wbole, an analogic or a oigital mecbanism. Tbat
argument bas since oisappeareo witb tbe real ization tbat oescription of
tbe brain bas to start from tbe all-or-notbing cbaracteristic of tbe
neuron. Atleast i navastmaorityofinstances , tbeneuroneitberhresor
ooes not hre ano iftbiswere tbe eno oftbe story, tbe system woulo be
purely oigital anobinary. But it ispossible tomake systems outofoigi-
talneurons tbat willbavetbeaearan.e ofbeinganalogic systems. Tbis
soonebytbesimpleoeviceofmultiplying tbepatbwaysso tbatagiven
cluster ofpatbways migbt consist ofbunoreos of neurons , of wbicb a
certain percentage woulo be hring ano a certain otber percentage woulo
be
quiet , tbusgivingan apparentlygraoeoresponse. In aooition, tbein-
oivioual neuron ismooih eobybormonalanootber environmentalconoi-
tions arouno it tbat may alter its tbresbolo in a truly quantitativeman
ner.
I recal l , bowever, tbat in tbose oays , beforewe baofullyrealizeo
tbe
oegree to wbicb analogical ano oigital cbaracteristicsmigbt be com
bineo in onesystem, tbe oiscussants wboargueo to anofroon tbeques
tion ofwbetbertbe brain isanalogicoroigitalsboweoverymarkeo inoi-
i
ou
al ano irrational preferences for one or tbeotberview. I tenoeo to
refer bypotbesesstressing tbe oigitalwbereas tbosemorein uenceo by
bysiologyanoperbapsless bytbepbenomenaofl anguageanoovertbe
b
av
ior tenoeo to favor tbe analogic explanations .
tber classih cations of types of cooing are important in tbe
W
1 M META! PKCSS
prObcm OlrccOynzny mcnta charactcrstcs n vcry prmtvc cnttcs
n sOmc hyhy dllusc systcms, t s nOt casy pcrhaps nOt pOssbc tO
rccOync cthcr scnsc Oryans Or pathways aOny whch nlOrmatOn
travcs. cOsystcms such as a scashOrc Or a rcdwOOd lOrcst arc undOubt-
cdy sclcOrrcctvc. l n a yvcn ycar thc pOpuatOn Ol sOmc spcccs s
unusuay ncrcascd Or rcduccd wthn a vcry lcw ycars that pOpatOn
w rcturn tO ts usua cvc . ut t s nOt casy tO pOnt tO any part Ot
thc systcm whch s thc scnsc Oryan yathcrny nlOrmatOn and nucnc-

ny cOrrcctvc act On. thnk that such systcms arc guanttatvc and
yradua and that thc guant|tcs whOscdtcrcn.e: arc thc nlOrmatOna n-
dcatOrs arc at thc samc tmc guanttcs Olnccdcd suppcs (lOOd, cncryy,
watcr unyht and sO On) . A yrcat dca Ol rcscarch has bccn dOnc On
thc cncryy pathways (c. y. lOOd chans and watcr suppcs n such sys-
tcms. ut dO nOt knOw Ol any spcchc study that OOks at thcsc
suppcs d carryny mmancnt nlOrmatOn. t wOud bc ncc tO knO
whcthcr thcsc arc anaOyc systcms n whch dt))eren.e bctwccn cvcnts n
Onc rOund Olthc crcut and cvcnts n thc ncxt rOund (as n thc stcam
cnync wth yOvcrnOr) bccOmcs thc cruca lactOr n thc scl-cOrrcctvc
prOccss
hcn thcyrOwny sccdny bcnds tOward yht, t s nucnccd
by dcrcncc n um natOn and yrOws mOrc rapdy On thc darkcr sdc,
thus bcndny and catch|ny mOrc |yhta subst| tutc lOr OcOmOtO
dcpcndny upOn dllcrcncc.
wO Othcr lOrms Ol translOrm Or cOdny arc wOrth mcntOnng
bccausc thcy arc vcry smpc and vcry casy OvcrOOkcd. Lnc s te
/ate cOdny, n whch, lOr cxampc, |n thcyrOth Ol any Oryansm, tb
shapc and mOrphOycncss that Occur at thc yrOwny pOnt arc cOmmOny
dchncd by thc statc Ol thc yrOwny surlacc at thc tmc Ol yrOwth. O
ctc a vcry trva cxampc thc trunk Ol a pam trcc cOnt nucs mOrc Or
css parac-sdcd lrOm thc bOc up tO thc tOp, whcrc thc yrOwny pOnt
s. At any pO nt, thc yrOwny tssuc Or cambum s dcpOs tny wO
dOwnward bchnd t On thc lacc Olthc arcady yrOwn trunk. hat s, thc
shapc Ol what t dcpOsts s dctcrmncd by thc shapc Ol thc prcvOus

yrOwth. 5mary n rcycncratOn OlwOunds and such thnys, t wOu

sccm that rathcr Oltcn thc shapc Ol thc rcycncratvc tssuc and ts dt
lcrcntatOn arc dctcrmncd by thc shapc and dcrcntatOn Ol thc cut
lacc. hs s pcrhaps as ncar tO a casc Ol `drcct cOmmuncatOn as can
! \2 N wL ^L ^b
b
e
ima
gineo. But it sboulo benoteo tbat in many cases , tbegrowtb of,
or
example, tbe regenerating organ bas to be tbe mi rror image oftbe
e ofahairs at tbe interface witb tbe olo booy. Iftbe face is inoeeo
ooimensional ano bas no oeptb, tben be growing component pre
mably takes its oeptb oirection from some otber source.
be otbertype ofcommunication tbat isoftenforgotten iscalleo
.
i- IfI say to you, bat's wbat a ca looks like pointing to tbe
at, I am using tbe cat an ostensive component in my com-
u
nication IfI walk oown tbestreetano seeyoucomingano say `b,
tberes Bill , I bave receiveo i nformationostensivelyrom you, (yourap-
pearance, yourwalk, anosoon) wbetber or not you i ntenoeo totransmit
tbat information.
stensive communication is peculiarly important in language
earning. I magine a situation in wbicb a speaker of a given language
st teacb tbat language to some otber inoivioual unoer circumstances
wbicb ostensive communication is strictly limiteo. Suppose A must
teacb B a l anguage totally unknown to B over tbe telepbone ano tbat
tbey bave no otber l anguage in common. A will be abl e, perbaps , to
communicate to B some cbaracteristics of voice, of caoence, even of
grammar but it is quite impossible for A to tell B wbat any woro
means in tbeoroinary sense. Sofaras B is concerneo, substantives ano
verbs wi be ony grammatica entities, not names of ioentiabe ob-
ets . Caoence, sequential structure, ano tbe l ike are present in tbe
sequence of sounos sent over tbe telepbone ano can coceivably be
pointeo to ano tberefore taugbt to B
stensive communication i s perbaps similarly necessary i n tbe
lea
rning ofany transformation or cooe. for example, in all learning ex-
periments , tbegivingorwi tbboloing oftbe reinforcement is an approxi
ate
metboo ofpointing to tbe rigbt response. In tbe training ofper
forming animals, various oevices are useo to make tbis pointing more
acurate. be trainermaybavea wbistle tbat isverybriey tooteo at tbe
precisemoment wben tbeanimalooestbe rigbt tbing, tberebyusingtbe
r
spo
nses oftbe learner as ostensiveexamples in tbe teacbi ng.
Anotberformofveryprimitivecooingwbicbi sostensivei s-
]-h
c/- cooi ng. for example, I see a reowooo tree stanoing up out of
tbe grouno, ano I know from tbis perception tbat unoerneatb tbe
grouno attbatpoint I sball hno rts , orI bear tbe beginnings ofasen-
W
I I5 M META! PKCCESS
tence and know at once from tbat beginning tbe grammatical strucure
oftbe rest oftbe sentence and may very well know many oftbe words
and ideas contained in i t. Ve live in a life in wbicb our percepts are
perbapsalways tbe perception ofar!, and ourguesses about wboles are
continually being verihed or contradicted by tbe later presentation o|
otberparts. It is perbaps so, tbatwhe/e: can never bepresented for !a!
would involve direct communication
CRIFRION . HF DFSCRIION AND
CLASSIfICAION Of HFSF ROCFSSFS Of
RANSfORMAION DISCLOSFS A HIFRARCH Of
OICAL FS IMMANFN IN HF HFNOMFNA
Tbis section mustundertaketwo tasks hrst , to make tbe reader
understand wbat is meant by logical types and related ideas, wbicb, n
various forms, bave fascinated man for at least , 000 years . Second, to
persuade tbe reader tbat wbat I am talking about is cbaracteristic o|
mental process and is even a necessary cbaracteristic. eitber of tbese
two tasks isentirelysimple, butVill iam lake commented, Trutb can
never be told soas to be understoodand not be believd. So, tbe two
tasks become one task, tbat ofexbibiting tbe trutb so tbat itcan be un
derstood tbougb Iwell know tbat to tell tbe trutb in any importantarea
of l ife so as to be understood is an excessively difhcult feat , in wbic
lakebimselfrarely succeeded
I sball begin witb anabstract presentation ofwbat I mean and l
sball follow tbat witb ratber simplecases to illustrate tbe ideas. finall y,
sball try to drive bome tbeimportance oftbis criterion byexbibitin
cases i nwbicbtbediscriminationoflevelsofcommunicationbasbeenso
confused ordistorted tbatvarioussortsoffrustrationandpatbologybave

been tbe result.

for tbeabstract presentation, consider tbe cse ofa very simple
relationsbip between two organisms i n wbicb organism A bs emi tte
some rt ofsound orposturefromwbicb could learnsometbing abou

tbe state ofA relevant to ' sown existence. t migbt be a tbrea, a se

ual advance, a move towards nurturing, or an indication ofmembersb
i ntbesame species. I alreadynoted in tbediscussionofcoding(criterion
) tbat nomessage, under anyci rcumstances, is tbat wbicb precipitate

t. hcrc s aways a party prcdctabc and thcrclOrc rathcr rcguar rca

tOn bctwccn mcssagc and rclcrcnt that rcatOn ndccd ncvcr bcng
drcct Or smpc. hcrclOrc, lD s gOng tO dca wth As ndcatOn, t
s absOutcy ncccssay that D knOw what thOsc ndcatOns mcan. hus
thcrc cOmcs ntO cxstcncc anOthcr ./a:: Ol nlOrmatOn whch D must
ssmatc, tO tc D abOut thc cOdng Olmcssagcs Or ndcatOns cOmng
rOm A. Ncssagcs Olths cass w bc, nOt abOutA Or , but abOut thc
cOdng Olmcssagcs . hcy w bc Ol a dhcrcnt Ogca typc. w ca
thcm etae::age:.
Agan, bcyOnd mcssagcs abOut smpc cOdng, thcrc arc much
mOrc subtc mcssagcs that bccOmc ncccssary bccausc cOdcs arc cOnd-
tOna, that s thc mcanng Oa gvcn typc Ol actOn Or sOund changcs
rcatvc tO .entet and cspccay rcatvc tO thc changng statc OI thc
catOnshp bctwccn A and D. l at a gvcn mOmcnt thc rcatOn bc-
cOmcs pay ths wchangc thc mcanng Olmany sgnas . t was thc
ObscrvatOn that ths was truc Or thc anma as wc as thc human wOrd
whch cd mc tO thc rcscarch that gcncratcd thc sO-cacd d//e /tnd
thcOry Ol schzOphrcna and tO thc whOc cpstcmOOgy Ocrcd n ths
bOOk hc cbra may dcnt (lOr thc On thc naturc Olthc cOntcxt n
whch thcy mcct by bOt ng and cvcn thc wc-lcd On may gvc chasc.
t thc hungry On nccds nO such abcng O that partcuar cOntcxt.
c carnc Ong agOthat cbras can bc catcn. Lrwas ths cssOn sO cary
as tO rcgurc nO tcachng crc parts Olthc ncccssary knOwcdgc nnatc'
hc whOc mattcr Olmcssagcs whch makc sOmc Othcr mcssagc
tcgbc by puttng t n cOntcxt must bc cOnsdcrcd, but n thc a/-
:en Ol such mctacOmmuncatvc mcssagcs , thcrc s st thc pOss bty
that
D w ascrbc cOntcxt tO As sgna , bcng gudcd n ths by gcnctc
cchansms.
t s pcrhaps at th s abstract cvc that carnng and gcnctcs
cct. Lcncs may pcrhaps nhucncc an anma by dctcrm n ng hOw t
w pcrccvc and cass thc cOntcxts Ol ts carnng. Dut mammas, at
cast arc capabc asO Ol/etnga/eut .entext.
hat uscd tO bc cacd . c. thc systcm Olntcrprcta-
t
Ons
whch wc pacc On thc cOntcxts wc cncOuntcran bc shapcd bOth

y gcnctcs and by carn ng.

A ths s prcmscd On thc cxstcncc Ole/ whOsc naturc I am
hcrc
tryng tO makc ccar. c start , thcn, w th a pOtcnta dhcrcnta
W
I I J M META CCE
tionbetweenaction in contextano action or bebaviorwbicboehnes con
text or makes context intelligible. for a long time, I referreo totbe lat-
ter type of communication as eta.sunt.attsn borrowing tbis ter
tromVborf.
A tunction, an ehect , ottbemetamessage is in tact to./a::t te
messages tbatoccurwitbinitscontext. It is at tbispoint tbattbe tbeo
oftereo bere connects witb tbe work of Russell ano Vbitebeao in tbe
h rst ten years ot tbis century, hnally publisbeo i n 0 as Prtn.tt
Matheatt.a.! Vbat Russell ano Vbitebeao were tackling was a ve
abstract problem. ogic , in wbicb tbey believeo, was to be salvage
from tbe tangles createo wben tbe /sgt.a/ te:, as Russell calleo tbe
are maltreateo in matbematical presentation. Vbetber Russell an
Vbitebeao bao any ioea wben tbey were working onPrtn.tta tbat tbe
matter oftbeir i nterest was vital to tbe life otbuman beings ano otbe
organisms , I oo not know. Vbitebeao certainly knew tbat buman
beings coulo be amuseo ano bumor generateo by kiooing arouno wt
tbetypes. ButI ooubtwbetberbeever maoetbestepfrom enoying tb
game to seeing tbat tbegamewas nontrivial ano woulo cast ligbtonte
wbole of biology. Tbe more general insigbt wasperbaps uncon
sciouslyavoioeo ratber tban contemplate tbe nature of tbe bumn
oilemmas tbat tbe insigbt woulo propose.
Tbemeretactotbumor in buman rlations inoicatestbat at lea
at tbis biological level , multiple typing is essential to buman com-
munication. In tbe absence ot tbe oistortions ot logical typing, bumo
woulo be unnecessary ano perbaps coulo not exist.
Fven at a very abstract level , pbenomena provokeo by logca
typing bave fascinateo tbinkers ano tools tor many tbousanos ofyea
Butlogic bao tobe saveo trom tbeparaooxeswbicb clowns migbteno
neoftbe hrst tbings tbat Russell anoVbitebeao observeo i nattemp
ing tbis was tbat tbe ancient paraoox otFpimenioes'Fpimenioes wa
a Cretan wbo saio, Cretans always lie was built upon classihcat
on
anometaclassihcation. I bave presenteo tbeparaooxbere intbeformota

quotation witbin a quotation, ano tbis is precisely bow tbe paraoox

B L. hOrt, Laoe, Thouht, aoJ Rtalit (Lamrdgc, mass. . cchntcaI rcss ot m5

sachuscts nstttutc OtcchnOIOgy, I95).
T A ^. httchcad and B. KsscI I , Prio.iia Mathmatita, Zdcd. (Lamrdgc. Lamrtdgc \nVr
stty rcss , l 9 l0 l 9 l 3).

I M MLO AO ATK
g
en
erat
eo. Tbe l arger quotation becomes a classih er for tbe smaller,

n
til
tbe
smallerquotation takesoveranoreclassihes tbe larger , tocreate
co
ntraoiction. Vben we ask, 'Coulo Fpimenioes be telling tbe trutb`
t
e
answer i s 'fyes, tben no, andfno, tben yes . `
Norbert Viener useo to point out tbat i f you present tbe Fpi
e
nioe
s paraoox toa computer, tbeanswerwillcomeout Yb . . . C

. . Yb . . . C . . . until tbecomputerrunsoutofinkorenergyor
e
ncou
nters some otber ceiling. As noteo in Cbapter , section ,
lo
gic
cannot mooel causal systems , ano paraoox i s generateo wben time
is
ignoreo.
f we look at any l iving organism ano start to ask about its ac-
tions
ano posures, we meet witb sucb a tangle or network ofmessages
tat tbe tbeoretical problems outlineo in tbe previousparagrapbbecome
confuseo. n tbe enormous mass ofinterlocking observation, it becomes
exceeoinglyoifhculttosay tbat tbis messageorpositiooftbeears is, i n
fact ,cta- totbatotberobservationoftbefoloingoftbefrontlegsortbe
position oftbe tail .
n front ofme on tbe table is a sleeping cat . Vbile wasoictat
ingtbelastbunoreoworos, tbecat cbangeo berposition. Sbewassleep
ingon ber rigbt sioe, berbeaopointingmoreor less awayfrom me, ber
ears in aposition tbat oio not suggest tomealertness , eyes closeo, front
feet curleo upa fami l iar arrangement of tbe booy of a cat . Vbile
spoke ano, inoeeo, was watcbing tbe cat for bebavior, tbe beao turneo
towa
ro me, tbe eyes remaineo closeo, resiration cbangeo a l ittle, tbe
earsmoveointoa balfalertposition ano itappeareo, rigbtlyorwrongly,
tbat tbe cat was now still asleep but awareofmy existenceano aware,
perbaps, tbat sbe was apart oftbeoictateo material . Tbis i ncreaseofat
tention bappeneo/c)c tbe cat was mentioneo, tbat is , before began to
oictate tbe present paragrapb. N:w, witb tbe cat lly mentioneo, tbe
beao bas gone oown, tbe nose is between tbe front l egs, tbe ears bave
toppeo being alert. Sbebas oecioeo tbat ber involvement in tbe conver
sation ooes not matter.
Vatcbi ng tbis sequence ofcat bebavior ano tbe sequence ofmy
rea
oing
ofi t(because tbesystemwearetalkingabout is , i ntbeeno, not
st
cat but mancat ano perbaps sboulo be consioereo morecomplexly
tb
an
tbat, as manwatcbing-man's-watcbingcat-watcbi ng-man) , tbere is
a
bie
rarcby of contextual components as well as a bierarcby concealeo
W
II7 M MEMTA! PKCCESS
witbin tbe enormous number of signals given by tbe cat about berself.
Vbat seems to be tbe case is tbat tbe messages emanating from
tbe cat are i nterrelateo in a complex net , ano tbe cat berself migbt be
surpriseo f sbe coulo oiscover bow oifhcult it is to unscramble tbat
mass . No ooubt anotber cat woulo oo tbe unscrambling better tban a
bumanbeing. But to tbe bumanbeingano even tbe traineoetbologist
is often surpriseotbe relations between component signals are con
fuseo. However, tbe buman unoerstanos` tbe cat byputting tbepieces
togetbera:t) be really knew wbat isbappening. He formsh,ethe:e:, ano
tbese are continualy cbeckeo or correcteo by less ambiguous actions of
tbe animal .
Crossspecies communication is a/wa,: a sequence ofcontexts of
learning in wbicb eacb species is continually being correcteo as to tbe
nature ofeacbprevious context .
In otberworos, tbe metarelations between particular signals ma
be conseo but unoerstanoing may emerge again as true at tbe net
more abstract level .
In some contexts ofani mal bebavior or relations between buman
ano animal , tbe levels are in some oegree separateo not only by tbe
buman but also by tbe animal . I sball exempli tbis in tw narratives
tbe hrst a oiscussion of tbe classical avlovian experiments on experi
mental neurosis ano tbe secono an account of researcb into buman
oolpbin relations witb wbicb I was connecteo at tbeceanicInstitute tU
Hawai i . Tbis will constitute a pair ofcontrastingcases, inone ofwbic
tbe tangleleaos topatbology, wbile in tbeotbertbe ogicatypesare
nally transcenoeo by tbe animal.
Tbeavlovian case isveryfamous , but my i nterpretation ofit s
oiHerent from tbe stanoaro i nterpretati on, ano tbis oierence consis

precisely in myinsistenceontbe relevanceofcontext tomeaning, wi

relevance is an example of one set of messages metacommunicative to
anotber.
Tbe paraoigm for experimental neurosis b as follows A
oo
Thc rcadc is rcmndcd hcrcofwhatwasid about thc falIacy otarckism (Chaptcr 2, cn
7). arck proposcd that cnvirocmal impact could dircctl attcct thc ycncs othc sinyc i ndt
vduaI. That is uruc. What is truc isa proposition otnct-hiyhcr oyicaI that thc cntn
mcm docs havc dircct impc on thc ycnc ol ofthccu/ati.

I I8 M ML A b
commonly a male) is traineo to respono oifferentially totwo alternative
'conoitioneo stimul i , for instance, a circle or an ellipse. n response to
beistoooA i nresponseto, beistooo B. fi nbis responses , tbe
oog exbibits tbis oirentiation, be issaio to oiscriminate between tbe
tw stimuli ano be is positively reinforceo or, in avlovian language,
givenanunconoitioneostimulus offooo. Vbentbeoog isabletoois-
criminate tbe task is maoe somewbat more oifhcult by tbe experi-
menter, wbo will eitber make tbe ellipse somewbat fatter or make tbe
circlesomewbatattersotbat tbecontrast betweentbetwostimulusob-
ectsbecomes less . At tbispoint , tbe oog will bave toput out extra ef
fort to oiscriminate between tbem. But wben tbeoog succeeos i nooing
tbi s, tbeexperimenter will againmake tbingsmoreoifhcultbya similar
cbange. Bysucba series ofsteps, tbeoog is leo to a situation i nwbicb
hnally becannotoiscrimi nate between tbe obects. At tbis poi nt , iftbe
experiment bas been performeo witb sufhcient rigor, tbe oog will ex-
bibitvarious symptoms. He may bite bis keeper , be may rese fooo, be
may become oisobeoient , be may become comatose, ano so on. Vbicb
set ofsymptoms tbeoog exbibits oepenos , itisclaimeo, upontbetem-
perament` oftbe oog, excitableoogscboosingone setofsymptoms ano
letbargicoogs cboosing anotber.
ow, from tbe point ofview oftbe present cbapter we bave to
exami ne tbe oiherence between two verbal formscontaineo in tbe ortbo-
oox explanation oftbis sequence. ne verbal form is tbe oogdt:.rtt-
nate: between tbe two stimuli` tbe otber is tbe oogs dt:.rtttten
breaks oown. ` I ntbis ump, tbe scientist bas moveo from a statement
about a particular incioent or incioents wbicb can be:een to a general-
ization tbat is bookeo up to an abstractionoiscrimination`locateo
/endit:ten perbapsinsioetbeoog. t is tbis umpi nlogical typetbatis
tbe tbeorists error. I can, in a sense, see tbe oogdt:.rttnate but I can-
not possiblysee bis oiscrimination. ` bere is a j umpbere fromparticu-
lar togeneral , frommember toclass. Itseems tometbata betterwayof
saying it woulo oepeno upon asking Vbat bas tbe oog learneo i n bis
tra
ining tbatmakes bimunabletoa..et fai lureattbeeno`Anotbean-
er to tbis question woulo seem to be beoog b learneo tbattht: t:
a.entext)erdt:.rttnatten. batis ,tbatbe sboulo lookfortwostimuliano
sboulo`lookfor tbepossibilityofactingonaoiherencebetweentbem
W
I I9 M MEA PKCCES

for tbedog tbisistbe'tk` wbicbbas been settbe context in wbicb

success will be rewarded.
bviously, a context in wbicb tbere is no perceptible diherence
between tbe tw stimuli is not one for discriminati on. am sure tbeex-
perimenter could i nduce neurosis byusinga single obect repeatedlyand
tossing a coi n eacb time to decide wbetber tbis single obect sbould be
i nterpreted as an 7 or as a . n otber words, an appropriate response
for tbe dog would be to take out a coin, toss it, and use tbe fal l oftbe
oin todecidebisacti on nfortunately, tbedog bas nopocket i nwbicb
to carry coins and bas been very carey trained in wbat bas now
become a lie tbat i s, tbe dog bas been trai ned to expect a context for
discrimination. He now imposes tbis interpretation n a context tbat is
not a context for discrimination. He bas been taugbtnet todiscriminate
between two classes of contexts . He is in tbat state)e wht.h the ex-
ertenter started unable to distinguisb contexts .
from tbe dogs point ofview (consciously or unconsciously) , to
learn context is diherent from learning at to do wben 7 is presented
and wbat to do wben is presented. Tbere is a disconti nuous ump
from tbeonertoflearning to tbeotber.
In passi ng, tbe reader may be i nterested to know some oftbe
supportingdata tbat would favor tbe i nterpretation I am offering.
first , tbedog did not sbowpsycbotic or neurotic bebaviorat tbe
beginnng of tbe experiment wben be did not know bow to di scrimi-
nate, did not discrimi nate, and made frequent errors. Tbis did no
break down bis discrimination because be bad none t asat tbeend
tbe discrimination could not be 'broken down because discrimination
wasnot i ntact beingasked for
Second, a navedog, oHered repeated situations nwbicbsome7
sometimes means tbat be is to exbibit bebavior A and at otber times
means tbat be sbould exbibit bebavior B, will settle down togue::tng.
Tbe nave dog bas not been taugbt not toguess tbat i s, be bas not been
taugbt tbat tbe contexts of life are sucb tbat guessing is i nappropriate.
Sucb a dog will settle down to reecting tbe approximate frequencies
ofappropriate response Tbat is, iftbe stimulus object in 0percentof
casesmeansAandin 0percentmeansB, tben tbedogwi ll settledown
" hIs CxtCmCIy anthtCQCmC|Qhtc h|atn_ ts, ! caIm, nCt Css CCcttVC han thCaoast|aC
tCn UtscrtmtnattCn.
1 7I M w^L ^^L ^^1b
toexbibiting A in 0 percent oftbe casesano B in 0 percent . (Hewill
notoowbata gooo gamberwouo oo, namel, exbibit B inall cases. )
Tbiro iftbe animals are taken awa outsioe tbe lab ano iftbe
reinforcements ano stimuli are aomini stereo from a oistancein tbe
form for example, ofelectric sbocks carrieo b long wires lowereo from
booms (borroweo from Hollwoootbe oo not oevelop smptoms.
Tbe sbocks after all areonloftbe magnituoe ofpain tbat ananimal
migbt experience on pusbing tbrougb a small briar patcb tbe oo not
become coercive except in tbe context oftbe lab inwbicbethcroetailsof
tbe lab (its smell tbe experimental stano on wbicb tbe animal is sup-
porteo ano soon) become ancillar stimuli tbat mean to tbe animal tbat
tbisis a context inwbicb itu:t continuetoberigbt . Tbat tbe animal
learns about tbe nature oflaborator eeriment is certainl true ano
tbesamemabesaiooftbegraouatestuoent . Tbe experimental subj ect
wbetber buman or animal is in tbe presence of a barrage of .entcxt
arkcr:.
Aconvenient i noicatoroflogical tping istbe reinforcement ss-
tem to wbicb a given item in our oescription of bebavior will respono
Srmpeactions apparent respono to rei nforcementappieo accoroing to
tbe rules ofoperant conoitioni ng. But : e)ergantztng simple actions
wbicbinouroescriptionsofbebaviorwemigbtcall guessing oiscrim-
ination ` pla exploration, ` oepenoenc, 'crime ano tbe like
are ofoifferent logical tpe ano oo not obe tbe simple reinforcement
rules . Tbe avlovian oog coulo never even be ohereo afh rmative rein-
forcement for perceiving tbe cbange of context because tbe contrar
learning wbicb preceoeo was sooeep ano eHective.
Intbeavlovian instance tbeoogfails totransceno tbe j ump in
logical tpe from contextfor oiscrimination tocontext forguessing
Incontrast let us consioer a case inwbicb an animal acbieveo a
similar jump. At tbe ceanic Institute in Hawai i a female oolpbi n
(Stcn /rcancn:t:) bao been traineo to expect tbe souno oftbe trainer's
wbistle to be followeo b fooo ano to expect tbat ifsbe later repeateo
wbat sbe was ooing wben tbe wbistle blew sbe woulo again bear tbe
wbistle ano receive fooo. Tbis animal was being useo b tbe trainers to
oemonstrate to tbe pubic 'bow we train porpoises Vbensbeenters
" `Porpoisc is crcs san

for any pcrformn

dolpi n.
I 2 I M mLPAL PKCCESS

tbe exbibitiontank, Isball watcb beranowbensbeooes:eethtng I want
ber to repeat , I will blow tbe wbistle ano sbe wi ll be feo. ` Sbe woulo
tben repeat ber sometbing` ano be agai n reinforceo. Tbree repetitions
of tbis sequence were enougb for tbe oemonstrati on, ano tbe oolpbin
was sent ohstage to wait for tbe next performance two bours later. Sbe
bao learneo some simple rules tbat relateo ber actions , tbe wbistle, tbe
exbibiti on tank, ano tbe trainer intoa pattern, a contextual structure, a
set ofrules for bow to put tbe information togetber.
But tbispatternwas htteo only for a singleepisooe i n tbe exbi-
bition tank. Because tbe trainers wanteo to sbow again ano again bow
tbey teacb, tbe oolpbin woulo bave tobreak tbe simplepattern to oeal
witb tbe ./a:: ofsucb episooes. Tbere was a larger.entext e) .entext: ano
tbat woulo put ber in tbe wrong. At te next performance, tbe traine
again wanteo tooemonstrate operant conoitioning, `anotooo tbi s, sbe
(tbe trainer) bao to pick on a dterent piece of conspi cuous bebavior.
Vben tbe oolpbi n came on stage, sbe again oio ber sometbi ng, but
sbe got nowbistle. Tbe trainr waiteo for tbe next piece ofconspicuous
bebavior , perbaps a tail ap, wbicb is a common expression ofannoy
ance. Tbisbebavior was tben reinforceo ano repeateo.
But tbe tail apwas , ofcourse, not rewaroeo in tbe tbiro perfor-
mance. finally, tbe oolpbi nlearneo tooeal witb tbe context ofcontexts
by oheringa oiherent ornewpiece ofconspicuous bebaviorwbeneversbe
came onstage.
All tbis bao bappeneo in tbe free natural bistory of tbe rela
tionsbip between oolpbi n ano trainer ano auoience, before I arriveo i n
Hawai i . I saw tbat wbat was bappening requireo learning ofa bigber
logicaltypetbanusual , anoatmysuggestion, tbesequencewasrepeateo
experimentallywitb a newanimal ano carefully recoroeo. Tbe learnin
scbeoulefor tbe eerimental training was carelly planneo tbeanimal
wouloexperienceaseriesoflearningsessi ons , eacblastingfrom to
minutes. Tbe animal woulo neier be rewaroeo for bebavior wbicb bao
beenrewaroeo i ntbe previous session.
Twopoints from tbeexperimentalsequencemust be aooeo
first , it was necessary (in tbe trainers uogment) to break tbe
" cscrbcd tn K. ryor, K aag, and . L`Kct!!y, cutcroLcarntng n a KoughtOth
]
or]
Osc
(Stene bwnensis), L. 5. !ava! Lrdnancc cst 5tat, Lhna kc, !L5 J 4Z70, and rthcr
dscusscd n myStq: te an lce/e e/Mind, pp 276277.
l22 m A! !ALKL
ul
es
of tbe experiment many times. Tbe experience of being in tbe
r
ong
was so oisturbing to tbe oolpbi n tbat i n oroer to preserve tbe
ela
tionsbip between ber ano ber trainer (i . e. , tbe context ofcontext of
con
text) , it was necessary togive manyrei nforcements towbicb tbepor-

oise was not entitleo. nearneo hsb.

Secono, eacb of tbe hrst fourteen sessions was cbaracterizeo by
any tile repetitions ofwbatever bebavior bao been reinforceo in tbe
ieoiately preceoing sessi on. Seemingly only by accioent oio tbe ani
al provioe a piece ofoiherent bebavior. In tbe time out between tbe
fourteentb ano hfteentb sessions , tbe oolpbin appeareo to be mucb ex
citeo ano wbensbe came onstagefor tbehfteentbsessi on, sbe put on an
elaborateperformance tbat i ncluoeoeigbt conspicuouspiecesofbebavior
of wbicb four were new ano never before observeo in tbis species of
animal . from tbe animals point ofview, tbere is a jump a oisconti
nui ty, between tbelogical types.
In all sucb cases, tbe step from one logical type to tbe next
bigber is a step from information about an event toinformationabout a
class of events or fro

consioering tbe class to consioering tbe class of

classes. otably, in tbe case oftbeoolpbi n, it was impossiblefor ber to
learn from a single experience, wbetber of success or failure, tbat tbe
context was one for exbibiting at bebavior . Tbe lesson about context
coulo only bave been learneo from comparative information about a
sample of contexts oiffering among tbemselves , in wbicb ber bebavior
ano tbe outcome oi Hereo from instance to instance. Vitbin sucb a
varieo class , a regularity became perceptible, ano tbe apparent contra
oiction coulo betranscenoeo. Tbecaseoftbeoog woulobavei nvolveoa
similarstep, but tbe oog oio not bave a cbance to learn tbat tbi s was a
situationfor guesswork.
Mucb can be learneo from a single instance, but not certain
tbi
ngs
about tbe nature oftbelarger sample, tbe class , ofsucb trials or
e
xpe
riences. Tbis is funoamental for logical typing, wbetberat tbelevel
of
B
ertrano Russell s abstractions or at tbe level ofanimal learning i na
r
eal
worlo.
Tbat tbese arenotpbenomenarelevant only totbe laboratoryano
ani
al learning experiments may beoriven bome bycalling attention to
soe
buman consions of tbougbt . A number of concepts are freely
ban
oieoabout bylaymananoexpertalike witb an impliciterror i ntbeir
W
I25 M mLPAL KLLL55
logical typi ng. for example, tbere is `exploration. It seems to pule
psycbologists tbat tbe exploring tenoencies ofa rat cannot besimplyex
tinguisbeo by baving tbe rat encounter boxes containing small electric
sbocks. fromsucbexperiences, tberatwill not learn not toput bis nose
into boxes be will only learn not to put bis nose into tbe particular
boxes tbat containeoelectricsbocks wben bei nvestigateo tbem. Inotber
woros wearebereup againsta contrast between learni ngabout tbepar-
ticular ano learning about tbe general .
A littleempatbywill sbow tbat from

tbe rats pointofview, it is

not oesirable tbat be learn tbe general lesson. His experience ofa sbock
uponputting bis nose i ntoaboxinoicates tobim tbat beoiowc// toput
bisnosei ntotbat box inoroertogain tbeinformation tbat itcontaineo
asbock. Infact , tbe purpose ofexplorationis , not tooiscoverwbetber
exploration is a gooo tbing, but to oiscover i nformation about tbe ex-
ploreo. Tbe larger case b ofa totally oifferent nature from tbat oftbe
particular.
It is interesting to consioer tbe nature of sucb a concept as
crime. Veact as ifcrime coulo beextinguisbeo by punisbing partso|
wbatweregaro as criminalactions , as if`crime weretbe nameofa sort
ofaction or ofpart ofa sort ofaction. Morecorrectly crime, like ex-
ploration, is tbe nameofa wayoforganiing actions . Itistberefore un-
likely tbat punisbing tbe act will extinguisb tbe crime. Inseveraltbou-
sano years, tbe socalleo science ofcriminology bas not escapeo from a
simple blunoer in logical typi ng.
Be tbat as it may, tbere is a very profouno oiherence betweena
serious attempt tocbange tbe cbaracterological state ofan organism ano
trying to cbange tbat organisms particular actions . Tbe latter is rela
tively easy tbe former, profounoly oifhcul t. araoigmatic cbange is
oifhcult asinoeeo is of tbe same nature ascbange in epistemolog
y.
(for an elaborate stuoy ofwbat seems to be necessary to make cbarac
terological cbanges in bumancriminals, tbe reaoer is referreo toa recen
t
book, SancA:/u, by Cbarles Hampoen-Turner.) It woulo seem be
almost a hrst requirement ofsucb oeep trai ning tbat tbe particular
act
for wbicb tbe convict was being punisbeo wben in ailsboulonet betbe
main focus oftbe trai ning.
Lharcs tampdcn-urncr, Saoe/ (ban ranctscO. ban ranctscO Bok . , I976).
I24 M m! A! !AK

A tbiro concept of tbe class wbicb is commonly misunoerstooo

by wrong attribution of logical typing is 'play. Tbe given acts tbat
consti tute play in a given sequence may, ofcourse, occur in tbe same
persons or animals in otber srts ofsequence. Vbat is cbaracteristic of
'play is tbat tbis is a name for contexts in wbicb tbe constituent acts
bave a oiherent sort ofrelevance ano organization from tbat wbicb tbey
woulo bavebao i nnonplay. Itmayeven be tbat tbeessenceofplaylies
i n a partial oenial oftbe meanings tbat tbe actions woulo bave bao i n
otbersituations. Itwas from a recognition tbat mammals recognizeplay
tbat I moveo forwaro twenty years ago to a recognition tbat animals (in
tbatcase, riverotters)classitbeirtypes ofintercbangeanotbereforeare
subj ect to tbe sorts ofpatbology generateo in tbeavlovian oog wbo is
unisbeo for a fai lure to recognize a cbange of context or tbe criminal
wboismaoetosuherforparticularacts wben be or sbe sboulo besuffer
ingfor particularways oforganizing action. from observation ofplayi n
river otters, I went on to stuoy similar classi hcations of bebavior i n
buman beings , hnally arriving at tbe noton tbat certain symptoms of
buman patbology calleo

.htzehrenta were, in fact, also tbe outcome of

maltreatments oflogical typing, wbicb we calledeu//e /tnd:.
In tbis section, I bave approacbe tbe matter ofbierarcby i n
mental pbenomena from tbe aspect of cooin. But bierarcby coulo
equally well bave been oemonstrateo from criteron 4, wbicb oeals witb
circularcbans ofoetermination. Tberelationsbibetweentbecbaracter-
istics ofa component ano tbe cbaracteristicsoft be system as a wbole as
it circles back on itself, is equally a matter ofbi erarcbical organi zation.
I wantto suggest bere tbat tbe bistory ofcivilization's long ir
tationwitb tbe notionofcircular cause wolo seem to b sbapeo by tbe
partial fascinationanopartial terrorassociateo wtbtbe matter oflogical
typi ng. It was noteo in Cbapter (section ) tbatlogic is apoor mooel
ofcause ano ehect. I suggest tbat it is tbe attept to oeal witb life i n
log
ical terms anotbecompulsive nature oftbat attempt wbicb proouce
in
us tbe
propensityfor terror wben it is even b
nteo tbat sucb a logical
approacb migbt break oown.
In Cbapter I argueo tbat tbe very s mple buzzer circuit , if
sp
elleo out onto a logical map or mooel , resets contraoiction If tbe
buzzer circuit is closeo, tben tbe armatue is attracteo by tbe elec-
tromagnet . Iftbe armature moves , attracte by tbe electromagnet, tbe
I25 M mLPA KLLb
attraction ceases, ano tbe armaure is tben not attracteo. Tbiscycle of
t/
v . . thcn relations i n tbe worlo ofcause is oisruptive ofany ccle of
t/
v . . thcn relations i ntbe worlo oflogic unless time is introouceo i nto
logic. Tbe oisruption is formallysimilar to tbe paraoox ofFpimenioe
s.
Vebumans seemtowisbtbat our logicwereabsolute. Vesee
to act on tbe assumption tbat it is so ano tbenpanicwben tbe sligbte
st
overtone tbat it is not so, or migbt not bes, is presenteo.
I t iss iftbetigbtcoberenceoftbe logical brai n, eveni npersons
wbo notoriously tbinkwitba great oeal ofmuoolebeaoeoness , muststill
besacrosanct . Vben it is sbown tobe notsocobeent , tbe inoivioualso
culturesosbprecipitately, like aoaene swi ne, into complexities ofsu
pernaturali sm. Inoroertoescape tbemillionmetapboric oeatbs oepicte

in a universeof.tr./ ofcausation, we are eager to oeny tbe simplereal

ity oforoinary oying ano tobuilo fantasies ofan afterworlo ano eveno
reincarnation.
I ntrutb, a breacb in tbeapparent coberenceofour mental logi-
calprocesswoulo seem tobe a sort ofoeatb. I encountereo tbis oeepno
tion overanooveragai nin myoealings witbscbiopbrenics , ano tbeno
tion may be saio to be basic to tbe oouble bino tbeory tbat I ano my
colleagues at alo Alto proposeo some twenty years ago. I am propos
ing bere tbat tbe bint of oeatb is present in every biological circui
wbatsoever.
To concluoe tbiscbapter, I sball mention someoftbepotential-
ities ofminos tbat exbibit tbese six criteria. first ofall, tbere are tw
cbaracteristics ofmino tbat may be menti oneo togetber, botb ofwbic
are maoe possible by tbe criteria I bave citeo. Tbese two closely relate
cbaracteristics are autonomy ano oeatb.
Autonomyliterally .entre/e)thc:c from tbereekaute: (self
anonee: (a law)is provioeo by tbe recursive structure oftbe syste
Vbetberornot asimplemacbine witb agovernorcancontrolor be
con
trolleobyitselfmay be oisputeo, but imagine more loops ofinformation

ano effect aooeo on top oftbe simple circuit . Vbat will be tbe conten

.
"! vas lucky cnouh at tha timc to obtain a opy of)ohn PcrccvaI`saccount ofhis psychoss

:
l850s. This book is nov availalc Ptrceta: Narratie and shovs hov thc schizophrcnic'sv
orld

totally strucurcd indoublc bind tcrms. ()ohnPcrccval , Pereta:Narrative. APatieot':Atcount

o/

Pscbo:i:. I 0 rcyory Batcson, cd. Stanford, Calif. . Stanford nivcrsity Prcss, I 96I . )
W A^1 ^A
of tbe signal material carrieo by tbese loops Tbe answer, ofcourse, is
tbat tbese loops will carry messagesa/:ut tbe bebavior oftbe wbole sys-
tem. In a sense, tbe original simplecircuit alreaoycontaineo sucb i nfor-
a
tion ts going too fast it' s going too slow), but tbe next level
will
carry sucb i nformation as tbe correction of it' s going too fast' is
n
ot
ft enougb, or tbe correction of i t's going toofst' isexcessive.
ba
t is, tbe messages become messages about tbe previous lower level .
ro
m tbis to autonomy is a very sbot step.
Vitb regaro tooeatb, tbepossibilityforoeatb followsh rstfrom
crit
erion tbat tbe entity be maoe ofmultiple parts . I noeatb, tbese
partsare oisassembleoorranoomieo. But it arises alsofrom criterion4.
ea
tb i stbe breaking upoftbe circuits ano, witb tbat , tbe oestruction
of
autonomy.
Inaooition totbesetwoveryprofounocbaracteristics, tbesortof
system tbat I call tndis capable ofpurpose ano cboice by way ofits
self-correctivepossibilities. Itis capableofeitbersteaoystateorrunaway
orsome mixtureoftbese. It isinuenceo bymaps, neverby territory,
ano istberefore limiteo by tbegeneraliation tbatitsreceiptofi nforma
tion will nevercanytbingabout tbeworloor about itself. AsI stateo
in Cbapter , science neverproves anytbing.
Beyono tbi s, tbesystem will learn anoremember, it will builo
up negentropy, ano it will oo so by tbe playing of stocbastic games
calleo mtrt.t: ortrta/andor:r. Itwill store energy. Itwill inevitably
becbaracterieo by tbefacttbat all messages areofsomelogical typeor
otber, ano so it will be ooggeo by tbe possibilities of error i n logical
typing. finally, tbesystemwill be capableofuniting witb otbersimilar
systems to make still larger wboles.
In conclusion, two questions may be raiseo Vill tbe system be
capa
ble ofsometofaestbeticpreference Vill tbe system be capable
of
consciousness
Vitb regaro to aestbetic preference, it seems to me tbat tbe an

er
coulo be afhrmative. It is conceivable tbat sucb systems woulo be
b
le to recognie cbaracteristics similar to tbeir own in otber systems
tbey
migbt
encounter. Itisconceivable tbat wemaytake tbe sixcriteria
crit
ria oflife ano may guess tbat any entity exbibiting tbese cbarac-
t
er
isti
cs will set a value /u: or tnu:) on otber systems exbibiting tbe

tw
aro
anovisible signs ofsimilar cbaracteristics. Is our reason for ao
W
I27 M mLPAL KLLb

'

miring a oaisy tbe fact tbat it sbowsin its form , in its growtb, in
coloring, anoinitsoeatbtbe symptoms ofbeing alive ur
tion foritistotbatextent an appreciationofitssimilaritytoourselve

Vitb regaro to consciousness, tbe matter is more obscure.
tbis book, notbingbas been saioaboutcciousnessexcepttonote
in tbe business of percepti on, tbe processes of perception are not
scious but tbat its prooucts may be conscious. Vben.en:.teu:nc:: is
in tbis sense, it woulo appear tbat tbe pbenomenon is somebow
totbe business oflogical typesto wbicb webavegivenagoooealo
tention. However, I oo not know of any material really connecting
pbenomena of consciousness to more primitive or simpler
ano bave not attempteo to oo so in tbe present work.
2d M mP AP PA KL
N
i1
`1'i\'
\
1Pi\'i
[|h bc |uo, |hc |uo urc 1o
A1 1|q |utn .om]u11c1 urc |uo
1h 1oulc, |hc[x/[oo|, mukc1 no 1hou
1o motc, bu| do|h t[ |h' o|hcr d.
And |hou_h t/ tn |hc :cn|cr 1t|,
c| uhcn |hc o|hcr[ur do|h romc,
l| lcunc1, undhcurkcn1u[|cr t|,
And_rouc1 c:|, u1 |hu| :omci homc.
3urh utl| |hou bc |o mc, uho mu1|
Ltkc /h' o|hcr[oo|, obltqucl nnc.
1[rmncidru1 m rtr:lc u1|,
And mukci mc cnd uhcrc l bc_unnc.
=]OHN 1ONNE, 'A ulcdt:|ton: lorbttn_ Aoutn_
In Cbapter , I consioereo tbe working togetb oftwo
eyestogive binocularvision. from tbe combin vision
oftbetwoorgans, youget a species ofinformati on tbat
you coulo get from a single eye only by usi n special
sorts of collateral knowleoge (e. g. , about tbe verlap-
ping of tbi ngs in tbe visual helo) you get , in fact, oeptb peeption.
bis is information about a oiherent oimension(as tbe pbysici t woulo
all
it)orinformation ofa oiherent logical type(asI woulo cal it) .
In tbis cbapter , inaooition to talking about ooubleoeription,
w
ant
to examine tbe subject of bounoaries . Vbat limits t units,
bat limits tbings , anoabove all , wbat, ifanytbing , /tt: t :c(.
Is tbere a li ne or sort ofbag ofwbicb we can say tbat insioe
tbat l ine or interface is me ano outsioe is tbe environment r some
t
ber
person By wbat rigbt oo we make tbese oistinctions
W
I 5 I M NLK5LP5 Ll KLLAJLP5

It is clear (tbougb usually ignoreo) tbat tbe language ofany an-
swerto tbatquestionisnt. intbeeno, alanguageofspaceor time. 'In-
sioe` ano `outsoe` are not appropiate metapbors for inclusion ano
exclusion wben we are speaking oftbe self.
be mino contains no tbings no pigs no people, no miowife
toaos or wbat bave you, only ioeas (i . e. news ofoiHerence), informa-
tion about 'tbings in quotes always in quotes . Similarly tbe mi no
contans no time ano no space only ioeas of time ano 'space. ` It
follows tbat tbe bounoaries oftbe inoivioual , i freal atall wi l l be not
spatial bounoaries, but sometbing more like tbe sackstbat represent:ct:
in set tbeoretical oiagrams or tbe bubbles tbat come out of tbe moutbs
oftbe cbaracters incomic strips.
My oaugbter now ageo ten, bao ber birtboay last week. be
tentb birtboay is an important one because it represents a breaktbrougb
intotwo-oigit numbers. Sbe remarkeo, balfserious ano balfin j est, tbat
sbe oio not 'feel any oiHerent. `
be bounoary between tbe nintbyearano tbe tentb year was not
rm/ in tbe sense of being or representing a cbange in feeling. But one
coulo perbaps make enn oiagrams or bubbles to ./a::t propositions
aboutvarious ages.
Inaooition, I want tofocus ontbatgenus ofrc.ctte)tn)eratten
(or call it /carntng) wbicb is learning about tbe self` in a way tbat ma
result in some cbange` in tbe 'self. ` Fspecially I will look at cbanges
in tbe bounoaries of tbe self perbaps at tbe oiscovery tbat tbere are
bounoaries or perbaps no center . Ano so on.
Howoowe learn tbose learnings or wisooms(or follies)bywbicb
'weourselvesour ioeas about selfseem to be cbangeo
I began to tbink about sucb matters a long time ago ano bere
are two notions tbat I oevelopeo before Vorlo Var II , wben w
working outwbat I calleo tbe oynamics` or mecbanics` ofatmulcu
ture on tbe Sepik River in New uinea.
nenotionwas tbat tbe unit oftntcra.tten ano tbeunit of.hara.-
tcre/egt.a/ /catng (not ust acquiring tbe socalleo 'response wben tbe
buzer sounos but tbe /cetng rcad)er :u.h auteatt::) are tbe same.
carntngthc .entcxt: e)/t)e isamattertbatbas tobeoiscusseo not
internally but as a matter oftbe external relationsbip between two crea
tures. Ano rc/atten:ht t: a/wa: aredu.t e)deu//c d:.rttten.
It is correct (ano a great improvement) to begi n to tbink ottbe
twoparties to tbe interactionas twoeyes eacbgivinga monocularview
otwbat goes on ano togetber , gving a binocular vew in oeptb. Tbis
oouble viewt: tbe relationsbip.
Relationsbip is not internal to tbe single person. It is nonsense
to talk about 'oepenoency or 'aggressiveness or 'prioe, ` ano so on.
All sucb woros bavetbeir roots in wbat bappens betweenpersons , not i n
some sometbing-or-otber insioe a person
Noooubt tbere isa learning in tbemoreparticular sense. Tbere
are cbanges in A ano cbanges in B wbicb correspono to tbeoepenoency-
succorance ot tbe relationsbip. But tbe relationsbip comes hrst itrc
.cdc:.
Only ityou bolo on tigbt to tbe primacy ano priority ot rela
tionsbipcan youavoio oormitiveexplanations Tbe opium ooesnotcon-
tain a oormitive principle, ano tbe man ooes ot contain an aggressive
instinct.
TbeNewuinea material ano mucb tbat bas come later, taugbt
me tbatI willget nowbere by explaining prioel bebavior, torexample
by reterring to an inoiviouals 'prioe. Nor can you explain aggression
by reterring to instinctive (or even l earneo) aggressiveness . Sucb an
explanation, wbicb sbittsattentiontrom tbe interpersonal helo toatacti-
tious inner tenoency, principle, instinct, orwbatnot, is, I suggest , very
great nonsense wbicb only bioes tbe real questions.
Ityouwant to talk about, say, pri oe, youmusttalkabouttwo
persons ortwogroups anowbatbappensbetweentbem. A isaomireoby
B B's aomiration is conoitional ano may turn to contempt. Ano so on.
ou can tben oehnea particular species otprioeby reterence toapartic-
ular pattern otinteraction.
Tbe same is true ot'oepenoency courage 'passive-aggres-
sive bebavior, tatalism ano tbe like. A// cbaracterological aoectives
are to bereouceo or expanoeo to oerive tbeiroehnitionstrompatternsot
int
ercbange, i . e. trom combinations otoouble oescription.
As binocularvisiongives tbepossibility ota neworoer otintor
mation (about oeptb) so tbe unoerstanoing (conscious ano unconscious)
ot
bebaviortbrougb relationsbip gives a new/egt.a/ tc otl earning. (In
" Otc, tn passtng, hOw casy ts thc dcscnt IrOm stObtOIOgy tOparanOta and, pcaps , hOw casy ts
hc
dcsccnt IOm VtOcnt rcpudtattOn OI stObtOOgy tO paranOtaaas.
W
I55 M NLK5LP5 L KLLALP5
Stc: teanI.e/eg e)Mtnd, I bave calleo tbisLearning II , ordcutcre-/m
rn
tng. )
Tbe wbole matter i s a li ttle oifcul t to grsp because we ba
been taugbt to tbink of learning as a two-unit aHair Tbe teacb

'taugbt , ano tbe stuoent (or tbe experimental animal) 'learneo.

t
tbat l ineal mel became obsolete wben we learneo about cybernetic
cr
cuits of interaction. Tbe minimum unit of interaction contains tb
r

components. (In tbis , tbe olo experimenters were rigbt, in spiteoftbe
blinoness to oifferences i n logical levels. )
Call tbe tbree components:ttu/: rc:en:c, anorctn)er.ccnt.
tbese tbree, tbe secono is tbe reinforcement oftbe rst, ano tbe tbiro
reinforcement of tbe secono kc:en:c by /carncr rei nfoces tbe :ttu/u
provioeo bytca.hcr. Ano soon.
rioe is conoitional aomiration provioeo by spectator,/u: r-
sponse by performer,: more aomiration,/u: acceptance of aomira-
tion. . . . (Cut tbe sequence wbere you will ) f course, tbere 8rc
bunoreos of ways n wbicb tbe components of tbe contexts of learnng
may be interlinkeo, ano, corresponoingly, bunreos ofcbaracterological
'traits , ofwbicb bunoreos tbe experimeters bave lookeo at about bal|
a ooenstrange.
I am saying tbat tbere is a learning ofcontext, a learning tbat
oifferent from wbattbeexperimenterssee. Anotbattbis earningofcon-
text springs out ofa species ofoouble oescription wbicbgoes witb rela
tionsbip ano interaction. Moreove , like all tbemes of contextual learn
ing tbese tbemes of relationsbip are self-valioating. rioe feeos on
aomiration. But because tbe aomiration is conoitionalno tbe prou
man fears tbe contempt of tbe otberit follows tbat tbere is notbing
wbicb tbe otber can oo tooiminisb tbe prioe. Ifbesbows contempt, hc
equally rei nforces tbe prioe.
Similaly, we can expect self-valioation inotberexamples oftbe
same logical typi ng. Fxploration, play, crime ano tbeType A bebavio
oftbe psycbosomatic stuoies ofbypertension are equally oifhcult toe
tinguisb. fcourse, all tbesearenot categories ofbebavior tbeyare.at-
cgertc: e) .entcxtua/ ergant:atten e) /chaiter.
n ummay, tbis cbapter aoo impotant genealiations. c
now see tbat tbe mecbanics of relationsbip are a special case ofoouble

I 54 M mP AP PAKL
esc
ript
n and tbat tbe unit of bebavioral sequence contains at l east
tb
re
e components, maybe many more.
. V THYSFf `
Tbe old reek advice 'know tbyself` may carry many levels of
y
tic insigbt, but in addition to tbese aspects oftbe matter, tbere isa
very
simple, universal and, indeed, pragmaticaspect. t is surely so tbat
a
outsideknowedgewbatsoever must deriveinpartfrom wbat iscaed
:c
kn:w/cdgc.
Tbe Buddbists claim tbat tbe self is a sort of hction. f so, our
tak
will beto identify tbe species ofhction. But for tbe moment I sball
accept tbe self` as a beuristic concept , a ladder usel in climbing but
perbaps to be tbrown away or eft bebind at a later stage.
reacboutwitbmyband i ntbedark,andit touces tbeelectric
ligt switc. ' bave found it. Tbatswberett i s` and can now turn
it on.
But did not need to know tbe position of tbe switcb or tbe
poition ofmy band to be able to turn tbe ligbt on. Tbe mere sensory
report of contact between band and switcb would bave been enougb.
could bave been in total error in my `tbat's wbere it is , and still , witb
ybandon tbe switcb, could turn it on.
Tbe question is whcrc t: hand Tbis item ofself-knowledge
bas a very special and peculiar relation to tbe business of searcbing for
te
switcb or kn:wtng wbere tbe switcb is .
nder bypnosis , for example, could bave believed tat my
band
was above my bead wben, n fact , t was stretced borontally
forward. n sucba case, wouldbavelocatedtbe switcbup tbere, above
y ead migbteven bave taken my success in turningon tbel igbtas
v
erihcation ofmy discovery tat tbe switcb was above my bead `
Ver:c.t our opinions of selfonto tbe outer world, and often
e
can
bewrong about tbe selfand stil move and act and interact wtb

friends successlly but in terms offalse opinions .

Vbat, tben, is tbis sel f` Vbat, in tbe context oftbe present
b
apt
er, is added to information by obeying tbe old advice know tby-
s
elf
`
W
I ;; M VEKSlCMS CF KATlCMSHlP
Let me start again. Suppose tbat `know` tbat my bano isabove
mybeao ano tbat know tbe ligbtswitcbisatsbouloerbeigbt . et us
suppose tbat rigbt about tbe switcbbut wrong about my bano. In
tbesearcbfor tbeswitcb, sbal never put mybanowbere tbe switcbis
t woulo be better if oio not 'know` tbe position of tbe switcb.
woulo tben perbaps hno it bysome ranoom movementoftrial anoerror.
Vbat , tben, ae tbe rules for self-knowleoge noer wbat cir-
cumstances is it (pragmatically) better to bave no sucb knowleoge tban
tobaveerroneous opinions noerwbatcircumstances isself-knowleoge
pragmatically necessary Most people seem to live witbout any answers
to questions oftbis sort . noeeo, tbey seem to live witbout even asking
sucb questions.
Let us approacb tbe wbolematterwitb l ess epistemological arro-
gance. Does a oog bave self-knowleoge s it possible tbat aoog witbne
selfknowleoge can cbase a rabbi t s tbe wbole mass ofin unctions tbat
tell us to knowourselves ust a tangle ofmonstrous illusions built up to
compensatefor tbe paraooxes ofconsciousness
fwetbrow away tbenotion tbat tbeoogisonecreatureanotbe
rabbit anotberano consoer tbe wbole rabbitoog as a sing e system, we
can now ask Vbat reounoancies must exist in tbs system so tbat tbis
partoftbe systemwill be able to cbase tbat part Ano, perbaps , be un-
able tonet cbase i t
Tbeanswer nowappears tobequiteoiherent Tbe only informa-
tion (i . e. , reounoancy) tbat is necessary in tbese cases is relational . D
tbe rabbit, by unning tc// tbeoog tocbaseit ntbematterofturning
on tbe ligbt, wben tbe bano (`my bano) toucbeo tbe switcb tbe ne
essary information about rc/at:en:h: between bano ano switcb was cre-
ateo ano turningon tbeswitcbbecamepossiblewitboutcollateral info
mation about me, my bano, or tbe switcb
Tbeoog can invite toagameofcbase me. ` He goes oown witb

bis cbin ano tbroat to tbe grouno ano reacbes forwaro, witb bis front
legs, from elbows to paos, presseo agai nst tbegrouno. His eyes look u
moving in tbeir sockets witbout any movement oftbe beao. Tbe bin

legs are bent unoer tbe booy reaoy to springforwaro. Tbisposture is fa

miliar to anybooywbobas everplayeo witba oog. Tbeexistenceofsub
a signal proves tbe oog abe tocommunicate at , at least , two Russellian
levels or logical types.
M
1 W AI AK
Here, bowever , I am concerneo only witb tbose aspects ofplay
bicb exempli tbe ule tbattw: dc:.rttt:n: arc /cttcr than :nc
Tbe game ano tbe creationoftbegame must be seenas a single
benomenon ano inoeeo it is subectively plausible to say tbat tbe
se
uenceis reallyplayableonlysolongas i tretains someelementsoftbe
creativeano unexpecteo. Iftbesequenceis totally known, it isrttua/, al-
tbougb perbaps still cbaracter formi ng. It is ratber simpletosee a hrst
vel ofoiscovery by buman player, A, wbobasa hnite number ofalter
tive actions. Tbese are evolutionary sequences , witb natura selection
of not i tems butattcrn: :)ttc: ofaction. A will tryvariousactions on
ano hno tbat B will only accept certain contexts . Tbat is to say, A
must eitber preceoe certainactions witbcertain otbers or place certainof
bis own actions into time frames (sequences of interaction) tbat are
referreo by B. A proposes B 'oisposes.
A superh cially miraculous pbenomenon is tbe invention ofplay
between members of contrasting mammalian species. I bave watcbeo
bis process in interaction between our keesbono ano our tame gibbon,
no it was quite clear tbat tbeoog responoeo i nbernormal way to an
nexpecteo tweak of tbe r. Tbe gibbon woulo come suooenly out of
tbe rafters of tbe porcb roof ano ligbtly attack. Tbe oog woulo give
base tbe gibbon woulo run away, ano tbe wbole system woulo move
from tbe porcb to our beoroom, wbicb bao a ceiling insteao ofexposeo
rafters ano beams. Conhneo to tbe oor, tbe retreating gibbon woulo
trn on tbe oog, wbo woulo retreat , running out ont tbe porcb. Tbe
g bbon woulo tben go up into tbe roof, ano tbe wbole sequence woulo
start over again to be repeateo many times ano evioently enoyeo by
botb
players.
Discovering or inventing games witb a oolpbin in tbe water is a
very
similarexperience. I baooecioeo to give tbe eloerly femaleTur:t:
o clues about bow to oeal witb me otber tban tbe 'stimulus` of my
resence in tbe water. So I sat , witb arms foloeo, on tbe steps leaoing
oown intotbewater. Tbeoolpbincameoveranostationeo berselfalong-
soe
me, aboutone or two incbes away from contact witb mysioe. from
tie to time, tbere woulo beaccioental pbysical contact between usoue
tomovementsoftbewater. Tbese contacts wereseeminglyofnoi nterest
" ! wc dchncpIay as thccsab!shmcnt and cxp!oraton o!rc!atonshp, thcn grcctng and rtuaI arc
thc a!rmatton o!rcIattonshp Uu obvtously mturs ot athrmaton and cxp!oatton arc common.

M NLK5LP5 L KLALP5
to tbe animal. After perbaps two minutes, sbe moveo away ano slowl
swamarounome ano a fewmomentslater, I fel tsometbingpusbing i n
unoer myrigbtarm. Tbis was tbeoolpbin' s beak, ano I was confronteo
witb a problem bow to give tbe animaln: :/uc: about bow to oeal wit
me. yplanneostrategy was impossible.
I relaxeo my rigbt arm ano let ber pusb ber beak unoer it. I n
seconos , I bao a wboleoolpbin unoer myarm. Sbe tben bentarouno i n
frontofmetoa position i nwbicbsbe was sitting inmylap. from tbis
position, we went on to a few minutes of swimming ano playin
togetber .
extoay, I followeo tbe same sequence but oio not waitout tb

perioo ofminutes wbile sbe was alongsioe. I strokeo ber back witb m
bano. Sbe immeoiately correcteo me, swimming a sbort oistance awa

ano tben circling me ano givi ng mea ick witb tbe leaoing eoge ofb
tail uke, no ooubt an act tbat seemeo to ber to be gntle. After tbat
sbewent to tbefar enooftbe tankanostayeo tbere.
Agai n, tbese are evolutionary sequences , ano it is important to
seeclearly justwhat is evolveo. Tooescribetbecrossspeciesplayofoog
ano-gibbon or man-anooolpbin as an evolution of items of bebavio
woulo be incorrect because no new items ofbebavior are generateo. In
oeeo, for eacb creature in turn, tbere is no evolution ofnew contexts ot
action. Tbe oog is still uncbangeo oog tbe gi bbon is still gibbon tb
oolpbi n, oolpbin tbe man, man. Facb retains its own `cbaracterts

n organization oftbe perceiveo universeano yt , clearly sometbn

bas bappeneo. atterns ofinteraction bave been generateo oroiscovero

ano tbese pattrns bave, at least briey, nouro. n otbr woros, tbre
bas been a natural selection of patterns ofinteraction. Certain patts
surviveo longer tban otbers .
Tbere bas been an evolution oftttng t:gcthcr. Vitb minim
u
cbange in oog orgibbon, tbe system oog-gibbon bas become simpler
more internally integrateo ano consistent .
Tbere is tbus a l arger entity, call itA/u: 8. ano tbat larger n
tity, in play, is acbieving a process for wbicb I suggest tbat tbe corr
ct
name isra.tt.c Tbis isa learning process in wbicb tbe system plus

receives no new information from outsioe, only from wtthtn thc ::tc
Tbe interaction makes information about parts ofA available to parts
ot
B anoitcicr:a. Tbere bas been a cbange in bounoaries.

I58 N mP AP PAKL
et us place tbese oata in a wioer tbeoretical frme.
et us oo a
l i
ttlea/ductten, seeking otber cases wbicb wi l l be anologous to play in
tb
e
sense fbelonging unoer tbe same rule.
Nticetbat/a,, asalabel , ooes notl imi toroehnetbeactstbat

ake up lay. P/a, is applicable only to certain broao premises oftbe

i
tercbange. Inoroinaryparlance, `playisnottbenameofanactorac-
tio
itis tbe nameofaacfor action. Vemayexpect , tben, tbatplay
is ot suect to tbe regular rules of reinforcement. Inoeeo, anybooy
wbobas tri eo tostop somecbiloren playing knows bowitfeelswbenbis
efforts silygetincluoeo itbesbape oftbe game.
S to hno otbercasesunoer tbe same rule (or cbunk oftbeory) ,
we look fr integrations of bebavior wbicb a) oo not oehne tbe actions
wbicb are tbeir content ano b) oo ot obey tbe oroinary reinforcement
rules.
T cases come immeoiately to mio exploration ano
crime. tbers wortb tbinkingaboutare `TypeA bebavior (wbicbtbe
psycbosoticooctors regaro as partly etiologicalfor essential byperten-
sio , `panoia, `scbizopbrenia, ano so o.
Let usexamineexploration` toseewberein it is acontextfor, or
aproouct f, some sort ofooubleoescripti on.
fi st, exploration (ano crime ano playano all tbe otber woros of
tbis class is a primary oescription, verbal or overbal , oftbe self 'I
explore utwhat isexploreois otmerely myoutsioeworl o, ` or` tbe
outsioe wrlo asI live it.
Seno, exploration is selfvalioating, wbetber tbe outcome is
pleasat unpleasant for tbe explorer. Ifyou try to teacb a rat to not-
explore bavig bim poke bis nose into boxes containig electric
sbock, be ill , as we saw intbelast cbapter, goonooing tbis, presum-
ably
neeoi g to know wbicb boxes are safe ano wbicb unsafe. In tbis
sese, exl ratio isalwaysa success
Ts, exploratio is not only self-valioating it also seems in
bu
man
bei gs to be aooictive. I once kew a great mountain climber,
eoffrey ung, wbo climbeo tbe ortb face oftbe atterborn witb
olyone l g . (Tbe otber bao been amputateo i VorloVar I . Ano I
kewal og-oistancerunner , Leigb allory, wbosebonesare somewbere
witbin Z feet oftbe top ofount Fverest. Tbese climbers give us a
bitabou exploratio. eoHreyYoung useo tosay tbat tbenet-/t:tcntng
W
! pV M NLK5LP5 Ll KLLALP5
to tbe weak ano self-pitying complaints ano pains of tb
among tbe main oisciplines of tbe climbereven, I tbink,

_
_
(hc
sati sfactions otclimbing. Tbe victory over selt.
Sucb cbanging of self is commonly oescribeo d
4
` __(OI
/

ano sucb lineal woros as oiscipline, ano self-control

Ll
course tbese are mere supernaturalismsano probably a l i t
tl

g
t

0
(
tbat. Vbat bappens is mucb more l ike an incorporation o

_
z Ol
ioeas about tbe worlo wi tb ioeas about self.
Tbis brings up anotberexample, traoitionallyfamili

_g
(hIO

pologists totemism.
. TOTIS
for many peoples , tbeir tbinking about tbe social m o
wbicbtbey are tbe parts is sbapeo l iterally informeo)byan
"
/
Oc-
tween tbat system of wbicb tbey tbe parts ano tbe arge
_

ano biological system in wbicb tbe animals ano plants ano t

)0tl
!0 m0
all parts. Tbe analogy is partly exact ano partlyfancil ano

t
m
realvalioateoby actions tbat tbe fantasy oictates. Tbe uD
8
(
hcU
becomes morpbogenetic tbat is, it becomes a oeterminant

r
>
h0Qc
oftbe society.
Tbis analogy between tbe social system ano tbe natu

l
_uH0 t8
tbe religion tbat antbropologists call t:tct: As analogy,
ir
OOth
more appropriate ano more bealtby tban tbe analogy, fam
i l i
r
t u8,

wbicb woulo liken people ano society to nineteentbcentury ___gtUc8.

In itslate ano partlysecularform, totemismisfamili

cioental worlo d tbe premise of beralory. families orpatr

i l i

l in
claim ancient oignity by oepicting animals on tbeir beraloi g_
0
OI
totem poles wbicb tbus become genealogical oiagrams by t
e
_II0
-
ing oftbe beasts ofoiherent ancestral lines. Sucb representati
n

l00-
ily status in a mytbological bierarcby often aggranoize self
r
o
0c-
scent at tbe expense of otber family lines As tbis m

jt0clu
component oftotemism increases , tbe larger view ofrelation

(
hc
natural worlo is l ikely to be forgotten or reouceo to a me y
own family bas a crest, granteo in tbe eigbteentb centur
.
I
I
> O
course, a batswing. Similarly, my fatber's motber's Lowlano
S

o

l
0
0~
ily, wbose name was Aikin, bao an oak tree emblazoneo o
n

[
I
I
t
W
M
I40 M mP AP PAK
rware. In tbeir oialect, it is proverbial tbat from little aikins i . e. ,
o
ns big aiks grow. Ano so on
Vbat seems to bappen in sucb onventional secuarzation is a
b
it ofattention awayfrom tbe relationsbip to focus:nc cnd, on tbe ob-
j ts or persons wbo were relateo Tbis isa common patbway leaoing to
lgarieo epistemology ano to a loss of tbat insigbt or enligbtenment
bi
cb was gaineo by setting tbe viewofnature besioe tbe view offam-
iy
However , tbere are still a few practicing totemites, even in tbe
an
ks ofprofessional biology. To watcb rofessor onrao Lorenz teacb a
clas
s is tooiscover wbat tbeAurignacian cavemen were ooing wben tbey
ainteo tbose l iving, moving reinoeer ano mammotbs on tbe sioes ano
cilings of tbeir caves . Lorens posture ano expressive movement, bis
inesics , cbangefrommomenttomoment accoroing to tbe natureoftbe
aial beis talkingabout. Atone moment be is agoose a fewminutes
aer, a ccblio hsb. Ano so on He wil go to tbe backboaro ano
uickly oraw tbe creature, perbaps a oog, alive ano besitating between
atack ano retreat. Tben a moment's work witb erasr ano cbalk, a
cbange in tbe back oftbe neck ano tbe angle oftbe tai l , ano tbe oog is
now clearly going to attack.
He gave a series of lectures in Hawaii ano oevoteo tbe last of
tbese to problems of tbe pbilosopby of science. Vben be spoke of tbe
nsteinian universe, bis booy seemeo to twist ano contort a little in
mpatby witb tbat abstraction.
Ano mysteriously, liketbeAurignacians , be is unable tooraw a
bman gure. His attempts ano tbeirs result only in stickmen. Vbat
totemism teacbesabout tbe selfis profounoly nonvisual .
Loren's empatby witb animals gives bim an almost unfair ao-
v
antage over otber zoologists . He can ano surely ooes , reao mucb from
(conscious or unconscious) comparison of wbat be sees tbe animal oo
itbwbati tfeels like to ootbesame. (anypsycbiatrists use tbe same
tr
ick
to oiscover tbe tbougbts ano feel ings of tbeir patients . ) Two oi

erse oescriptionsarealways bettertbanone.

Tooay, wecan stano backfrom tbeooubleoescription tbat istbe
native totemism ofaboriginal Australia ano from tbe totemism ofFuro
p
ean
beralory ano look at tber::c:: ofoegeneration. Ve can see bow
eg
ooisplaceo enl igbtenment , bow tbefamilyanimals became crests ano
W
II M NLK5LP5 Ll KLLP5
banners , ano bow tbe relations between tbe animal prototypes in natu
r
got forgotten.
(Toay, we pump a little natural bistory into cbiloren along
witba l ittle`art so tbat tbey willforget tbeiranimalanoecologicaln
ture ano tbe aestbetics of being alive ano will grow up to be goo

businessmen.)
Tbere is , by tbe way, anotber patbway of oegeneracy tbat be
comes visible in tbe .:arattic survey we are oiscussing. Tbis is
Aesopation ot naural bstory . n tbis process it is not prioe ano eg
butcntcrtacnt tbat rplaces rel igion. Tbe natural bistory is no longer
even a pretense ot looking at real creatures it becomes a cluster of
stories , more or less sarooni c more or less moral, more or less amusing.
Tbe bolistic view tbat l am callingrc/tgt: splitst ogive eitberweapons
to ego or toys to tancy .
. ABDCTIO
Ve are so accustomeo to tbe universe in wbicb we l ive ano to
our puny metboos oftbinking about it tbat wecan baroly see tbat it is

for example surprising tbat abouction is possible, tbat it is possible to

oescribe some event or tbing (e. g. , a man sbaving in a mirror) ano tben

to look arouno tbe worlo for otber cases to t tbe same rules tbat W0
oeviseo for our oescription. Ve can look at tbe anatomy of a frog an
tbenlookrouno tonootberi nstancesoftbe sameabstractrelationsre
curring in otber creatures , incluoing, in tbis case, ourselves .
Tbis ateral etension of abstract components of oescription
calleoa/du.tt:n. ano I bope tbe reaoer may see it witb a fresb eye.
verypossibilityofabouction is a littleuncanny ano tbepbenomenon
enormously more wioespreao tban be or sbe migbt at rst tbougb
bave supposeo.
etapbor , oream, parable, allegory, tbe wbole ofart , tbe
wbole

ofscience, tbe wbole ofreligion, tbe wbole ofpoetry, toemism (as

reaoy mentioneo) tbe organiation offacts in comparativeanatomy

tbese are instances or aggregates of instances of abouction, wi tbi n t

buman mental spbere.
But obviously tbe possibilty of abouction extenos to tbe ve
I42 M mI AI IAKL
ro
ot also ofpbysical science, ewton's analysis oftbe solar system ano
tb
e
periooic table of tbe elements being bistoric examples.
Conversel y, all tbougbtwoulo betotally impossible in auniverse
in
wbicb abouction was not expectable.
Here I am concerneo only witb tbataspect oftbe universal fact
of
abouctionwbicbis relevant totbeoroerofcbangetbatis tbesubect
of tbis cbapter. I am concerneo witb cbanges in basic epistemology,
baracter, self, ano soon Anycbange inour epistemology wi l l involve
sbifting our wbole system of abouctions. Ve must pass tbrougb tbe
tbreat oftbat cbaos wbere tbougbt becomes impossible.
Fvery abouction may be seen as a ooubleormultiple oescription
c
someobect or event or sequence. IfI examine tbesocial organiation
c
an Australian tribe ano tbe sketcb ofnatural relations upon wbicb tbe
totemismisbaseo, I canseetbesetwobiesofknowleogeas relateoab
uctivel y, as botb falli ng unoer tbe same rules. In eacb case, it is as
sumeo tbat certain formal cbaracteristics ofone component will be mir-
roreo in tbe otber.
Tbis repetition bas certain very ehective implications . It carries
injuncti ons , for tbepeopleconcerneo. Tbeir ioeasabout nature, bowever
fantastic, are supporteo by tbeir social system conversely, tbe social sys
tem is supporteo by tbeir ioeas ofnature. It tbus becomes very oifhcult
fr tbe people, so ooubly guioeo, to cbange tbeir view eitber of nature
oroftbesocial system. for tbe benehts ofstability, tbeypay tbeprice of
rigioity, living, as all buman beings must, in an enormously complex
network of mutually supporting presuppositions. Tbe converse of tbis
statement is tbat cbange will requirevarious sort ofrelaxation or con-
traoiction witbin tbesystem ofpresuppositions.
Vbat seems to be tbe case is tbat tbere are, in nature ano corre-
ponoingy reecteo in our processes of tbougbt , great regions wi tbin
bicb abouctivesystems obtain. for example, tbeanatomyanopbysiol-
ogy oftbebooycan beconsioereo as onevast abouctivesystem witb its
n coberence witbin itselfat any given time. Similarly, tbe environ-
ent witbin wbicb tbe creature lives is anotber sucb internally coberent
abouctive system, altbougb tbis system is not immeoiately coberent
it
b tbat oftbe organism.
for cbange to occur, a oouble requirement is imoseo on tbe
W
I45 M bbLIb L bALIbt
new tbing. t must t tbe organism s interna oemanos for coberen
e
ano it must t tbeexternal requrements ofenvronment.
It tbus comes about tbat wbat I bave calleo deu//c dc:crtt
becomesooublerequirement orooublespeci cation. TbepossibilitiesU1
cbange are twice fractionateo. Iftbe creature is to enoure cbange mu
s
always occur in ways tbat are ooubly oeneo Broaoly tbe intern
a

requirements of tbe booy will be conservative. Survival of tbe b

requrestbat not-togreat oisrupton sballoccur. Incontrast tbecban
ing environmet may reqire cbange n tbe organism ano a sacrice -(
conservatism.
In Cbapter , we sball consioer tbe resulting contrast betwee

|
bomology wbicb is tbe resultofpbylogenetic conservatism anoaoapta
ton wbicb is tbe rewaroofcbange.
I44 M MlMO AMO MATRE
N
|1
'1P
'\\|P'i\
\\1''1'

1hc cx]rct6n 6[|cn u1cd b Ar. obo| 3]cntcr 6[ |hc 3utttu/

|hc tt||c1| t1 mm
und t1 16mc|tmc1 cquu// t6ntcntcn|.
HARlES 1ARVlN, n|hcrttn 6[3]cttc1, FlFTH E1TlO^.
ln|6 |ht1 unttcr1c, und Why no| kn6utn
o WhCncc, /tkc u|cr t//-nt//mtn.
nd 6u| 6[ t|, u1 tndu/6n |hc u1|,
l knm n6|uht|hcr, ut//-nt// b/6utn.
E1VAR1 FlTZGERAL1, 1hc ubutu| 6[murKhuum
It s ageneralassumption oftbis book tbat botbgenetic
' cbange ano tbe process calleo /carntng (incluoing tbe
somaticcbanges inouceo by babit ano environment)are
stocbastic processes . In eacb case tbere i s, I believe, a
stream ofevents tbat is ranoom in certain aspects ano in
cb
case
tbere i s a nonranoom selective process wbicbcauses certain of
t

a
noom
components to survive longer tban otbers. Vitbout tbe
a
n
oo
m, tberecan be no new tbing.
I assume tbat in evolution tbeproouction otmutant orms is ei-
t

r
a
noo
m
witbin wbatever set ofalternatives tbe status uoante will
,

it
or
tbat , ifmutation be oroero, tbe criteria oftbat oroering are

l
v
nt
to
tbe stresses oftbe organism. In accoroance witb ortbooox

largenetictbeory, I asume tbat tbeprotopamic environment of

@
!

M bLL^bL bLLbbb
tbe DA cannotoirect cbanges in DAwbicbwoulo berelevant tot
ting tbeorganism to tbeenvironment or reoucing internal stress . an
factorsbotb pbysical ano cbemicalcan alter tbe frequency of mu
ta

tion but I assume tbat tbemutations sogenerateoare notgeareo tot

particular stresses wbicb tbe parent generation was unoer at tbe ti

wben tbe mutation was brougbt about. I sball even assume tbat mu
ta
tions proouceo by a mutagen are irrelevant to tbe pbysiological str
generateo witbin tbe cell by tbe mutagen itself.
Beyonotbat Isball assume as isnow ortbooox, tbat mutation
so ranoomly generateo, are storeo in tbemixeogene pool oftbepupa-
tion ano tbat natural selection will work to eliminate tbose alternati
wbicb are unfavorable from tbe point of view of:ecthtng /tkc suria
ano tbat tbis elimination will , on tbe wbole, favor tbose alternati
wbicb are barmless or bene cial .
On tbe sioe oftbe inoivioual , I simi larly assume tbat tbe menta
processes generate a large number of alternatives ano tbat tbere i a
selection among tbese oetermineo by:ecthtng/tkc reinforcement.
Botb for mutatons ano for learning, it is always necessay
remember tbe potential patbologies oflogica typing. Vbat bas survi
value for tbe inoivioual may be letbal for tbe pulation or for tb s
ety. Vbat isgooo fora sbort time (tbe symptomaticcure) may beaoi-
tive or letbal over long time.
It was Alfreo Russel Vallace wbo remarkeo in tbat t
principleofnatural selection is like tbat oftbe steamenginewitbago
ernor. I sball assume tbat tbis is inoeeo so ano tbat botb tbeproces
inoivioual learning ano tbe process of popuation sbift unoer natud
selection can exbibit tbe patbologies ofal cybernetic circuits
oscillationanorunaway.
In sum, sbal assume tbat evolutionary cbange ano
cbange (incluoing learning ano tbougbt)arefunoamentally similar,
botb are stocbastic in natue altbougb surely tbe ioeas (in
oescriptive propositi ons , ano so on) on wbicb eacb process works
arc
totallyoiherentlogical typing from tbe typing ofioeas in tbe otber
cess.
It is tbis tangle oflogical typing tbatbas leo to somucb
n, controversy, ano even nonsense about sucb matters as tbe
Id N mII AI IAK
tan
c
e ofacquireocbaracteristics` ano tbe legi timacyofinvoking 'mino`

an explanatory principle.
Tbewbolematterbasbaoacuriousbistory. Itwasonceintol era
le
to many people to suggest tbat evolution coulo bave a ranoom com-

one
nt. Tbis wassupposeolycontrary o all tbat was known aboutaoap
a
tio
n ano oesign ano contrary any belief in a creator witb mental
baracteristics. Samuel Butler's criticism ofThc 0rtgtn ) Scctc: was es
entally to accuse Darwin ofexcluoing mino from among tbe relevant

aory principles Butler wanteo to imagine a nonranoom mno at

or
somewbere in tbe system ano tberefore preferreo tbe tbeories of
a
arck to tbose ofDarwi n.
It turns out bowever, tbat sucb critics were precisely wrong in
tbeir
cboice of tbe correction tbey woulo apply to Darwinian tbeory.
ooay, we see tbougbt ano learning (ano perbaps somatic cbange) as
tocbastic. Ve woulo correct tbe nineteentbcentury tbinkers not by
aooig a nonstocbastic mino totbe evolutionaryprocess , but bypropos
ig tbat tbougbt ano evolution are alike in a sbareo stocbasticism. Botb
are ental processes in termsoftbe criteria oHereo inCbapter4.
Ve face tben twogreatstocbastic systems tbat areparty inn
teraction anopartly isolateo from eacb otber. One system is witbin tbe
ioivioual ano iscalleo/erntng, tbe otber is immanent in bereoity ano
i opulations ano is calleo e/utten. One is a matter oftbe single l ife-
tie tbeotberisamatterofmultiplegenerationsofmany inoiviouals.
Tbetaskoftbiscbapter is tosbow bowtbesetwostocbastic sys-
tes,
working at oiHerent levels oflogical typing, t togetber into a
ige ongoing biospbere tbat coulo not enoure ifeitbersomatic orgene
tic
cbangewere funoamentally oiHerent from wbat it is.
Tbeuntt, oftbecombineo system isnccc::ar,
THF AARCIA FRRORS
A very large part ofwbat can be saio about tbe interlocking of
eotion ano somatic cbange is oeouctive. At tbe levels oftbeory tbat
e
con
front bere, tbere are no observational oata, ano experimentation
otr
8
n_CIy,
CVCn tn uCrs Lvolurioo. 0lJaoJNe. thCrC ts VCry tC CVtOCnCC that utCr haU
Ch
C
R8thy lCr thC CIcatC thnkn_ CI LRarC
l49 M 5LLA5JL KLLL55L5
bas not yet begun. But tbis is not surprising. Tbere was, after al , al
most noeo evioence tor natura seection unt ettewe stuoeo tbe
paleanomelanicvarietiesofpeppermotb(8t:ten/etu/arta) i ntbe s
Inanycase, tbearguments against tbebypotbesis tbat acquireo
cbaracteristics are inberiteo are instructive ano will serve to i l lustrate
severalaspectsoftbetangleo relationsbip between tbetwogreatstocbas
tic processes . Tbereare tbree sucbarguments , ofwbicb only tbe tbiro is
convncng
a. Tbe rst argument is tbat tbe bypotbesis is to be oiscaroeo
for lack ofempirical support. But experimentation i n tbis helo is incre
oibly oifhcult ano tbe critics rutbless so tbe lack of evioence is not
surprisi ng. It is not clear tbat ifLamarckian nberitance occurreo eitber
in tbe helo or even in tbe laboratory, it woulo be possible to recognie
it.
b. Tbe secono ano until recently tbe most cogentcriticism was
August Veissmann's assertion in tbe s tbat tbere is ne ce-
unt.atten /etween:eaandger/a:. Veissmannwasanextraoroinarily
gifteo erman embryologist wbo, becoming nearly blino wbile still a
young man, oevoteo bimselfto tbeory e noteo tbat for many organ
isms tbere was a continuityofwbat be calleo germ plasm, ` i . e. , oftbe
protoplasmic linefrom generation togeneration ano tbat in eacbgener-
ation tbe pbenotypic by or somacoulo beconsioereo as brancbing oh
from tbs germ plm. rom tbis insigbt be argueo tbat tbere coulo be
nobackwaro communication trom tbe somatic brancb to tbe main stem
wbicb was tbe germ plasm.
Fxercise oftbe rigbt biceps will certainly strengtben tbat muscle
i naninoivioual , buttbereisnoknownwayi nwbicbnewsoftbatsoma-
tic cbange coulo becarrieo to tbesexcells oftbat inoivioual . Tbiscriti
cism like tbe hrst , oepenos on argument from tbe fact ofabsence o
evioencean unsure stone on wbicb to stepano most biologists after
Veissmann bave tenoeo to make tbe argument dducttie by assumin
tbat tbere isne tagtna//e way i n wbicb communication coulooccur be-
tween biceps ano ture gamete
Buttbat assumptionooesnot look so safetooay as itoio tenty
yearsago. IfRNAcancarry imprintsofportionsofDNA to otberpart
s
I 50 M mI AI IAKL
oftbe cell ano possibly tootber parts oftbe booy, tben it istagt//c
tbat imprints of cbemical cbanges in tbe biceps coulo be carrieo to tbe
germ plm.
c. Tbe hnal ano, for me, tbe only convincing criticism is a
reouctio ao absuroum, an assertion tbat if amarckian inberitance were
tbe rule or even at all common tbe wbole system of interlocking sto-
cbasticprocesseswoulo come to a bal t.
I offer tbiscri ticism berenotonly i nanattempt(probably futile)
to kill a neverui te-oeao borse but also to illustrate tbe relations be-
tween tbe two stocbastic processes . Imagine tbe following oialogue
ULLLb. Vbat exactly is claimeo by amarckan tbeory Vbat oo
you mean by'thc tnhcrttancc e)acqutrcdcharactcrt:ttc:
AmAKLhA!. Tbat a cbange i n tbe booy i nouceo by environment will
bepaseo on to tbeohspring.
ULLLb` Vait a minute, a changc is to be passeo on Vbatexactly
istobepasseofromparent toohspringA cbange issomesort
ofabstraction, I suppose
AmAKLhA!` Anehect ofenvironment , for example, tbe nuptialpaosof
tbe malemiowife toao.
ULLLb` I stilloon tunoerstano. You surelyoonot mean tbat tbe en-
vironment maoe tbe nuptial paos.
AmAKLhA!` No, ofcourse not. Tbe toao maoetbem
ULLLb. Ab, sotbetoaoknewi nsomesenseorbaotbepotentiality
forgrowing nuptial paos
AmAKLhA!. Sometbing like tbat , yes. Tbe toao coulo make nuptial
paoswben forceo tobreeo i nwater
ULLLb. Ab, be coulo aoapt bimself. Is tbat rigbt Ifbe breo on
lano, in tbe way normal to bis species oftoao, be maoe no nup
tial paos. If in water, tben be maoe paos ust like all tbe otber
sorts oftoao. Hebao an option
mOst sQccs OttOds matc tn watcr, and durtng thc mattng Qr, thc malc c!asps thc tcma!c
wth
his armstrOma pOsttOn On hcrback. crhapsbetmse' shc ts s!ippcry, hc hasrOughcncdb!ack
ds On thcdOrsa! stdcs Othtshands tn thts scasOn. n cOntrast, thc mtdwttc tOadmatcs On !and and
h nO such nupta! pads. In thc ycars bctOrc MOr!d Mar , au! hammcrcr, an Austrtan sccnttst,
c!atmc tO havc dcmOnstratcd thc tOus nhcrtancc Ot acQutrcd charactcrs by tOrctng mtdwtc
tOds tO matc tn watcr ndcr thcsc ctrcmstanccs, thc malcdcvc!Od nupta! ds. t was catmcd
that dccndants Ot thc ma!c dcvcOQd sch pads, cn On and.
I 5 I M 5LLmA5L KLLL55L5
A^AHIKA. But someoftheoescenoantsofthe toao who maoepaos i n
watermaoepaosevenonlano. Thatswhat I meanbytheinheri-
tanceofacureo characters.
ULLL;. Ah yes see. Vhat was passeo on was the loss ofan op-
tion The oesenoants coulo no longer breeo normally on lan
That's fascinating.
A^AHIKAP. Youarewllfully fai li ng to unoerstano.
ULLL;. erhaps. But I still oo not unoerstano what is supposeoly
passeo on` or nherteo ` The clai meo empirical fact s that
the oescenoants d crcd from the parent in lacking an opton
which theparent hao. But this is not thepassing on ofa resem-
blance which the worotnhcrttan.c woulo suggest. It is thepass
ing on of a dt_rcn But the oiHerence was not there to be
passeo on. The parent toao, as I unoerstano i t, stil hao hs op-
tions in gooo shape.
Ano so on.
The crux of this argument is the logcal typing of the genetic
message that is supposeo to be passeo on. It is not goo enough tosa
vaguely that the nuptial paos are passeo on, ano there is no point in
claming that the potentiality to oevelop nuptal paos is passeo on
because that potentaltywascharacteristcoftheparent toao before the
experiment began.
Ofcourse it is notoenieo that the animals ano toa lesserextent
the plants in this worlo often present the appearance which we mght
expect i n a worlo i n which evolution hao proceeoeo by pathways o
amarckian inhertance.
Veshallseethatthsappearance isinevtablegven(a) thatwil
populatons usually (perhaps always) are characterizeo by heterogeneous
(mixeo up ano overse) gene pools, (b) that inovioual animals are capa-
ble ofsomatcchangeswhichare in some wayaoaptive, ano (c) thatmu
tation ano thereshungofexstinggenesareranoom.
But ths conclusion will followonly after the entopc economcs
of somatic change has been compareo with the entropc economics o
acheving the same phenotypc appearance by genetic oetermination.
Arthur Kocstlcr, in TbcCa:co/tbcMiJuc ToJ(Pcw ork Nntagc Uooks, l975), rccords th8t
at cast onc tad this spccics has cn found wih nupta pads. tc ncccssary gcnc

cuipmcnt is avai!a!c hc cvidcntia va!uc oI thc cpcrimcn is scriousy rcduccd by this hnding.
I52 M mP A PALKL

In tbe imagi naryoialogue marckianwas si lenceo by tbe argu-

ent tbat tbe inberitance ot acquireo cbaracteristics woulo be accom-
panieo by loss ottreeoom to mooi tbe inoivioual booy in response to
tb
eoemanos otbabit or environment. Tbisgeneralization isnot quite so
imply true. No ooubt tbe substitution otgenetic tor somatic control
re
garoless ottbe question otbereoity will alwaysoimi nisb tbe eibil-
ty ot tbe inoivioua . Tbe option ot somatic cbange in tbat particular
baracteristic will bewbollyor partly lost. ut tbegeneralquestionstill
emains Does i tncicr pay to substitutegeneti tor somatic control It
tbis weretbecase tbeworlo woulo surely bea very oi tterentplacetrom
tbat wbicb we eperience. ikewise it amarckian inberitance were tbe
rule, tbe wbole process otevolution ano living woulo become tieo up in
tbe rigioities ot genetic oetermination. Tbe answer must be between
tbese extremes ano lackng oata tbat woulo untangle tbis matter we
areoriven tocommon sense ano oeouctions trom cybernetic principles.
et me illustrate tbe wbole matter by a oiscussion ot use ano
oisuse.
. S AND DISS
Tbis olo pairotconcepts, wbicb useo to be central inoiscussions
otevolution, bas almost oroppeo out ottbe argument, perbaps because
in tbis connection it is especially necessary to keep clear tbe logical typ-
ing ottbe various components otany bypotbesis.
Tbat tbeettects otQ migbtcontributei nsomewaytoevolution
t not particularly mysterious. Nobooy can oeny tbat tbe biological
scene looks at a h rst glance, J tbe ettects ot use ano oisuse were
passeo ontromgenerationtogeneration. Tbi s bowever, cannotbehtteo
into wbat we know ottbe seltcorrective ano aoaptive nature otsomatic
cbange. Tbecreatures woulo in verytew generati ons lose all treeoom ot
somatic aojustment
ut to go beyono tbe cruoe amarckian position is to tace oit-
culties witb tbe logical typing ottbe parts ottbe bypotbesis . I believe
tbese oi tcultes to be soluble. So tar as QJ s concerneo it is not too
othcult to tbink ot seuences in wbcb natural selection migbt tavor
tbose inoviouals wbose genetc makeup woulo go along w tb tbe soma
I 55 M 5LLmA5L KLL55L5
MR. 70T0'S RLAS0NS
'7e/! me, aa, wh, are the a!m trees se
tah
' It's se that the irq/e ma, /e a/!e te mt
thm, m, chi!d, /er . . .
'But then, aa. wh, de the ira_e ha:e
such !en neck
. . . p the a!m trees woe quite sma!!, tht
ira_e weu!d /e in treu/!e (cmOarra-
scs) .
q the ira_e had shert necks, th
weu!d /e sti!l moe treu//m.

c
c
banges current among tbe inoiviouals ottbe gi ven population. Tbe
s
m
atic cbanges wbicb accompany use are commonly (altbougb not
lw
ays) aoaptive, ano tberetore genetic control wbicb woulo tavor sucb
ba
nges migbt be aovantageous .
noer wbat circumstances ooes it pay, in terms otsurvival to
s
b
stitutegenetic tor somatic control
Tberttc otsucba sbittis , as baveargueo, alack oteibility,
t
tbis lack must be spelleo out more precisely ittbe conoitions i n
wbicbtbesbitt wi llbebenecial are tobeoeneo.
At rst glance, tbere are tbose cses in wbicb tbe eibility
w
oulo perbaps never be neeoeo atter tbe sbitt to tbegenetic. Tbese are
ases in wbicb tbe somatic cbange is an ao ustment to some ten:tant en-
vironmental circumstance. Tbose members ota species tbat aresettleo in
bigb mountains may as well base tbeir aoustments to mountain
climate, atmospberic pressure, ano tbe like on genetic oetermination.
Tbey oo not neeo tbat reversibility wbicb is tbe ballmark ot somatic
cbange.
Conversel y, aoaptation tovariableano reversiblecircumstances is
mucb better accomplisbeo by somatic cbange, ano it may well be tbat
onlyvery supercial somatic cbange is tolerable.
Tbere is a graoingotoeptb insomatic cbange. Ita mangoesup
trom sealevel to , 000 teet i n tbe mountains , be will , unless be is in
very gooo conoition, begin to pant ano bis beart will start to race.
bese immeoiate ano reversible somatic cbanges are aoequate to oeal
itb a conoition otemergency, but it woulo be anetravagantwaste ot
eibility to use panting ano tacbycaroia as tbe ongoing aoustment to
ountain atmospbere. Vbat is requi reo issomaticcbange wbicb sboulo
eperbaps less reversiblebecausewe are now consioeri ng, nottemporary
emergency, but ongoing ano lasting conoitions. I t will pay to sacrice
so
me
reversibility in oror to economize eibility (i .e. , to save tbe
panting ano tacbycaroia tor some occasion in tbe bigb mountains wben
e
tra
ettort may be neeoeo.
Vbat will bappen iscalleoact/tatten Tbeman' sbeartwi llun
ergocbanges, bisblooowillcome tocontan more bemoglobin, bis rib
cage ano respiratory babits will sbitt, ano so on. Tbesecbanges will be
mucb less reversible tban panting, ano ittbe mangoes visiting oown in
tbeplains , be willperbaps teel some oiscomtort.
W
' ' M STCCHA fCCCC
In terms oftbe j argon oftbis book, tbere is a bierarcby ofsoa

tic aojustment oealing witb particular ano immeoiate oemanos at t
e

superhcial (most concrete) level ano oealing witb more general aou
s

ment at oeeper (more abstract) levels. Tbe matter is eactly parallel tO

tbe bierarcby oflearning in wbicb protolearning oeals witb tbe narro
fact or action ano oeutero-learning oeals witb contets ano classes Ol
contet.
It i s interesting to note tbat accl imation is accomplisbeo

many cbanges on many fronts (beart muscle, bemoglobi n, cbest muscu
lature, an so on) wbereas tbe emergency measures teno to be ao b

ano specihc.
Vbat bappens in acclimation is tbat tbe organism buys super
cialeibilityat tbe priceofoeeperrigioity. Tbe man can now usepant

ing ano tacbycaroia as emergency measures if be meets a bear, but e
will be uncomfortable if be goes oown to visit bis olo frienos at sea

level .
It is wortbwbile to spell tbis matter out in more formal terms
Consioer all tbepropositions tbat migbt berequireo tooescribeanorga
nism. Tbere may be millions oftbem, but tbey wi l l be linkeo

ogetbe
in loops ano circuits of i nteroepenoence. Ano in some oegree, ever
oescriptive proposition will be normative for tbat organism tbat i s
tbere wi l l be maimum ano minimum levels beyono wbicb tbe variable
oescribeo will be toic. Too mucb sugar in tbe blooo or to l i ttle will
kill anotbisi ssoforallbiologicalvariables . Tberei swbatcan becalle
actaia/uc attacbeo to eacb variable tbat i s it isgooo for tbecreaturei
tbe given variable is in tbe miooleofits range, not at its maimum or
minimum. Ano because tbe variables are interconnecteo in loops an
circuits, it follows tbat any variable wbicb is at maimum or minimum
must partly cramp all otber variables on tbe same loop.
fleibilityano survival will befavoreo by anycbange tenoing to
keep variables oating in tbe mioole of tbeir range. But any etreme
somatic aoj ustment will pusb one or more variables to etreme values.
Tbere is , tberere always an avai lable stress to be relieveo by genetic
cbange provoeo tbat tbe pbenotypic epression oftbe cbange sball not
be a furtber i ncrease of alreaoy eisting stress . Vbat is requireo is a
genetic cbange tbat wi l l a/tcr thc /eic/: e) te/crancc)er ucr ander /ewcr
ia/uc: e) thc iarta//c

If, for example, before genetic cbange (by mutation or, more

rob
ably, byresbuing ofgenes) , tbetolerancefor agiven variable
were
w
tbin
tbe limits to , tben a genetic cbange tbat woulo cbange tbe
li
its to a new value, to woulo bave survival value for a creature
wb
ose somatic aoustment was straining to bolo tbe variable up to tbe
olo value of . Beyono tbat , iftbe somatic aoustment pusbeo tbe new
valueto , tberewoulo be afurtber available increment ofsurvivalvalue
to be gaineo bya furtbergenetic cbange to permit or pusb tbe tolerance
levels fartber up tbe same scale.
In tbe pt , it was oifh cult to account for evolutionary cbange
relateo todt:u:c. Tbat a genetic cbange in tbe same oirection as tbe ef-
fects of babit or use woulo commonly bave survival value was easy to
imagine, but it was moreoifh culttosee bowageneticouplicationofef-
fects of oisuse migbt pay oH. However, if tbe logical typing of tbe
imagineogenetic message isuggleo, abypotbesis isacbieveo tbat uses a
singleparaoigm tocover tbeehectsofbotb useanooisuse. Tbeolomys
tery surrounoing tbe bl inoness of cave animals ano tbe eigbt-ounce
femur oftbe eigbtyton blue wbale is no longer totally mysterious. Ve
bave only to suppose tbat tbe maintenance of any resioual organ, say a
tenpouno femur in an eigbtyton wbale, will always pusb one or more
somatic variales to an upper or lower limit oftolerance to see tbat a
sbift oftbe limits oftolerance will be acceptable.
However, from tbe point ofview oftbis book, tbis solution to
tbe otberwise perplexing problems of use ano oisuse is an important
illustration of tbe relation between genetic or somatic cbange ano,
beyono tbat , oftbe relation between bigber ano lower logical typing i n
tbe vast mental process calleoeie/utten
Tbe message ofbigber logical type ( i . e. , tbe more genetic in-
unction)ooes notbavetomentiontbesomaticvariablewbose tolerances
are
sbifteo by tbe genetic cbange. Inoeeo, tbe genetic script probably
contains notbing in any way resembling tbe nouns or substantives of
buman language. My own expectation is tbat wben tbe almost totally
unknown realm ofprocesses wbereby DNA oetermines embryology is
stuoieo, i will be founo tbat DNA mentions notbing but relations. If
we sboulo ask DNA bow many hngers tbis buman embryo will bave,
tbe answer migbt be, 'four paireo relations between (hngers . ` Ano if
we ask bow many gaps between h ngers , tbe answer woulo be 'tbree
I57 M STCCHASTC PKCCESSES
paireo relations between (gaps . ` In eacb case only tbe rc/atten:/ctwccn
areoehneoanooetermineo. Tbe relata tbe eno components ottbe rela
tionsbips in tbe corporeal worlo are perbaps never mentioneo.
(Matbematicians will note tbat tbe bypotbetical system bereoe
scribeo resembles tbeir group tbeory in oealing only witb relation
among tbeecratte by wbicb sometbing is transtormeo never witb tbe
sometbing` itsel
In tbistacet ottbecommunication trom somatic cbange tbrougb
natural selection to tbe gene pool ottbe population it is important to
note
a. Tbat somatic cbange is bierarcbic in structure.
b. Tbatgenetic cbangeis ina sense, tbe bigbestcomponentin
tbatbierarcby(i . e. tbe most abstract ano tbeleast reversible
c. Tbat genetic cbange can at least partly avoio tbe price otim-
posing rigioity on tbe system by being oelayeo until it isprobable tbat
tbe circumstance wbicb was copeo witb by tbe somaata reversiblelevel
is inoeeo permanent ano by acting only inoirectly on tbe pbenotypic
variable. Tbe genetic cbange presumably sbitts only tbe/ta: or setting
(see lossary ogical Type` ottbe bomeostatic control ottbe pbeno-
typic variable.
o. Tbat witb tbis step trom oirect control ot tbe pbenotypic
variable to control ottbe bias ot tbe variable tbere is also probably an
openinganospreaoingotalternativepossibilitiestorcbange. Tbecontrol
ottolerances tor tbe size ot tbe wbale's temur is no ooubt acbieveo by
oozens otoiHerent genes acting, in tbis respect togetber but eacb bav-
ing perbaps quite otber epressions in otberparts ottbe booy.
A similar breakoown trom tbis singleeHect in wbicb tbe evolu-
tionistbappens tobe interesteo ata given moment to multiplealterna-
tive or synergistic causes was noteo in tbe step trom simple somatic
cbange to acclimation. It is epectable tbat in biology stepping trom
one logical level to tbe net bigber will always bave to be accompanieo
by tbis multiplication otrelevant consioerations .
I58 M mP AP PAKL
. NTIC ASSIMIATION
Vbat bas been saio in section is exempliheo in almost every
p
oint by my frieno, Conrao Vaooington's famous experiments oemon
str
ating wbat be calleo gcnctt. a::tt/atten Tbe most oramatic of tbese
began witbtbeproouctionofpbenocopies oftbeeffectsonfruit ies ofa
g
ene calleo /ttherax. Alloroinarymembers oftbevast oroer Diptera, ex-
c
ept
tbewingless eas , are two-wingeoanobave tbe secono pairofwings
reo
uceo toli ttleroos witbknobs at tbe enos tbat are believeo tobebal
ance organs . noer tbe gene bitborax, tbe wing ruoiments in tbe tbiro
se
gment oftbe tboraxbecomealmost perfect wings, resulting in a four-
wingeo y.
Tbis very profouno mooihcation oftbe pbenotype, waking up
veryancientanonowinbibiteomorpbology, coulo also beproouceo bya
somati cbange. Vben tbe pupae were intoxicateo witb etbyl etber in
appropriateoosage, tbe aoulties, wben tbey batcbeo, bao tbe bitborax
appearance. Tbat i s, tbe cbaracteristic, bi tborax, was known botb as a
proouct ofgenetics ano as tbe proouct ofviolent oisturbanceofepigene-
b1b .
Vaooington performeo bis experiments on large populations of
ies in big cages . In eacb generation, be subj ecteo tbese populations to
etber intoxication toproouce tbe bi tboraxforms. Ineacbgeneration, be
selecteoout tbose ies tbat best representeo bis ioeal ofperfect bitborax
oevelopment. (All were ratber miserable-looking beasts, quite unable to
y. ) from tbese selecteo inoiviouals , be breo tbe next generation to be
subjecteo to tbeetbertreatment ano selection.
fromeacbgenerationofpupae, bekeptafew before intoxication
ano let tbem batcb unoer normal conoitions. finally, as tbe experiment
progresseo, after some tbirtygenerations , bitboraxforms starteo to turn
up in tbe untreateo control group. Breeoing from tbese sboweo tbat
tbey
were i noeeo proouceo, not by tbe single gene bitborax, but by a
complex ofgenes tbat togetbercreate a fourwingeo appearance. In tbis
experiment , tbere is no evioence ofany oirect inberitance ofacquireo
cbaracters. Vaooington assumeo tbat tbe sbufing ofgenes in sexual
repructionano tbe mutation ratewere unaffecteo bytbe pbysiological
insult to tbe organisms. Vbat be oHereo as an explanation was tbat
selection on an astronomical scale, perbaps eliminating from potential
I 59 M 5LLmA5L KLLL55L5
eistence many tons oties , sorteo out alimiteo number otanimalswitb
bitbora. He argueo tbat it was legitimate to see tbis as a selection of
tbose inoiviouals witb tbe lowest tbresbolo for tbe proouction ot tbe
bitboraanomaly.
Ve oo notknow wbat woulo bave been tbeoutcome ottbee
periment witbout Vaooington' s selecting ot tbe best` bi tbora. er
baps in tbirtygenerations , be woulo bave createo a population immune
to tbe etber treatment or conceivably a population neeoing etber. But
perbaps if tbe bi tbora mooih cation was , like most somatic cbange,
partly aoaptive, tbe population woulo, like Vaooingtons eperimental
populations, bave proouceo genetic copies gcne.etc:) ot tbe results of
etber treatment.
Bytbenewworogcne.e,. Iamstressing tbat tbesomaticcbange
may, in tact , preceoe tbe genetic, so tbat itwoulo be more appropriate
to regaro tbe genetic cbange as tbe copy. In otber woros , tbe somatic
cbanges may partly oetermine tbe patbways ofevolution ano tbis will
be more so i n largergestalten tbantbatwbicb we are now consioeri ng.
Tbat i s, we must again i ncrease tbe logical typing ot our bypotbesi
Tbree steps in tbeory making can tbus be oistinguisbeo
a. At tbe inoivioual level , environment ano eperience can
oucesomaticcbange butcannot ahect tbegenesoftbeinoivioual . Tbere
is no oirect amarckian inberitance, anosucb inberitancewttheut:c/c.ten
woulo irreversibly eat up somatic eibility.
b. At tbe population level , witb appropriate selection otpbeno-
types , environment anoeperience will generate betteraoapteo inoivi-
uals onwbicb selectioncan work. To tbis etent, tbeeu/atten bebave
d a amarckian unit . It is no ooubt for tbis reason tbat tbe biologica
worlo looks likeaproouct otamarckian evolution.
c. But to argue tbat tbesomatic cbangestenccr tbeoirectiono
evolutionary cbange requiresanotberleveloflogical typing, astilllarge
r
gestalt. Ve woulo bave to invoke coevolution ano argue tbat tbe sur-
rounoing ecosystem or some closely abutting species will cbange to ht
tbe somatic cbanges of tbe inoiviouals. Sucb cbanges in environment
coulo conceivably act d a molo wbicb will favor any genocopy ot tbe
somatic cbanges .
IO M m PAK
4. TH NTIC CONTRO O SOMATIC CHAN
Anotberaspectottbe communication between genes ano tbeoe-
velopment ottbe pbenotype is oiscloseo wben we ask about tbe genetic
control otsomatic cbange.
Tbere is, surely, a/wa,: a genetic contribution to all somatic
vents . I woulo argue as tollows Ita man turns brown i n tbe sun, we
ay say tbat tbis was a somatic cbange inouceo by eposure to l igbt ot
tbe appropriate wavelengtbs ano so on. Itwe subsequently protect bim
om tbesun, tbetanning be receiveo will oisappear, anoitbe isblono,
be will get back bis pinkisb appearance. Vitb turtber eposure to tbe
sun, be will again go brown. Ano so on. Tbe man cbanges color wben
poseo to sunsbine but bisa/t/tt, to cbange in tbis way is not attecteo
y tbe eposureto or tbeprotection trom tbe sunor so I believe.
But it isconceivable (ano in tbe morecomple processes otlearn
i ng, itis evioently so tbat tbea/t/tt, to acbieve certain somatic cbanges
is subject to learning. It is as ittbe man coulo i mprove or reouce bis
abi lity to tan unoer sunligbt. In sucb a case, tbe ability to acbieve tbis
etacbange migbt be totallycontrolleoby genetic tactors. Orit iscon-
eivable tbat , again, tbere migbt b an ability to .hangc thc a/t/tt, te
hangc. Ano so on. But in no real case is it possible tbat tbe series ot
s teps coulo be inhnite
Ittollows tbattbeseriesmustalways enoupi ntbegenome, ano
i t seems probable tbat in most instances otlearning ano somatic cbange,
tbenumber otlevels otsomaticcontrol is small . Vecan learn ano learn
to learnanopossiblylearntolearntolearn. But tbat is probably tbeeno
ttbe sequence.
On tbe basis ottbese consioerations , it is nonsensical to ask Is
t begiven cbaracteristic ottbat organismoetermineo by its genes or by
matic cbange or learningTbere is nopbenotypic cbaracteristic tbat is
nattecteo by tbe genes .
Tbe more appropriate question woulo be At wbat level otlogi-
al typing ooes genetic commano act i n tbe oetermini ng ottbis cbarac-
tristic Tbe answer to tbis question will always take tbe torm At one
l gical levelhtghcr tban tbe observeo ability ottbe organism to acbieve

ar
ningor booily cbange by somatic process.
Because ottbis tailureto recognize logical typing otgenetic ano
W
I I N 5LLlA5L KLLL55L5
ofsomatic cbange almost all comparisons of'genius , inberiteo 'cap
a
ity, ano tbe l ike oegenerate i nto nonsense.
. NOTHIN VIL COM Of NOTHIN IN
INSIS
I bave alreaoy pointeo out tbat epigenesis is to evolution as tbe
working out ofa tautology is tocreativetbougbt. n tbeembryologyo
a creature, not only is tbere no neeo for new information or cbange o
plan but for tbe most part , epigenesis must be protecteo from tbe in
trusion ofnew information. Tbe way to oo i t i s tbe way i t b always
been oone. Tbe oevelopment of tbe fetus sboulo follow tbe axioms an
postulates laio oown in DNA or elsewbere In tbe language ofCbapte
, evolution ano learning are necessarilydticrgcnt ano unpreoictable, bu
epigenesis sboulo be convergent
Itfollows tbat in tbe helo ofepigenesis tbe cases i nwbicb new
information is neeoeo will be rare ano conspicuous. Conversel y, tbee
sboulo be cases , albeitpatbological , in wbicb lack or loss ofinformation
resultsingrossoistortions ofoevelopment ntbis context, tbepbenom
enaofsymmetry ano asymmetry becomea ricb buntinggrouno in wbicb
to look for examples . Tbe ioeas tbat must guioe tbe early embryo in
tbese respects arebotb simple ano formal , so tbat tbeir presence or ab
sence is unmistakable
Tbe best-known exampescome from tbe experimental stuoy
of
tbeembryologyofampbibians ano I sball oiscuss bere some oftbepbe-
nomena connecteo witb symmetry in tbe frog' s egg. Vbat is known of
tbe og is probably true ofall vertebrates.
It seems tbat witbout i nformation from tbe outsioe worlo, tbe
unferti lizeo frog's egg ooes not contain tbe necessary information (i . e. ,
tbe necessary d eren.c) to acbieve bilatera symmetry. Tbe egg bas tw
oifferentiateo poles tbe anta/ pole, wbere protoplasm preponoerates
over yolk, ano tbeicgcta/ pole wbere yolk is preponoerant. But tbere
is
no oifferentiation among merioians or lines oflongituoe. Tbe egg is n
tbis sense raoially symmetrical .
No ooubt tbe oifferentiationofanimal ano vegetal poles was oe
termineo by tbe position of tbe egg in tbe foll icular tissue or by tbe
planeotbe last cell oivision n gamete proouction tbat plane, in turn,
I62 M mI AI IAKL
wa probably oetermineo by posi tion ot tbe motber cell in tbe tol l icle.
ut tbis is notenougb.
Vitbout some oiHerentiation among tbe sioes or merioians ot
tbe
unterti izeo egg, it is impossibe tor tbe egg to `know` or oecioe`
wbicb sball be tbe tuture meoian plane otsymmetry ottbe bi laterally
ymmetrical trog. pigenesis cannot begi n until one merioian is maoe
itterent trom all otbers. fortunately, we bappen to know bow tbis
crucial intormation is provioeo. Itcomes, necessari ly, trom tbe outsioe
worlo ano is tbeentrypointottbespermatozoon. Typically, tbesperma
tozoon enters tbe egg somewbat below tbe equator, ano tbe merioian
tbat incluoes tbetwopolesanotbeentrypointoehnestbemeoianplane
ot tbe trogs bi lateral symmetry. Tbe hrst segmentation ot tbe egg
tollows tbat merioian, ano tbe sioe ot tbe egg on wbicb tbe sperma-
tozoon enters becomes tbe ventral sioe ottbe trog.
furtbermore, it is known tbat tbe neeoeo message is not carrieo
in DNA or otber complexities ottbe structure ot tbe spermatozoon. A
prick witb tbe ber ota camel' s bair brusb will oo tbe trick. following
sucba prick, tbeeggwill segmentanocontinueoevelopment, becoming
an aoult trog tbat will bopanocatcb ies . Itwill , otcourse , bebaploio
(i . e. , will lackbalttbenormalcomplement otcbromosomes. It will not
breeo but it will otberwise be pertect in all respects.
A spermatozoon is not necessary tor tbis purpose All tbat is
neeoeoisaarkcr)dt_rcn.c, anotbeorganismis notparticular regaro-
ing tbe cbaracterottbis marker. Vitbout some marker , tbere wll be no
embryo. 'Notbing will come otnotbing.
But tbis is not tbeeno ottbestory. Tbe tuture trog ano, inoeeo,
alreaoy tbe very young taopole is conspicuously asymmetrical in its en
oooe
rmic anatomy. Like most vertebrates , tbe trog is ratber precisely
symmetrical inectooerm(ski n, brain, anoeyesano inmesooerm(skele
ton
ano skeletal muscles but is grossly asymmetrical in its enoooermic
tructures (gut, l iver , pancreas, ano so on . (Inoeeo, everycreature tbat
tolos its gut in otber tban tbe meoian plane must be asymmetrical i n
thisrespect . Ityou lookattbebellyotany taopole, you willseetbegut ,
cle
arl visible tbrougb tbe ski n, coileo in a great spiral .
xpectably, situs inversus (tbe conoition otreverseo symmetry
occurs among trogs , but witb extreme rarity. It is well known in tbe
human speces ano attects about one novoua n a mll on Sucb inoi
I6 N 5LLA5L KLLL55L5
viouals look just like otber people but internally tbey are reverseo,
I
h0
rigbt sioe oftbe beart serving tbe aorta wbile tbe left serves tbe lun
g
anosoon Tbecausesoftbis reversal are not known buttbefacttba
t
t
occursatall oenotes tbat tbe normalasymmetry isn:t oetermineo by
I
h0
asymmetry oftbe molecules To reverse any part of tbat cbemical asy

metry woulo require tbe reversal ofall because tbe molecules must ap
propriatey ht eacb otber Reversaoftbeentire cbemistry s untbinka
e
ano coulo not survive i nany but a reverseo worl o.
So a problem remains regaroing tbe source oftbe informaton
wbicboetermines tbe asymmetry. Tbere must surelybei nformationIh8t
will instrut tbe egg witb regaro to tbe correct (statistically norma
asymmetry
So far as we know tbere is no moment after fertilization 8t
wbicb tbis i nformation coulo be oelivereo. Tbe oroer ofevents is hr
extrusion from tbe motber tben fertilization after tbat tbe egg ispro
tecteo in a mass of ellytbrougbouttbeperiooofsegmentation ano early

embryonic oevelopment . In otber woros, tbe egg must surely alrea

contain tbe information necessary to oetermine asymmetry /c):rc fert
ization In wbat form must tbis informati on exist
In tbe oiscussion of tbe nature of explanation i n Cbapter Z , I
noteo tbat nooictionarycan oehne tbe woros orrtght. Tbat is , no
bitrary oigital system can resolve tbe matter tbe information must be
ostensive Ve now bave tbe cbanceofhnoingout bow tbe same proble
is solveo by tbe egg
I believe tbattberecan be, i nprinciple, onlyonesortofsoluton
(ano I bope tbatsomebooy witb a scanning electronmicroscopewillloo
for tbe evioence. It must be so tbat tbe answer is in tbe egg beforefe
tilizationanotbereforeisin some form tbat willstilloetermine tbe same
asymmetry rcgard/cs: :) wht.h crtdtan t: arkcd /, thc cntcrtng scra
t::::n. It follows tbat every merioian regaroless of wbere it is orawn
mut be asymmetrical ano tbat all must be asymmetrical in tbe sae
sense
Tbis requirement issatisheomostsimplybysomesortofstra/e]
n:nquantttattc :r ic.t:r rc/att:ns Sucb a spiral will cut every merioian
obliquely to make in every merioian tbe same oiHerence between eat
ano west.
A similarproblem arises i ntbeoiHerentiation ofbilateral limb.
1 A1^1 A^1 ^A
y
rigbtarmisan asymmetricalobectanoaformalmirror imageofmy
left
But tbere are in tbe worlo rare monstrous inoiviouals wbo bear a
ar ofarms or a forkeo am on one sioe of tbe by sucb cases, tbe
air will be a bilaterally symmetrical system. One component will be a
rigbt ano one a left , ano tbe two will be so placeo as to be in mirror
image Tbis generalization was hrst enunciateo by my fatber in tbe
0s ano for a long time was calleo8atc:en: ru/c He was able to sbow
tbe
working oftbis rule in almost every pbylum ofanimals by a searcb
of all tbe museums ano many primate collections in urope ano
merica. speciall y be gatbereo about a bunoreo cases ofsucb aberra
tion in tbe legs ofbeetles
I reeami neo tbis story ano argueo, from bis original oata, tbat
be bao been wrong to ask Vbat oetermi neo tbis etrasymmetry He
boulo bave askeo Vbat oetermineo tbee ofasymmetry
I proposeo tbe bypotbesis tbat tbe monstrous forms were pro-
uceo by/e:: er)ergctttng of information To be bilaterally symmetrical
reuiresmoreinformationtbanraoial symmetry, anotobeasymmetrical
reui res more information tban bilateral symmetry symmetryofa lat
eral li mb, sucbas abano, reui res appropriateorientation in tbreeoirec-
tons . Tbeoirection towaros tbe backoftbe bano must beoiHerentfrom
tbe oirection towaros tbe palm tbe oirection towaros tbe tbumb must
be oiHerent from tbe oirection towaros tbe l ittle nger, ano tbe oirec
tion towaros tbe elbow must be oifferent from tbeoirection towaros tbe
hngers. Tbese tbree oirecti ons must be appropriately put togetber to
makeartght ratbertbana/c)t bano Ifone oirection is reverseo, as wben
tbe bano is reecteo in a mirror, a reverseo image will result (see
bapter section ). But i fone of tbe tbree oifferentiations is /e:t er
]ergettcn, tbe l imbwill beable to acbieve only bilateral symmetry.
In tbis case tbe postulate notbing will come ofnotbing` be-
omes a l ittle more elaborate B lateral symmetry will come of asym
metry wben one oiscrimination is lost
" havc smphcd thcru!c somcwhat Ior thsprcscntation. ora morc comp!ctc account scc
ao
le/e

e/MioJ n thc cssay cntt!cd `^ Kccxamnation oI Uatcson`s K!c
I6 M 5LLmA5L KLLL55L5
. HOMOOY
At tbis poi nt, I sball leave tbe problems ofinoivioual genetcs
somatic cbangeano learning, ano tbeimmeoiatepatbways ofevolutio
tolook at tberesults ofevolutionontbelargerscale. I sball askwbatwe
can oeouce about tbe unoerlying pocesses from tbe wioer picture of
pbylogeny
Comparativeanatomybasalongbistory. foratleast sixtyyeas,
from tbe publication ofThc 0rtgtn e) Sc.tc: to tbe 0s , tbe focus of
comparative anatomy was on relateoness , to tbe exclusion of process
Tbat pbylogeni trees coulo be constructeo was fet to be evioence for
Darwi nian tbeory Tbe fossil recoro was inevitablyvery incomplete, ano
lacking sucb oirect evioence ofoescent , tbe anatomists sboweo an i nsa
tiableappetite for instances oftbat class ofresemblances calleohee/eg.
Homology 'proveo` relateoness , ano relateoness was evolution
Ofcourse, peoplebao noteo tbeformal resemblancesamongliv
ing tbings at least since tbe evolution oflanguage, wbicb classiheo my
bano` wi tbyourbano` ano my'beao witb tbe 'beao` ofa h sb But
awareness ofany neeo to expain sucb formal resemblances came muc
later. Fven tooay, mostpeoplearenot surpriseo by, anoseenoproble
in, tberesemblancebetweentbeir twobanos. Tbeyoonotfeelorseeany
neeo for a tbeory of evolution. To tbe tbougbtful among tbe ancients
ano even to people oftbe Renaissance, tbe formal resemblance between
creatures illustrateo tbe connecteoness witbin tbe reat Cbain ofBeing
ano tbese connections were logical, not genealogical , links
Beall tbat as it may, tbe j umpeo conclusion from formal resem
blance to relateoness concealeo a number ofumpeo bypotbeses
et us grant tbe formal resemblance in tbousanos ofcasesman
ano borse, lobster ano cra ano let us assume tbat in tbese cases, tbe
formal resemblances are not merely evioence for but atly thc rc:u/t e
evolutionary relationsbi p Ve can tben go on to consioer wbetber tbe
nature of tbe resemblances in tbese cases tbrows ligbt on tbe evolu
tionary process
Ve ask Vbat oo tbe bomologies tell us about tbere. of
evolution Vbat we no, wben we compare our oescription of lobst
e
witb our oescriptionofcrab, is tbatsomecomponentsoftbe oescription
s
remain uncbangeo ano tbat otbers are oiherent from one oescription to
I66 M mI AI IAKL
tb
e
otber Tberetore, our rst step will surely take tbe torm otoistin-

u
isb
ing between oitterent sorts ot cbange Some cbanges will be
tr
ess
eo as more probable ano easy otbers will be more oith cult ano
tb
eretoremore improbable. I nsucba worlo tbe slowcbangingvariables
will
lag bebino ano coulobecometbecoreottbosebomologiesonwbicb
tb
e
wioerbypotbeses ottaxonomy migbt be baseo.
But tbis hrst classicationotcbanges into )a:t ano:/ will itselt
re
quire explanation. Vbat can weaoo toouroescriptionotevolutionary
process tbatwill , perbaps , letuspreoict wbicbvariableswill , in tact , be
low
cbanging ano so become tbe basis otbomology
To my knowleoge tbe only beginning otsucb a classih cation is
implicit in tbe tbeory otsocalleo recapitulation.
Tbegermottbeooctrineotrecapitulation was hrst put torwaro
by tbe early erman embryologist , arl rnst von Baer in BZB in tbe
pbrase law otcorresponoing stages . ` He oemonstrateo bis law by tbe
evice otcomparing unlabeleo vertebrate embryos .
am guttc unabc tO say tO what cas thcy bcOng. hcy may bc tzards
Or smaII btrds Or vcry yOung mamma ta sO cOmpctc ts thc stmtartty n
thc mOdc OIIOrmattOn OI thc hcad and trunk tn thcsc antmas . hc cx-
trcmtttcs ac stt abscnt , but cvcn tIthcy cxtstcd, tn thc cartcr stagc OI
dcvcOpmcnt wc shOud carn nOthtng bcausc a artsc IrOm thc samc
mndamcnta IOrm.
on Baer's concept ot corresponoing stages` was later elabo-
rate
o by rnst Haeckel , Darwi n' scontemporary, into tbe tbeoryotreca
pitulation ano tbe mucb-oisputeo assertion tbat ontogeny repeats pby-
logeny. ` Since tben very varieo pbrasings ot tbe matter bave been
proposeo. Most cautious is perbaps tbe assertion tbat tbe larvae or em
bryos ot a given species commonly resemble tbe /ariac ot a relateo
species more closely tban tbe aoults resemble tbe aoults ot tbe relateo
species. But even tbis very cautious pbrasing is blemisbeo by conspicu-
ous exceptions .!
However in spite ot tbe exceptions I incline to tbe view tbat
Lnq
c/oedia ritannica, 5. N. Uacr, Kar! Lrnst on | VZ-
!
b) .
o
camp!,
among thcmanc wormIikc crcaturcsof thcodcrLntcroncusta, dihcrcnt pccics, of
what uscd to b rcgardcd a sng!c gcnus a/aneg/eu, havc tota!!y dhcrcnt cmbryo!og
kra/erkii, has tadpo!c!kc !arvac wthgI! s!tsand notochord whcrcasothcr spcccs havc !arvac !ikc
thosc oIcchncrms.
! M 5LLA5L KLLL55L5
vonBaer'sgeneraliationprovioes an important clue toevolutionary
pr
cess. Rigbtorwrong, bisgeneraliationposes important questions ao

tbe survival not oforganisms but oftraits Is tbere anybigbest com

factor sbareo by tbose variales tbat ecome stable ano tberefore bae
een useo y oologists in tbeir searcb for bomology Tbe law ofcorre
sponoing stages basan aovantage over ater pbrasings in tbat bewas n

graspingafterpbylogenic trees anoeven tbe briefquotation I bave cit
e
I
bas special points tbat woulo be unnoticeo y a pbylogenetic sleutb. Is

it so tbat embryonic variables are more enouring tban aoultvariales

on Baer is concerneo witb bigber verterates l iaros, birs
ano mammals, creatures wbose embryology is paooeo ano protecteo e
tber yaneggsbell full offooo or in a womb. Vitb, say, insect larvae ,
von Baer's oemonstration simply woulo not work. Any entomologis

coulo look at an unlaeleo oisplay of beetle larvae ano say at once t

wbat family eacb larva elongs. Tbe oiversity oftbe larvae is as surpris
ing as tbe oiversity oftbe aoults.
Tbe law of corresponoing stages is seemingly true not only
wbole verterate embryos ut also of successive limbs in tbe earl
stages oftbeir oeveopment . Socalleo serial bomology sbares witb pby

logenic bomology tbe generaliation tbat on tbe wbole, rc:c//an

rc.cdc dtocncc:. Tbe fully oevelopeo claw of a lobster oihers conspicu
ouslyfrom tbe walking appenoages on tbe otberfour tboracic segments
but all tbe tboracic appenoages lookeo alike in tbeir early stages .
erbaps tbisis as far as we sboulo pusbvon Baer'sgeneraliation
toassert tbat, ingeneral , resemblanceise/do (otb pbylogeneticallyan
ontogenetically tban oiherence. To some biologists, tbis will seem l e
a truism, as ifto say tbat in any rancbing system, two points close
tbe pointofbrancbing will be more l ikeeacb otber tban will two
far from tbat point . But tbis apparent truism woulo not be true ofCc-
ments in tbe periooic tale ano woulo not necessarily be true in a i

logical worlo pruceo by special creation. Our truism is , in fact

ev
oence for tbe bypotbesis tbat organismsareinoeeo toberlateo aspoin
ts

orpositions on a brancbing tree.

Tbe generaliation tbat resemlance is oloer tban oihernce s
still a very incomplete eplanation of tbe occurrence of bomology in
tbousanos ofeamples tbrougbout tbe biological worlo. Tbe question
wby oo some cbaracteristics ecome tbe basis of bomology` is onl
I68 M mI AI IAKL
repeateo by sayg that resemblances are oloer than oiherences . The
uestion remains almost unchangeo Vhy oo some characteristics be-

e
oloer, surviving longer , to become the basis ofhomology
Ve face a problem ofurita/. not the survival of species or
r
ieties struggling in a hostile worlo ofother organisms , but a more
ubte surviva oftratt: (items ofoescription that must survive both in

outsioeenvironment ano inan inner worlo ofother traits in the total

rep
roouction, embryology, ano anatomy ofthe given organi sm.
In the complex networkofthe scientist's oescription ofthe total
o
rganism, why oo some pieces ofthat oescription stay true longer (over
ore generations than other pieces Ano is there coincioence, overlap-
ig, or synonymy between the parts ano pieces ofthe oescription ano
theparts ano pieces ofthe aggregate of inj unctions that oetermine on-
togenesis
Ifan elephant hao the oentition ano other formal characteristics
otmembers ofthe family Murioae he woulo be a mouse i n spite ofhis
sie. I noeeo, the cat-sizeo hyrax is close to being a hippopotamus , ano
the lion is very close to being a pussycat. Mere size seems to be i rrele-
vant . form is what matters But what precisely is meant by 'form or
pattern` in this context is not easy tooene.
Ve are searching for criteria whereby we can recognize those
trats that are appropriate canoioates for ongoing truth in the hurly-
rly of evolutionary process. Two characteristics of such traits stano
uttwo traoitionalways ofoivioing up the vast elo ofoifferences . `
here is theoichotomy betweenpatternanoquantityano theoichotomy
etween continuity anooiscontinuity. Are contrasting organisms l inkeo
y a conti nuous series ofsteps , or is there a suooen transition between
them It is awkwaro (but not impossible to imagine graoual transition
etween patterns ano therefore, these two oichotomies are likely to
oerlap. At thvery least, we canexpectthat those theorists who prefer
to
invoke pattern will also prefer theories that invoke oiscontinuity.
t , ofcourse, suchpreferences , which oepeno only upon the bent of
the
mi no ofthe i noivioual scientist or the fashionable opinions of the
ti
me,
shoulo be oeprecateo.
The clearest noings relevant t othis subject are I believe, the
ele
gant oemonstrations of the zoologist D' Arcy Ventworth Thompson
n the early part ofthis century. Heshoweo that in many cases, perhaps
!V M 5LLmA5L KLLL55L5
n every case he testeo, two contrasting but relateo animal forms wl
have this in common that if one form is orawn (say, in prohle) o
simpleorthogonal Cartesian cooroinates (e. g. , on squareo par) , the
wth appropriate benoing or oistortion , the same cooroinates will ac
commooate the other form. All points on the prohle ofthe secoo for

will fall on similarly nameo points on the bent cooroinates (See figure
. )
Vhati s signihcanti nDArcyThompsons hnoingsi s that i nan
gven case the oistortion is unepecteoly simple ano is consistent
throughout the oepiction ofthe animal. The benoing ofthe cooroinate
is such as coulo be oescribeo by some simple mathematical transforma
tion.
This simplicityano consistency must surely mean that thosed-
)ercn.c: between the phenotypes, which DArcy Thompson's methoo e
poses , are representeo by rather few oiHerences of genotype ( i . e. , b
rather few genes) .
furthermore, from the consistency ofoistortion throughout the
animal's booy, it woulo seem that the genes in question are pleiotropic
(i . e. aHect many perhapsah parts ofthe phenotype) in ways that are
in this particular sense, harmonious throughout the booy.
To interpret these hnoings any further is not entirely simple
anoD'ArcyThompsonhimselfooesnotoomuchtohelp. Hei seultant
that mathematics isshownable to oescribe certain sorts ofchange.
In this connection it is interesting to note the current con
troversy between the upholoers of 'synthetic` theory in evolution (the
current Darwinian orthoooy) ano their enemies, the typologists
rnst Mayr, for eample, makes fun of the blinoness of typologist
History shows that the typologist ooes not ano cannot have any appre
ciation of natural selection. nfortunately, he ooes not quote h
sources for his typology of his colleagues . Is he too mooest to claim the
creoit Or is it so, in this case that it takes one toknow one
Are we not all typologists unoer the skin
In anycase, there are noooubt many ways oflooking atanima
forms. Ano becausewe are embarkeo ona latonic stuoy ofthe parallel
ismbetweenceativethinkinganothatvastmentalprocesscalleo/te/egt
c Lrnst mayr, Poulatioo, S]t:it: aoJ Elutioo (Lambrdgc mass. arvard Lnvcrsty ss,
!V;), p
! U.
! U N mP AP PALKL

|u
I

|O'

'

1 .`
C)
urc . uu]ur:: o[turou: rrub1.
hs gurc rcpruccd trom Arcy hompsons Cb aoJ, p 294. Kcprntcd by pcr
msso oLmrdgc nvcrsty css, copyght I9I .
ca/cie/utten, i t i s wortbwbiletoaski n every instance I s tht: wayoflook-
ing at tbe pbenomena somebow representeo or paralleleo wtbin tbe
organizational system of tbe pbenomena tbemselves Do any oftbe ge-
netic messages ano static signs tbat oetermine tbe pbenotype bave tbe
rt ofsynta (for lack ofa better woro) wbicb woulo oivioe typologi-
cal from 'syntbetic tbinking Canwe recognize, among tbeverymes
sages wbicb create ano sbape tbe animal forms, some messages more
ypological ano some more syntbetic
Vben tbe question is put in tbis way, it seems tbat Mayr is
oeeply rtght in proposing bis typology Tbe olo orawings of D'Arcy
Tbompson precisely :caratc two sorts ofcommunication witbin tbe or
ganism itself. Tbe orawings sbow tbat animalsbave twosorts ofcbarac
I7 I M 5LLA5L KLLL55L5

' '

tCrtsttCs. (a) hCy haVC rCattVCy staC quast-tOQOO_tCa QattCrns , WhtC

h
haVC unCCrstanCay CC sCtCnttsts tO QOstuatC _rOss CtsCOnttnutty tn thC
CVOuttOnary QrOCCss. hCsC CharaCtCrtsttCs rCmatn COnstant unCCr thC
tmQaCt Ol () thC rCattVCy unstaC quantttattVC CharaCtCrtsttCs WhtCh
arC shOWn as Chan_tn_ lrOm OnC CCQtCttOn tO thC nCXt.
lWC CraW thC COOrCtnatCs tO bt thC quast-tOQOO_tCa CharaCtCr-
tsttCs , WC hnC that Chan_Cs tn thC Css staC CharaCtCrtsttCs haVC tO LC
rCQrCsCntCC as CtstOrttOns Ol thC COOrCtnatCs .
n tCrms Ol thC QrCsCnt quCsttOn rC_arCtn_ hOmOO_y, tt aQQCar8
that thCrC arC tnCCCC CtbCrCnt sOrts OlCharaCtCrtsttCs anC that QhyO_CnI
hOmOO_y Wt surCy CCQCnC uQOn thC mOrC staC anC quast-tOQOO_IC8l
QattCs.
. PPPLP PP PLLP
`PCaQtattOn tn thC an_ua_C Ol thC CVOuttOntst aQQrOI
matCy synOnymOus Wtth `CCst_n tn thC an_ua_C OlsuCh thCOO_tans
ttam aCy , WhOsC Iitdcncc: ts a VOumtnOus COCCttOn Ol COnsQtC
Ous CXamQCs Ol CC_ant sQCCta aC ustmCnts Ol antmas tO thCtr Way

tlC. ut susQCCt that Oth `aCaQtattOn anC `CCst_n arC mtsC8Ctn
COnCCQts .

lWC COmC tO rC_arC thC QrOCuCttOn Ol QarttCuar QtCCCs OlaC

tattOn~thC CaW Ol thC Cra, thC hanC anC CyC Ol thC man, anC
Onas CCntra tO thC mass Ol QrOCms thC CVOuttOntst must sOvC,
CtstOrt anC tmtt Our VtCW Ol CVOuttOn as a WhOC. hat sCCms tO
haQQCnCC, QCrhaQs as a rCsut OlthC sty attCs CtWCCn thC Cary
ttOntsts anC thC LhurCh, ts that Out Ol thC Vast CraCttCan ux Ol
ttOnary QrOCCss, CCrtatn CCCtCs anC aCKWatCrs Ol thC strCam havC
QtCKCC Out lOr sQCCta attCnttOn. Ps a rCsut, thC tWO _rCat
QrOCCssCs haVC CCn Qarty t_nOrCC. VCn QrOlCsstna tOO_tst
s hav
C
sCCn that tn thC ar_Cr VtCW, CVOuttOn ts VauC-lrCC anC as C8u
tt
l
thC CanCC Ol bhtVa, WhCrC a Ol Cauty anC u_nCss, CrCattOn an
struCttOn arC CXQrCssCC Or COmQrCssCC tntO OnC COmQCx
QathWay.
M!! am a!c ( l745-I805) was a dcIcndcr oI thc Lcncss story oI crcaton !ong
bIOrc
was born. s !itw o/tbc Evim.c: o) Cb::ttani ( I794) was unti rcccnty a rcQurc
thosc Lambrdgc studcnts who dd not takc Lrcck.
y sCtttn_ thC tCrms adatatten anC addt.ten stCC y stCC tn thC
ttIC Ol thts sCCttOn, haVC trtCC tO COrrCCt thts sCnttmCntaI Or at ICast
OVCrOQttmtsttC VtCW OlCVOIuttOn as a WhOC. hC lsCtnattn_ CasCs OlaC-
tattOn WhtCh maKC naturC aQQCar sO CICVCr, sO tn_CntOus , may asO C
Cary stCQs tOWarC QathOO_y anC OVCrsQCCtaItzattOn. PnC yCt tt ts Ctl-
CuI
t tO sCC thC Cras CIaW Or thC human rCttna as hrst stCQs tOWarC Qa-
thO
IO_y.
t sCCms that WC must asK. hat CharaCtCrtzCs thOsC aCaQtattOns
that turn Out tO C CtsastrOus , anC hOW CO thCsC CtllCr lrOm thOsC that
CCm
tO C Cnt_n anC, ItKC thC Cras CIaW, rCmatn Cnt_n thrOu_h _CO-
O_Ca a_Cs
hC quCsttOn ts QrCsstn_ anC rCCVant tO thC COntCmQOrary Ct
ICmmas Ol Our OWn CtVtItzattOn. n arWtns Cay, CVCry nVCnttOn aQ-
CarCC Cnt_n, ut that ts nOt sO tOCay. bOQhtsttCatCC CyCs tn thC tWCn-
ttCth CCntury WtI VtCW CVCry tnVCnttOn asKanCC anC Wt COut that
OtnC stOChasttC QrOCCssCs aIWays WOrK tO_CthCr lOr _OOC.
C aCy nCCC a sCtCnCC that Wt anaIyzC thts WhOIC mattCr Ol
aCaQtattOn-aCCtCttOn at a CVCs. COIO_y ts QCrhaQs thC C_tnntn_ Ol
Ch a sCtCnCC, aIthOu_h CCOO_tsts arC sttII lar lrOm tCIItn_ us hOW tO _Ct
Ot Olan atOmtC armamCnts raCC.
n QrtnCtQIC, nCtthCr ranCOm _CnCttC Chan_C aCCOmQantCC y
aturaI sCICCttOn nOr ranCOm QrOCCssCs Ol trta anC CrrOr tn thOu_ht aC-
COmQantCC y sCCCttVC rCtnlOrCCmCnt WtI nCCCssarty WOrK lOr thC _OOC
OlCtthCr sQCCtCs Or tnCtVtCuaI. PnC at thC sOCtaI ICVCI , tt ts sttII nOt CICar
that thC tnVCnttOns anC strata_Cms WhtCh arC rCWarCCC tn thC tnCtVtCuaI
DCCCssartIy haVC surVtVa VauC lOr thC sOCtCty nOr , VtCC VCrsa, CO thC
OItCCs that rCQrCsCntattVCs OlsOCtCty mt_ht QrClCr nCCCssartIy haVC sur-
VtVa VaIuC lOr tnCtVtCuas.
P Iar_C numCr Ol QattCrns CanC aCCuCCC WhtCh su__Cst that

OCtCl tn naturaI sCICCttOn Or/atc:-)atrc ts OVtOusIy naVC.

.
a. hC rCmatnCCr Ol thC systCm WtI Chan_C tO CrOWC tn On thC
D
DOV
attOn tO maKC tt trrCVCrstC.
. ntCraCttOn Wtth OthCr sQCCtCs Or tnCtVtCuaIs WtII ICaC tO a

D_C
tn COntCXt, sO that lurthCr tnnOVattOn Ol thC samC KtnC CCOmCs
D
C
ss
ary, anC thC systCm thCn _OCs t ntO CsCaIattOn Or runaWay.
C.
hC tnnOVattOn sCts uQ OthCr Chan_Cs Wtthtn thC systCm,

tn_
tt nCCCssary tO lOr_O OthCr CaQtattOns.
W

l
C. hC hCXtttty (t .C. , QOstttVC CntrOQy) Ol thC systCm ts CatCn
uQ.
C. hC aCaQtCC sQCCtCs ts sO laVOrCC that y OVCr_raztn_ tn sOmC
lOrm, tt Wt CCstrOy tts CCOO_tCa ntChC.
l. hat sCCmCC CCstra C t n shOrt ttmC QCrsQCCttVC CCOmCs Ct-
sastrOus OVCr On_Cr ttmC.
_. hC tnnOVattn_ sQCCtCs Or tnCtVtCua COmCs tOaCtas tltt ts nO
On_Cr Qarttay CCQCnCCnt On nCt_hOrtn_ sQCCCs anC tnCtVtCuas.
h. y a QrOCCss OlaCCtCttOn, thC t nnOVatCr CCOmCs hOOKCC tntO
thC ustnCss Ol trytn_ tO hOC COnstant sOmC ratC Ol Chan_C. hC sOCta
aCCtCttOn tO armamCnts raCCs ts nOt mnCamCntay CtllCrCnt lrOm tnCt-
VtCua aCCtCttOn tO Cru_s. LOmnOn sCnsC ur_Cs thC aCCtCtaWays tO _Ct
anOthCr bX. ^nC sO On.
n sum, CaCh Ol thCsC CtsastCrs Wt C lOunC tO COntatn an CrrOr
IH O_tCa tyQtn_. n sQttC Ol t mmCCtatC _atn at OnC O_tCa CVC , thC
st_n ts rCVCrsCC anC CnCbt CCOmCs Caamtty tn sOmC OthCr, ar_Cr Or
On_Cr , COntCXt.
C aCK any systCmattC KnOWCC_C Ol thC CynamtCs Ol thCsC
QrOCCssCs.
B. bLL^bL, NLP, ^P LLPNLP
LLbbb
Oss ^shy On_ a_O QOtntCC Out that nO systCm (nCtthCr COm
QutCr nOr Or_antsm) Can QrOCuCC anythtn_ ncw unCss thC systCm COn-
tatns sOmC sOurCC Ol thC ranCOm. n thC COmQutCr , thts Wt C a
ranCOm-numCr _CnCratOr WhtCh Wt CnsurC that thC `sCCKtn_, trta-
anCCrrOr mOVCs OlthC maCht nC Wt uttmatCy COVCr a thC QOssttttt
Cs
OlthC sCt tO C CXQOrCC.
n OthCr WOrCs , a tnnOVattVC, cattic systCms arC, tn thC an-
_ua_C Ol LhaQtCr dticrgcnt, COnVCrsCy , sCquCnCCs Ol CVCnts that arC
QrCCtCtaC arC, tQsO laCtO, COnVCr_Cnt .
5cc . KOss Pshby, |ntroJuctiontoC/cctic:. (PcW YOrkanU LOnUOn. jOhn tcy anU 5Ons, nc. ,
IV;0).
!74 M mP AP PAKL
hts dOCs nOt mCan, Ly thC Way, that a dtVCr_Cnt QrOCCssCs arC
stOChasttC. Or that , thC QrOCCss rCqutrCs nOt Ony aCCCss tO thC randOm
Lut asO a Lutt-tn COmQaratOr that tn CVOuttOn ts CaCd `natura sCCC-
ttOn and tn thOu_ht `QrClCrCnCC Or `rCtnlOrCCmCnt.
t may WC LC that undCr thC CyC OlCtCrntty, WhtCh sCCs CVCry-
thtn_ tn COsmtC and CtCrna COntCXt, a// CVCnt sCquCnCCs LCCOmC stOChas-
ttC. O suCh an CyC, and CVCn tO thC QattCnt and COmQasstOnatC aOtst
satnt, tt may LC CCar that nO uttmatC QrClCrCnCC ts nCCCssary lOr thC
stCCrtn_ Ol thC tOta systCm. ut WC tVC tn a t mttCd rC_tOn Ol thC unt-
VCrsC, and CaCh OnC Olus CXtsts tn tmt tCd ttmC. O us , thC dtVCr_Cnt ts
rCa and ts a QOtCntta sOurCC OlCtthCr dtsOrdCr Or tnnOVattOn.
CVCn susQCCt sOmCttmCs that WC, aLCtt LOund tn tustOn, dO
thC aOtsts WOrK Ol ChOOstn_ and QrClCrrtn_ WhtC hC stts LaCK. ( am
rCmtndCd Ol thC mythtCa QOCt WhO Was asO a COnsCtCnttOus OLCCtOr. C
CatmCd, ` am thC CtVt tzattOn lOr WhtCh thC OthCr LOys arC h_httn_.
CrhaQs hC Was , t nsOmC sCnsC, rt_ht:)
C a that as tt may, tt aQQCars that WC CXtst n a tmttCd
LtOsQhCrC WhOsC maOr LCnt ts dCtCrmtnCd Ly tWO tntCrOCKtn_ stOChasttC
QrOCCssCs . buCh a systCm CannOt On_ rCmatn WtthOut Chan_C. ut thC
ratc OlChan_C ts tmttCd Ly thrCC laCtOrs.
a. hC Ctssmanntan LarrtCr LCtWCCn sOmattC and _CnCttC
Chan_C, dtsCussCd tn sCCttOn Olthts ChaQtCr, CnsurCs that thC sOmattC
adustmCnts sha nOt rashy LCCOmC trrCVCrstLC.
L. n CVCry _CnCratt On, sCXua rCQrOduCttOn QrOVtdCs a _uarantCC
that thC PP LuCQrtnt Ol thC nCW sha nOt COntCt Outra_COusy Wtth
thC LuCQrtnt Ol thC Od, a lOrm Ol natura sCCCttOn OQCrattn_ at thC CVC
Ol PP rC_ardCss OlWhat thC dCVtant nCW LuCQrtnt may mCan tO thC
QhCnOtyQC.
C. Qt_CnCsts OQCratCs as a COnVCr_Cnt and COnsCrVattVC systCm
thC dCVCOQtn_ CmLryO ts, Wtthtn ttsCl, a COntCXt Ol sCCCttOn laVOrtn_
COnsCrVattsm.
t Was PlrCd ussC aaCC WhO saW CCary that natura sCCC-
ttOn is a COnsCrVattVC QrOCCss. ts quast -CyLCrnCttC mOdC , tn hts CttCr
CXQatntn_ hts tdCa tO arWt n, has LCCnmCnttOnCdCsCWhCrC Lut ts rCC
Vant hCrC.
I75 M 5LL5L KLLL55L5
hc acttOn OI thts prtnctpIc ts cxactIy Itkc that OI thc ccntrtIuga gOv
cr-
nO OIthc stcam cntnc whtch chccks and cOrrccts any trrcguIartttcs aI-
mOst bcIOrc thcy bccOmc cvtdcnt and tn Itkc manncr nO unbaIanccd
dchctcncy tn thc antmaI ktngdO can cvcr rcach any cOnsptuOus mag-
nitudc bccausc tt wOuId makc ttscII Ict at thc vcry hrst stcp, by rcn-
dcrtng cxtstcncc dtIcuIt and cxttncttOn aImOst surc tO IOIOw.
. LLPPL PP LWPPL
L bLLPbL bbWb
n thIs sCcttCn, sha try tC naKC mCrC QrCctsC thC CCscrtQttCn
Cl thC tWC systCms , tC CXamtnC thC lctICns ClCach, anC hnay, tC CX-
amtnC thC charactCr Cl thC ar_Cr systCm Cl tCta CVCuttCn that Is thC
QrCCuct Cl cCmintn_ thC tWC susystCms.
ach susystCm has tWC cCnQCnCnts (as Is tmQtCC y thC WCrC
t:.h:tt) (sCC LCssary) a ranCCm cCnQCnCnt anC a QrCcCss Cl sCCcttCn
WCrKIn_ Cn thC QrCCucts ClthC ranCCn cCmQCnCnt.
n that stChasttc systCm tC Vhtch arWinIans haVC QatC mCst at-
tCntiCn, thC ranCCm cCmQCnCnt Is enctt. chan_C, CtthCr y mutattCn Cr
y thC rCshutn_ Cl _CnCs anCn_ nCmCrs Cl a QCQuatCn. assumC
mutattCn tC C nCnrCsQCnstVC tC CVtrCnmCnta CCmanC Cr tC tntCrna
strCss Cl thC Cr_antsm. assunC, hCVCVCr, that thC machtnCry Cl sCCC-
ttCn Whtch acts Cn thC ranCCmy VaryIn_ Cr_anIsms Wt IncuCC Cth
Cach crCaturCs tntCrna strss anC, atCr, thC CnVrCnmCnta crcum-
stancCs tC Whtch thC crCaturC Is su CctCC.
t ts Cl Qrtmary tmQCrtancC tC nCtC that insClar as CmryCs arC
QrCtCctCC In C__s Cr In thC mCthCrs CCy, thC CXtCrna CnVtrCnmCnt Wt
nCt haVC a strCn_ sCCctIVC CllCct Cn _CCttc nCVCttCs untt CQI_CnCsts ha8
QrCcCCCCC thrCu_h many stCQs . n thC Qast anC stI cCntInutn_ tntC thC
QrCsCnt, CXtCrna natura sCCcttCn has laVCrCC thCsC chan_Cs that QrCtCCt
thC CmryC anC uVCnIC lrCm CXtCra Can_Crs. hC rCsut has CCn an
IncrCastn_ sCQaratICn CtWCCn thC tO stCchastIc systCms
>c Atrcd Kussc aIacc, `Ln thc cndcncy t Nartcttcs tO cpart !ndchnttcy IrOm thc Lrt_i
na ypc, ` |tnnacan ;ccty apcrs (]OndOn, lho!. Kcprtntcd tn AQpcman, cU. , Qaruin+
Norteo Cr:tita/EJ:t:oo (PcW YOrk. . . POrOn, I970), p. 97.
hs sccttOn s thc mOt d:tncu andrhas thc Ost |mQOrtant rt OtthcbOOk hc |ay rad
and cspctay thc rcadcr WhO nccds tO scc thc u:gu/nc:: Ot a thtnkn_ Wtpcrhaps hnd hcp tn Ap
pndt , Whtch cprcc mcmOrandum .ddrcsscd t thc rccnt Ot thc \ntVcrstty OtLatlrnta.
\76 M mI ^ PA\KL
Pn atCtnattVC mCthOC lOt Cnsuttn_ thC sutVtVa Olat Cast a lCW
Ol thC ObsQtn_ s y Vast muttQtCattOn Ol thCtt numCts. l CVCty
tCQtOCuCttVC CyCC Ol thC tnCtVtCua QtOCuCCs t/ien: Ol atVaC, thC tIsIn_
CnCtattOn Can subCt CCCtmattOn sOmC stX ttmCs OVCt. hts ts tO ttCat thC
XtCtna CausCs Ol CCath as QtOattsttC, maktn_ nO attCmQt tO aCaQt tO
thCtt QatttCuat natutC. y thts sttatC_y, tOO, thC tntCtna sCCCttOn ts
_tVCn a CCat CC lOt thC COnttO OlChan_C.
hus , CtthCt y QtOtCCttOn OlthC tmmatutC ObsQttn_ Ot y thCtt
asttOnOmtCa muttQtCattOn, tt COmCs aOut that tOCay, lOt many Ot_a-
ntsms, thC tntCtna COnCtttOns Wt QtOVtCC thC [r:/ COnsttatnt tO WhtCh
hC nCW lOtm must COnlOtm. I thC nCW lOtm C VtaC tn that sCt
tn_ t thC CCVCOQtn_ CmtyO C aC tO tOCtatC thC nCW lOtm, Ot
Wt thC Chan_C QtCCtQttatC Ctha tttC_uattttCs tn thC CmtyOs CCVCOQ-
mCnt: hC ansWCt Wt CCQCnC uQOn thC sOmattC hCXtttty Ol thC Cm-
tyO.
POVC a , tn sCXua tCQtOCuCttOn, thC matChtn_ uQ Ol ChtOmO-
sOmCs tn lCttt tzattOn CnlOtCCs a QtOcCss OlCOmQattsOn. hat ts nCW tn
CtthCt OVum Ot sQCtmatOzOOn must mCCt Wtth What ts OC tn thC OthCt,
anC thC tCst Wt laVOt COnlOtmtty anC COnsCtVattOn. hC mOtC _tOssy
nCW Wt C CtmtnatCC On _tOunCs Ol nCOmQattty.
OOWtn_ thC stOn QtCCss OltCQtOCuCttOn Wt COmC a thC
cOmQCXtttCs Ol CCVCOQmCnt, anC hCtC thC COmtnatOtta asQCCt Ol Cm-
tyOO_y WhtCh ts sttCssCC tn thC tCtm ctgcnc:t: Wt tmQOsC lutthCt tCsts
Ol COnlOtmtty. C knOW that In thC status quO antC, a thC tCquttC-
mCnts Ol COmQattttty WCtC mCt tO QtCuCC a sCXuay matutC QhCnO-
tyQC. l thts WCtC nOt sO, thC status quO antC COuC nCVCt haVC CXtstCC.
t ts VCty Casy tO la tntO thC nOttOn that tlthC nCW ts VtaC,
thCn thCtC must haVC CCn sOmCthtn_ WtOn_ Wtth thCOC. hts VtCW, tO
WhtCh Ot_antsms atCaCy sullCttn_ thC QathOO_tCs OlOVCt taQtC, ltantC
sOCta Chan_CatC tnCVttay QtOnC, ts, OlCOutsC, mOsty nOnsCnsC. hat
ts
a/wa,: tmQOttant ts tO C sutC that thC nCW ts nOt wer:c than thC OC.
t ts stt nOt CCttatn that a sOCtCty COntatntn_ thC tntCtna COmusttOn
Cn_tnC Can C VtaC Ot that CCCttOntC COmmunCatOn CCVtCCs suCh as
tCCVtstOn atC COmQattC Wtth thC a__tCsstVC tnttasQCCtCs COmQCttttOn
_CnCtatCC y thC nCusttta CVOuttOn. LthCt thtn_s Ctn_ Cqua (WhtCh
ts nOt OltCn thC CasC) , thC OC, WhtCh has CCn sOmCWhat tCstCC, ts mOtC
tkCy tO C VtaC than thC nCW, WhCh has nOt CCn tCstCC at a .
I77 M 5LLmA5L KLLL55L5
ntCrna sCCCttOn, thCn, ts thC rst mazC Ol tCsts tO WhtCh any
nCW _CnCttC COmQOnCnt Or COmLtnattOn ts suLCCt .
n COntrast, thC sCCOnd stOChasttC systCm has tts tmmCdtatC rOOts
n CxtCrna adaQtattOn (t . C. , tn thC tntCraCttOn LCtWCCn QhCnOtyQC and
CnVtrOnmCnt) . hC randOm COmQOnCnt ts QrOVtdCd Ly thC systCm O
QhCnOtyQC tn tntCraCttOn Wtth CnVtrOnmCnt.
hC QarttCuar aCqutrCd CharaCtCrtsttCs QrOduCCd rCsQOnsC tO
sOmC _tVCn Chan_C tn CnVtrOnmCnt may LC QrCdtCtaLC. l thC lOOd
suQQy ts rCduCCd, thC Or_antsm ts tKCy tO OsC WCt_ht matny Ly mC
taLOtztn_ tts OWn lat. sC and dtsusC Wt Lrtn_ aLOut Chan_Cs tn thC
dCVCOQmCnt Or undCrdCVCOQmCnt Ol QarttCuar Or_ans . Pnd sO On.
btmtary, Wtthtn thC CnVtrOnmCnt , QrCdtCttOn Ol QarttCuar Chan_C ts
OltCn QOsstLC a Chan_C OlCtmatC tOWard _rCatCr COd may QrCdtCtaLy
rCduCC thC OCa LtOmass and sO rCduCC thC lOC suQQy lOr many sQCCtCs
Ol Or_antsms . ut tegctr, thC QhCnOtyQC and thC Or_antsm _CnCratC an
unQrCdtCtaLttty." PCtthCr Or_antsm nOr CnVtrOnmCnt COntatns tnlOrma-
ttOn aLOut What thC OthCr Wt dO nCxt. ut tn thts suLsystCm, a sCc0-
ttVC COmQOnCnt ts arCady QrCsCnt tnsOlar as sOmattC Chan_Cs CVOKCd Ly
haLtt and CnVtrOnmCnt (tnCudtn_ haLtt ttsCl) arC adaQttVC. Adt.ten Is
thCnamCOlthC ar_C Cass OlChan_Cs tnduCCd Ly CnVtrOnmCnt and CxQC-
rtCnCC that arC nOt adaQttVC and dO nOt COnlCr surVtVa VauC. )
CtWCCn thCm, CnVtrOnmCnt and QhystOO_y ree:c sOmatt0
Chan_C that may Or may nOt LC VtaLC, and tt ts thC CurrCnt statC Ol thc
Or_antsm as dCtCrmtnCd Ly gcncttc: that dCtCrmtnCs thC VtaLttty. Ps
ar_uCd tn sCCttOn 4 thC tmtts Ol What Can LC aChtCVCd Ly sOmatI0
Chan_C Or Ly Carntn_ arC aWays uttmatCy hxCd Ly _CnCttCs
n sum, thC COmLtnattOn Ol QhCnOtyQC and CnVtrOnmCnt thus
COnstttutCs thC randOm COmQOnCnt Ol thC stOChasttC systCm thatree
Chan_C, thC _CnCttC statC di:e:c:, QCrmttttn_ sOmC Chan_Cs and QrOhtLtt-
tn_ OthCrs. LamarCKtans Want thC sOmattC Chan_C tO COntrO thC _CnCtI0,
Lut tn truth, thC OQQOsttC ts thC CasC. t ts thC _CnCttCs that tmtts thc
sOmattC Chan_Cs , maKtn_ sOmC QOsstLC and sOmC tmQOsstLC.
OrCOVCr, as that WhtCh COntatns QOtCnttas lOr Chan_C, thC _c
nOmC Ol thC tndtVtdua Or_antsm ts What thC COmQutCr Cn_tnCCrs Ou
" hc rcadcr may b ntcrcstcd ncOmparng hs unprcdctabty, gcncratcd by thcsc twO ntcract
ing subsyscms, wth thc unprcdctab!ty gcncratcd by thc ntcractOn OtAcand hcr amngO
thc tamOus gamc Otcruct.
.
I78 M mI AI IAK

Ca a/ank, QrOVtdtn_ stOra_C OlaVataC atCrnattVC QathWays OladaQta-

ttOn. Ost Ol thCsC atCrnattVCs rCmatn unusCd and thCrClOrC tnVtstC tn
any _tVCn tndtVtdua .
btmtary, tn thC OthCr stOChasttC systCm , thC _CnC QOO Ol thC
eu/atten ts nOWadays CtCVCd tO C CXCCCdtn_y hCtCrO_CnCOus . P Ol
thC _CnCttC COmtnattOns that COud OCCur arC CrCatCd, tl Ony rarCy, y
thC shutn_ Ol_CnCs tn sCXua rCQrOduCttOn. hCrC ts thus a Vast anK
Ol a tCrnattVC _CnCttC QathWays that any Wtd QOQuattOn Can taKC undCr
QrCssurC OlsCCCttOn, as ts shOWn tn addtn_tOns studtCs Ol_CnCttC as-
stmtattOn (dtsCussCd tn sCCttOn ).
bO lar as thts QtCturC ts COrrCCt, Oth QOQuattOn and tndtVtdua
arC rCady tO mOVC. hCrC ts, CXQCCtay, nO nCCd tO Watt lOr aQQrOQrtatC
mutattOns , WhtCh ts a QOtnt OlsOmC htstOrtC tntCrCst. arWtn, as ts WC
KnOWn, shtltCd hts VtCWs aOut LamarCKtsm tn thC CtClthat _COO_tCa
ttmC Was tnsulhCtCnt lOr a QrOCss Ol CVOuttOn WhtCh WOud OQCratC
WtthOut LamarCKtan tnhCrttanCC. C thCrClOrC aCCCQtCd a LamarCKtan
QOstttOn tn atCr CdtttOns Ol Thc 0rtgtn ) Sc.tc:. hCOdOstus O-
zhansKys dtsCOVCry that thC untt OlCVOuttOn ts thC QOQuattOn and that
thC QOQuattOn ts a hCtCrO_CnCOus stOrChOusC Ol_CntC QOsstttttCs _rCaty
rCduCCs thC ttmC rCqutrCd y CVOuttOnary thCOry. hC QOQuattOn ts aC
tO rCsQOnd tmmCdtatCy tO CnVtrOnmCnta QrCssurCs . hC tndtVtdua Or-
_antsm has thC CaQaCtty lOr adaQttVC sOmattC Chan_C, ut tt ts thC QOQu-
attOn that, y sCCCttVC mOrtatty, undCr_OCs Chan_C WhtCh ts transmtt-
tCd tO luturC _CnCratt Ons . hC etcntta/tt, lOr sOmattC Chan_C CCOmCs
thC OCCt Ol sCCCttOn. t ts Oneu/atten: that CnVtrOnmCnta sCCCttOn
aCts .
C nOW QrOCCCd tO CXamtnC thC sCQaratC COntrtuttOns OlCaCh Ol
thCsC tWO stOChasttC systCms tO thC OVCra QrOCss Ol CVOuttOn. Cary,
tn CaCh CasC, tt ts thC sCCCttVC COmQOnCnt that _tVCs dtrCCttOn tO thC
Cha
n_Cs WhtCh arC hnay tnCOrQOratCd tntO thC tOta QtCturC.
hC ttmC struCturC Ol thC tWO stOhasttC QrOCCssCs ts nCCCssarty
dtC
rCnt. n thC CasC OlrandOm_CnCttC Chan_C thC nCW statC OlPP ts
n
CXtstCnCC lrOm thC mOmCnt Ol lCrtt tzattOn ut Wt QCrhaQs nOt COn-
tt
utC tO CXtCrna adaQtattOn untt muCh atCr. n OthCr WOrds , thC hrst
tCst
Ol _CnCttC Chan_C ts .en:cattic t lOOWs that tt ts thts tntCrna
st
OCh
asttC systCm WhtCh Wt CnsurC that lOrma rCsCmanCC tn tntCrna

I79 M 5LLlA5L KLLL55L5

tCattOns CtWCCn Qatts (t . C. , hOmOO_y) Wt C COnsQtCuOus CVCtyWhCtC.
n addtttOn tt ts QOsstC tO QtCdtCt WhtCh amOn_ thC many Otts Ol
hOmOO_y Wt C mOst laVOtCd y tntCtna sCCCttOn, and thC ansWCt ts
[/ thC CytOO_tCa , that mOst sutQttstn_ sCt Ol tCsCmanCCs WhtCh
unttCs thC WhOC WOtd OlCCuat Ot_antsms. hCtCVCt WC OOK, WC hnd
COmQataC lOtms and QtOCCssCs Wtthtn thC CCs. hC danCC OlthC ChtO-
mOsOmCs , thC mttOChOndtta and OthCt CytOQasmtC Ot_anCCs, and thC
untlOtm uttamtCtOsCOQtC sttuCtutC Olha_Ca WhCtCVCt thCy OCCut , CtthCt
tn Qants Ot tn antmasa thCsCVCty QtOlOund lOtma tCsCmanCCs atC
thC tCsut Ol tntCtna sCCCttOn that tnststs On COnsCtVattsm at thts CC-
mCntaty CVC .
P stmtat COnCustOn CmCt_Cs WhCn WC asK aOut thC atCt latC Ol
Chan_Cs that haVC sutVtVCd thC htst CytOO_tCa tCsts. hC Chan_C that
has tmQaCt ca/cr tn thC tlC Ol thC CmtyO must dtstut a On_Ct
and COttCsQOndtn_y mOtC COmQC Chatn OlatCt CVCnts.
t ts dtlhCut Ot tmQOsstC tO Cstatsh anyquantttattVC CsttmatC
Ol thC dtstttuttOn Ol hOmOO_tCs thtOu_h thC tlC htstOty Ol thC CtC-
tutCs . O assCtt that hOmOO_y ts mOst QtCVaCnt at VCty Caty sta_Cs t
_amCtC QtOduCttOn, lCttttattOn, and sO On ts tO maKC a quantttattVC
statCmCnt tdCntttn_ dcgrcc: Ol hOmOO_y, sCtttn_ a VauC On suCh Chat-
aCtCttsttCs as ChtOmOsOmC numCt, mttOttC QattCtn, tatCta symmCtty,
hVC-tOCd tms , dOtsa CCntta nCtVOus systCms, and sO On. buCh CVaua-
ttOn Wt C VCty attthCta tn a WOtd tn WhtCh (as nOtCd tn LhaQtCt )
quanttty nCVCt dCtCtmtnCs QattCtn. ut thC hunCh stt tCmatns . hCc/
l

tma QattCtns shatCd y a CCuat Ot_antsms~Qants and antmals

atKatC at thC CCuat CVC.
Pn tntCtCsttn_ COnCustOn lOOWs ltOm thCsC tnCs Ol thOu_ht
PltCt a thC COnttOVCtsy and sKCQttCtsm, thC thCOty Ol tCCaQttuattOn Is
dClCnstC. hCtC ts a QttOtt tCasOn tO CQCCt that CmtyOs Wt tCsCmDlc
tn lOtma QattCtn thC CmtyOs Ol anCCsttal lOtms mOtC COsCy than thc

lOtma QattCtns Ol aduts Wt tCsCmC thOsC Ol anCCstta aduts . hIs Is
lat ltOm What aCCKC and CtCtt bQCnCCt dtCamCd Ol tn thCtt nOtO
that CmtyOO_y WOud haVC tO lOOW thC QathWays OlQhyO_Cny. hc
QtCsCnt Qhtastn_ ts mOtC nC_attVC CVtattOn ltOm thC C_Inntn_
o
thC QathWay ts mOtC dtlhCut (Css QtODaC) than dCVtattOn ltOm atc
sta_Cs.
W
I80 M m AI IAK
If, as evolutionary engi neers we faceo the task of choosing a
pathway ofphylogenyfrom freeswi mming, taopolelike creatures to the
sessile, wormlike 8a/ane/e::u: living in muo we woulo hno that the
easiest course ofevolution woulo avoio too early ano too orastic oistur
bancesoftheembryologicstages . Vemightevenh nothati twoulobea
simplihcation ofcie/uttenar, press topunctuate epigenesis by aoemar
ation ofseparate stages . Ve woulo then arrive at a creature with free
swimming taopolelikelarvae that , atacertain moment woulo unoergo
metamorphosis into the wormlike, sessile aoults.
The machineryofchange isnotsimplypermissiveorsimply cre
ative. Rather, thereisacontinualoeterminism whereby thechanges that
can occuraremembersofaca:: ofchangesappropriate to that particular
machinery. The system ofranoom genetic change ltereo by the selec-
tive process ofinternal viabilitygives to phylogeny the characteristic of
pervasive homology.
Ifwe nowconsioer the otherstochasticsystem, we shall arriveat
a uite oiHerent picture. Although no learning or somatic change can
oirectly ahect DNA, it is clearly so that somatic changes (i . e. , the
tamous acuireo characteristics are commonly aoaptive. It is useful in
terms of inoivioual survival ano

or repruction ano

or simple comfort
anostress reouction toaousttoenvironmentalchange. Suchaoustment
occurs at many levels, but at every level , there i s a real or seeming
beneht. Itisagoooioeatopantwhenyouarriveatahighaltituoeanoa
gooo ioeatolearn not topant ifyou stay long in the high mountains . I t
i sa gooo ioeatohave a physiological system that will aoust tophysio
lgical stress, eventhoughaoustmentl eaos toacclimation anoacclima-
tion may be aooiction.
In other woros somatic ao ustment will always create a contet
for
genetic change, but whether such genetic change will follow is a
uite separate uestion t me set that uestion asioe for the moment
ano consioer the spectrum ofwhat can be proposeo by somatic change.
learly, this spectrum or set ofpossibilities will set an outwaro limitto
hat this stochastic component ofevolution canachieve.
Onecommon characteristicofsomaticchange is immeoiatelyev-
io
ent Ah such changes are quantttattic or, as the computer engineers
oulo say,ana/etc. In the animal booy, thecentral nervous system ano
W
I 8I M 5LL5L KLLL55L5
P^ arC tn Iar_C CC_rCC (QCrhaQs tOtaIy) Ct_ttaI , ut thC rCmatnCCr Ol
thC QhystOIO_y ts anaO_tC.
hus, tn COmQartn_ thC ranCOm _CnCttC Chan_Cs Ol thC brst
stOChasttC systCm Wtth thC rCsQOnstVC sOmattC Chan_Cs Ol thC sCCOnC, WC
mCCt a_atn Wtth thC _CnCraItzattOn strCssCC tn LhaQtCr uanttt, dec:
net dctcrtncattcrn hC _CnCttC Chan_Cs may C ht_hIy astraCt , OQCrat-
t n_ at many rCmOVCs lrOm thCtr uIttmatC QhCnOtyQtC CXQrCsstOn, anC nO
COut, thCy may C CtthCr quantttattVC Or quattattVC tn thCtr bna CX-
QrCsstOn. ut thC sOmattC arC muC mOrC CtrCCt anC arC CtCVC sOCIy
quantttattVC. hC CCsCrtQttVC QrOQOstttOns that COntrtutC sharCC QattCrn
(t . C. , hOmOO_y) tO thC CCsCrtQttOn OlsQCCtCs arC, sO lar as KnOW, nCVCr
CtsturCC y thC sOmattC Chan_Cs that hatt anC CnVtrOnmCnt Can tn-
CuCC.
n OthCr WOrCs, thC COntrast that ^rCy hOmQsOn CCmOn-
stratCC (sCC t_urC WOuC sCCm tO haVC rOOts tn (t . C. , tO lOOW lrOm)
thts COntrast CtWCCn thC tWO _rCat stOChasttC systCms.
tnay, haVC tO COmQarC thC QrOCCssCs Ol thOu_ht Wtth thC

COuC stOChasttC systCm Ol tOIO_tCa CVOIuttOn. s thOu_ht asO CharaC-
tCrtzCC y suCh a COuC systCm: (l nOt, thCn thC WhOC struCturC Olthts
OOK ts susQCCt. )
trst tt ts tmQOrtant tO nOtC that What , tn LhaQtCr ! , CaICC
`IatOntsm ts maCC QOsstC tOCay y ar_umCnts WhtCh arC aImOst thC
OQQOst tC Ol thOsC WhtCh a CuatsttC thCOIO_y mt_ht QrClCr. hC QaraC-
tsm CtWCCn tOO_tCaI CVOIuttOn anC mtnC ts CrCatCC nOt y QOstuattn_
a Cst_nCr Or ^rtthCCr htCtn_ tn thC maChtnCry Ol CVOuttOnary QrOCCss
ut, COnVCrsCIy , y QOsuattn_ that thOu_ht ts stOChasttC. hC ntnC-
tCCnth-CCntury CrtttCs OlarWt n (CsQCCtaIIy bamuCI utCr) WantCC tO tn-
trOCuCC What thCy CaICC `mtnC (t . C. , asuQCrnaturaI CntCCChy) tntO the
tOsQhCrC. Cay I WOuIC CmQhastzC that .rcattic thOu_ht must aIWays
COntatn a ranCOm COmQOnCnt. hC CXQOratOry QrOCCssCsthC CnCCss
trta/andcrrer Ol mCntaI QrO_rCss-an aChtCVC thC ncw Ony y CmatK-
tn_ uQOn QathWays ranCOmIy QrCsCntCC, sOmC Ol WhtCh WhCn trtCC arC
sOmChOW sCCCtCC lOr sOmCthtn_ tKC surVtVaI .
POtc that at a dccp cptstcmOIO_tca cVc, thc tontrast bctWccn thc dt_ttaI anU thc anaO_tc Is
t ndccd a sharp cOnrast, suchas Occurs bctWccn cOmpOncnts Otdt_tta systcms. hts cOntrast Or
dts
cOnttnutty tsa tundamcntaI harrtcr bctWccn thc sOmattc and thc _cnctIc | t . c. , a barrtcr that prcVcn
ts
Lamarcktan tnhcrttantc).

&
I82 M mP PA\bL

If we grant that creative thought is noamental l y stochastic,

there are then several aspects of human mental process that suggest a
positiveanalogy. Ve are lookingfor abinaryoivisionofthoughtprocess
that will be stochastic in both ofitshalves , but thehalves will oiher i n
that the ranoom component ofone halfwill beoigital ano theranoom
component ofthe other will be analogi c.
The simplest way i ntothis problem seems tobebyconsioering
hrst the selection processes thatgovernanol imi ttheoutcome. Here the
twprincipal mes oftesting thoughts or ioeas are fami l iar.
The hrst is the test ofcoherence Does the new ioea make sense
in terms ofwhat is alreaoy known or believeo ranteo that there are
many sorts ofsense ano that logic, as we have alreaoy seen, isa poor
mooel ofhow the worlo operates, it is still so that some sort ofconsis-
tency or coherencerigorous or fancilis the thinker's hrst require-
ment ofthe notions which occur in the mino. Conversely, thegenesisof
new notions is almost totally (perhaps not totally) oepenoent upon re
shuing ano recombining ioeas that we alreaoy have.
There is, i n fact , a remarkably close parallel between this sto-
chastic process which goes on insioe the brai n ano that other stochastic
process which is thegenesis ofranoom genetic change on whichan in
ternal selectionoperates toensuresomeconformitybetween thenewano
the olo. Ano as we examinethe matter more closely, theformal resem-
blance seems to increase
In oiscussing thecontrt between epigenesis ano creativeevolu
tion, I pointeo out that i nepigenesi s, allncw i nformation must be kept
away ano that the process is more like the elaborating of theorems
within some primary tautology. I have pointeo out in this chapter that
the wholepress ofepigenesis can be vieweo asanexact anocriticalhl
ter , oemanoingcertainstanoarosofconformitywithinthegrowinginoi-
vioual .
Ve no note that in the intracranial press ofthought, thereis
a similar hl ter that, like epigenesis within the inoivioual organism,
oemanos conformityanoenforces thisoemano by aprocess more or less
resembling logic(i e. , resembling thebuiloingup oftautology tocreate
theorems). In the process ofthought , rter isthe analogueoftnca/ .e-
hcn.c i nevolution.
I nsum, the intracranial stochtic system ofthought or learning
I83 M 5LLmA5L KLLLSL5
closely resembles that component ofevolution in which ranoom genetic
changes are selecteo by epigenesis. finall y, the cultural historian is
provioeo with a worlo in which formal resemblances persist through
many generations of cultural history, so that he can seek out such pat
terns j ust as a zoologist searchesfor homologies.
Turning now to that other process of learning or creative
thoughtwhich involves not only the brain ofthe inoivioual butalsothe
worlo arouno the organism, we hno the analogue of that process of
evolution i n which experience creates that relationship between creature
anoenvironment which wecallaatatten. byenforcingchangesofhabit
ano soma
Fvery action ofthe living creaturei nvolves some trial ano error,
ano for any trial to be new, itmust be in someoegreeranoom Fven if
the new action is only a member ofsome well exploreo ./a:: ofactions,
it must sti l l , by its very newness, become in some measure a valioation
or exploration ofthe proposition 'this is the way tooo it.
Butin learning, as insomatic change, thereare l imitsano facili-
tations that selectwhatcanbelearneo. Smeofthese are external tothe
organism others are internal In the hrst instance, what can be learneo
at any given moment is limiteo or facilitateo by what has previously
beenlearneo. Infact , there isa learning to learnwithan ultimatel i mi t,
set by genetic constitution, to what can be immeoiately changeo i n
response to environmental necessi ty Therei sapeeli ng off, ateach step,
intogenetccontrol(as noteo in theoscussionofsomaticchange i nsec-
tion 4)
finally, it I necessary to put together the two stochastic pro-
cesses which I have separateo for the sakeofanalysis Vhat formal rela-
ton exsts between the two
AsI see i t, therootofthematterlies inthecontrastbetweenthe
oigital ano the analogic or, inanotherlanguage, between thenac ano
there.c:: that is nameo
But natng is itselfaprocess ano one that occurs not only in our
analyses but profounoly ano signihcantly within thesystemswe attept
to analyze. Vhateverthe cooing anomechanical relation between DNA
ano the phenotype, DNA is still in some way a booy of i nj unctions
I84 N MlO AO AK
'
oemanoingano in tbis sense, namingtbe relations wbicb sball be-
come apparent in tbepbenotype.
Ano wben we aomit naming as a pbenomenon occurring i nano
organiing tbe pbenomena we stuoy, we acnowleoge ipso tacto tbat in
tbosepbenomena, we expect bierarcbies otlogical typi ng.
Sotarwe cangowitb Russell anoPrtn.tta. But weare not now
in Russell sworlo otabstract logic or matbematics ano cannot accept an
emptybierarcbyotnamesorclasses. ortbematbematician, itis allvery
well tospeaotnac: e)nac: e)nac: orot./a::c: e)ua::c: e) ua::c: But
tor tbescienti st, tbis empty worlo is insuth cient . Veare trying to oeal
witb an i nterlocing ori nteractionotoigi tal (i . e. , naming) ano analogic
steps. Tbre.c:: e) natng t:tt:c(naca//c ano tbis tactcompels us to
substitute ana/tcrnatten tor tbe simple l aooer otlogical types tbatPrtn-
.tta woulo propose
In otber woros , to recombine tbe two stocbastic systems into
wbicbI bave oivioeo botb evolution ano mental process tor tbe sae ot
analysi s I sballbavetoseetbe twoasa/crnattng. Vbat inPrtn.tta ap
pears s a laooer maoe ot steps tbat are all alie (names ot names ot
names ano so on) will become an alternation ottwo species otsteps . To
gettrom tbenac totbenacthcnac we must gotbrougb tbere.c::
otnami ng tbename. Tbere mustalways be agenerativeprocess wbereby
tbeclasses arecreateo betore tbeycan be nameo.
Tbis very large ano complex matter will be tbe subect ot
Cbapter .
I85 M 5LLlA5L KLLL55L5
N
\
\P''ii\Pi\
\ \\1''
|n |hc bc_nnn_ u1 |hc 6rd, und |h: 6rd uu:u|h 6d, und |hc 6rduuJ 6d.
6l bblc, AUHORHD HRsiON, OHN ! !
hm mc.
sONG ROA ur Lud,
A UsiCA COHD BAsHD ON GHORGH BHRNARD sHA

s l_mul6n.
I n Cbapter , tbe reaoer was inviteo to contemplate a
mixeo batcb ofcases illustrating tbe near plati tuoe tbat
twooescriptionsarebetter tbanone. Tbisseriesofcases
enoeo witb my oescription ofwbat I regaro as /ana
tcu I asserteo tbatat least one inoofexplanationcon
sists in supplementing tbe oescription ofa process or set ofpbenomena
witb anabstract tautology onto wbicb tbe oescription coulo be mappeo.
Tbere may be otber sorts ofexplanation, or it may be tbe case tbat all
explanation in tbe eno boils oown to sometbi ng l iemyoehnition.
It is surey tbe case tbat tbe brai n contains no material obects
otber tban its own cbannels ano switcbways ano its own metabolic
suppliesano tbatall tbismaterial barowareneverenterstbe narrativesof
tbemino. Tbougbt can beaboutpigs or coconuts, but tberearenopigs
I89 M A55LI A KL55
or coconuts tbe brain ano in tbe mino, tbere are no neurons , only
tde: ofpigs ano conuts Tbere is, tberefore, always a certain comple-
mentarity between tbe mi no ano tbe matters ofits computation. Tbe
process ofcing or representation tbat substitutes tbe ioea ofpigs o
conuts for tbe tbings is alreaoy a step, even a vast jump, i n logical
typi ng. Tbe nameis not tbe tbing nameo, ano tbe ioeaofpig isnottbe
pg.
Fven ifwe tbinkofsomelargercircuitsystemsextenoingbeyono
tbel imitsoftbeskin anocalltbesesystemstnd incluoingwitbinmino
tbeman, bisax, tbetreetbatbe isfell ig, anotbecuti ntbesioeoftbe
tree even ifalltbisbeseenasasinglesystemofcircuits tbatmeettbe
cri teria ofmino offereo in Cbapter 4, even so, tbere is notree, noman
noax in tbemino. Al l tbese obects are only representeo in tbe large
mino in tbe form of images ano news of tbemselves . Ve may say tbat
*
tbey propose tbemselves or prop

ose tbeir own cbaracteristics.

Inanycase, it seems tome tobeprofounolytuetbatsometbing
like tberelation wbicb bave suggesteo between tautologyano tbemat-
ters to be explaineo obtains tbrougbout tbe entire helo ofour inquiry
Tbeveryhrststep from pigs ano coconuts into tbe worlo ofcooeo ver-
sions plunges tbe tbi nker into an abstract ano I believe, a tautological
universe. It is all very well to oehne explanation as setting tautology
ano oescription sioe by sioe. Tbis is only tbe beginning oftbe matter
ano woulo restrict explanation to tbe buman species . Surely tbe oogs
ano cats , we migbt say, ust accept tbings as tbey are, witbout all tbat
ratocination. But no. Tbe tbrust ofmyargument is tbat tbe very pro-
cessofperception is an actoflogical typing Fvery imageisacomplexof
manyleveleo cooing ano mappi ng. Ano surely tbe oogs ano cats bave
tbeir visual images. Vben tbey look at you, surely tbey see you.
Vben a ea bites , surely tbe oog bas an image of an itcb, locateo .
tbere. `
It still remains, of course, to apply tbis generalization to tbe
realmofbiologicalevolution. Beforeattempting tbat task, boweve, it is
necessary toexpano on tbe relationsbip between form ano process reat-
ing tbe notion of/c as an analogue ofwbat I bave been calligtaute/-
* bC Srt: I0 an lu/eg e/MinJ. p 458.
I90 M mI AI IAK
e ano recc:: as the analogue of the aggregate ofhenomena to be
exlaineo As form is torocess so tautology is to oescrition.
Thisoichotomywhichobtains i nourownscienticmi nosaswe
l ook 'out uon a worlo ofhenomena is characteristic also of rela
tionshis among the veryhenomenawhichweseek toanalye. Theoi-
chotomyexists on both sioesofthe fence between us anoour subects of
oiscourse. The thingsinthemselves (theDtngc an :tch) which are inac-
cessibleto oirect inquiry have relationshisamongthemselvescomara-
ble tothose relations that obtain between them ano us. They too (even
those thatare alive) can have no oirect exerience ofeach othera mat-
terofverygreat signicanceanoanecessary rst ostulate for anyunoer
stanoing of the living worlo. Vhat is crucial is the resuosition that
ioeas (in somevery wioesenseofthat woro)havea cogency ano reality.
Theyarewhat wecanknowanowecan know nothingelse. The regu-
larities or laws that bino ioeas togetherthese are the verities
These are as close as we can get to ul timate truth.
As a rst ste towaro making this thesis intel l igible I will
oescribe the rocess ofmyownanalysis ofaNewuinea culture.

The work hao oone in the eo was sh

o in no sma oegree
by the arrival in New uinea of a coy of the manuscrit of Ruth
Beneoict's Pattcrn: e) Cu/turc ano by collaboration in the elo with
Margaret Meao ano Reo ortune. Margaret's theoretical conclusions
from her eloworkwereublisheo d ScxandTccracnttnThrcc Prtt
tticSe.tcttc:.! The reaoer who is interesteo n oissecting out the story of
the theoretical ioeas in more oetail is referreo to my Naicn to Meao s
ScxandTccracnt, anoofcourse toBeneoicts seminalPattcrn: e)Cu/-
turc

Beneoict hao attemteo toconstruct atyologyofculturesusing

suchtermsasAehentan, Dten,:tan, anoaranetd. InScxandTccracnt
ano in Naicn, the emhasis is shifteo from characteriation of cultura
congurations toan attemt tocharacterieersons themembers ofthe
cultures we hao stuoieo Ve still useo terms reateo to those which
Beneoict hao useo. Inoeeo her tyologies were borroweo from the lan
bcc {rc_Ory DatcsOn, Naveo, I93. Kcprtnt. btantOU, LaItt. . btantOrU ntVcrstty Frcss, I958.
cW YOrk. tllam mOrrOW LO. , l93.
"cW YOrk. mO_htOn mthn LO. , I934.
[9I M LAbblLAL / KLLLbb
_ua_C Ol thC CCsCrtQttOn OlQCrsOns. CCVOtCC a WhOC ChaQtCr OlNaicn
tO an attCmQt tO usC rCtsChmCrs OC CasstbCattOn Ol QCrsOns tntO
`CyCOthymC anC `sChtzOthymC tCmQCramCnts . trCatCC thts tyQO-
O_y as an astraCt maQ OntO WhtCh CtssCCtCC my CCsCrtQttOns Olatmu
mCn anC WOmCn.
hts CtssCCttOn anC CsQCCtay thC laCt Ol CtHCrCnttattn_ thC tyQ-
tn_ Ol thC sCXCs , WhtCh WOuC haVC CCn lOrCt_n tO thC tCCas OlPattc:
)Cu/turc, CC aWay lrOm tyQOO_y anC tntO quCsttOns Ol QrOCCss. t C-
CamC natura tO OOk at thC atmu Cata as CXCmQttn_ thOsC tntCraC-
ttOns CtWCCn mCn anC WOmCn WhtCh WOuC CrCatC tn thC mCn anC
WOmCn that CtHCrCnttattOn Ol thOs WhtCh Was thC asC Ol my tyQOO_y
OlQCrsOns . OOkCC tO sCC hOW thC ChaVtOr OlthC mCn mt_ht QrOmOtC
anC CCtCrmtnC that Ol thC WOmCn, anC VtCC VCrsa.
n OthCr WOrCs , QrCCCCCC lrOm a CassthCattOn Or tyQOO_y tO a
stuCy Ol thC QrOCCssCs that _CnCratCC thC CtllCrCnCCs summartzCC tn thC
tyQOO_y.
ut thC nCXt stCQ Was lrOm QrOCCss tO a t,e/eg, )re.c::. l
aCCC thC QrCCssCs Wtth thC _CnCra tCrm:.ht:egcnc:t:, anC haVtn_ Qut
a aC On thC QrOCCssCs , WCnt On tO a ./a::q.atten Ol thCm. t CCamC
CCar that a mnCamCnta CtChOtOmy Was QOsstC. hC QrCCssCs Ol tn-
tCraCttOn that sharCC thC _CnCra QOtCnttatty Ol QrOmOttn_ sChts-
mO_CnCsts ( t . C. , hrst CCtCrmtntn_ CharaCtCr Wtthtn thC tnCtVtCuas anC
CyOnC that CrCattn_ tntOCraC strCss) WCrC, tn laCt, CassthaC tntO tWO
_rCat _CnCra thC symmCtrtC anC thC COmQCmCntary. aQQtCC thC tCrm
:,ctrt. tO a thOsC lOrms Ol tntCraCttOn that COuC C CCsCrtCC tn
tCrms Ol COmQCttttOn, rtVary, mutua CmuattOn, anC sO On (t .C. , thOsC
tn WhtCh Ps aCttOn Ol a _tVCn ktnC WOuC sttmuatC tO aCttOn Ol thC
samC ktnC, WhtCh, tn turn, WOuC sttmuatC P tO mrthCr stmtar aCttOns.
PnC sO On. lP Cn_a_CC tn Oasttn_, thts WOuC sttmuatC tO lurthCr
Oasttn_, anC VtCC VCrsa. )
n COntrast , aQQtCC thC tCrm .e/ccnta tO t ntCraCttOna
sCquCnCCs tn WhtCh thC aCttOns OlP anC WCrC CtllCrCnt ut mutuay
h ttCC CaCh OthCr (C. _. , COmtnanCC-sumtsstOn, CXhttttOn-sQCCtatOrshtQ,
"hcsc aImOst ObsOctc tcrms Wcrc dcrVcd trOm thccOntrast bctWccn manc dcprcssVcand schZO
phrcnc psychOss. Cdotbme dcnOtcd thc tcmpcramcnt thOsc WhO, accOrdn_ tO rctschmcr,
Wcrc prOnc tO manc dcprcssVc psychOss, Whc :cbiotbmc dcnOtcd thc tcmpramcnt Ot pOtcnta
schtZOphrcncs. rctschmcrs Pb::que anJCbaracter, Ln_sh transatOn I925, and my Nan,
93, Lhaptcr I 2.
I92 M m P A !A
oepenoence-nurturance). I noteo that these paireo relationships coulo
likewise be schismogenic (e. g. , that oepenoency might promote nur-
turance, ano vice versa).
At this point, I hao a classihcation or typology, not ofpersons,
ut ofre.c::c:, ano itwasnaturaltoswingfrom this classihcation toask
about what might be generateo by interaction among the nameo pro-
cesses. Vhat woulo happen when symmetrical rivalry (which by itself
woulogenerate:,ctrt.a/ schismogenesis ofexcessivecompetition) was
mixeo with ./ccnta oepenoencynurturance
Sure enough, there were fascinating i nteractions between the
nameoprocesses . It turneoout thatthesymmetrical anocomplementary
themes of interaction are mutually negating (i . e. , have mutually op-
posite eHects on relationship) , so that when complementary schis-
mogenesis (e. g. , oomi nance-submission) has gone uncomfortably far, a
li ttle competition will relieve the strai n conversely, when competition
has gone too far, a l i ttleoepenoencywil l be a comfort.
Later, unoertherubricofcnd-/tnkagc, I investigateosomeofthe
possiblepermutationsofcombineo complementary themes. Itoevelopeo
that a oi Herence in premises, almost in choreography, between Fnglish
ano American mioole-class cultures is relateo to the fact that specta-
torshipispreponoerantlyahlialfunction in Fnglano(i . e. , isl inkeowith
oepenoency ano submission) ano preponoerantly a parental function
in America (i . e. , is l i nkeo with nurturance ano oominance) .
That has all been spell eo out elsewhere. Vhat is important
thepresent context is to note that mypreoures ofinquirywerepunc-
tuateo by an alternation between classihcation ano the oescription of
process . I haopreeoeo, without conscious planning, up an alternating
laooerfrom oescription tothevocabularyoftypology. Butthistypingof
persons leo back into a stuoy ofthe processes bywhich thepersons got
that way. These presses were then classiheo into t,c: ofprocess types
in their turn, were nameo by me. The next step was from the typing of
process to stuoy the i nteractions between the classiheo processes. This
zigzag laooer between typology on one sioeano the stuoy ofprocess on
the other ismappeo i nfigure 0.
DatcsOn, {
. `Kc_u|artttcs anU tttcrcnccs tn PattOnaI Lharactcr t natsOn, {. , iviliao Morak
(DOstOn, mOu_htOn mtmtn, I942). Kcpr:ntcU tn Stt: to ao Etolog o/MioJ (PcW YOrk. Daanttnc,
I972).
I95 M AbLALP A FKLLL55
CK
m
1yQCS O!OC0CS
O!! GC|dC|OG

JyQO|O_yO!
SCXCS @

-
-

-
KCbb
GC|dC| OG
DCWCCG
OC0CS
GC|dC|OGS
OCC|0| G| G_
yQOO_y

LCSC|| Q| OG
O!dC| OGS
ttur: l0. a:lJ o[unul:: o[lu|mul tul|ur:. 1h:urrou1 murk |h: rc:|on o[uru
I sba now argue tbat tbe relations implicit or immanent in
events of tbe personal story I bave ust tolo ( i . e , tbe zigzag sequence
steps from form to process ano back to form) provioe a very powe
paraoigm fo tbe mapping ofmanypbenomena, some ofwbicb bae
reaoy been mentioneo.
I sba argue tbat tbis paraoigm is not limiteo toa persona ^
rative ofbow a particular piece oftbeory came to be bui l t, but ta t
recurs again ano again wberever mental process as oehneo in Cape
preoominates in tbe organization of tbe pbenomena. In otber wo
wben we take tbe notion of logical typing out of tbe helo ofabs
logic ano start to map real biological events onto tbe bierarcbies
o

paraoigm, we sball immeoiately encounter tbe fact tbat in tbe

wo
r

mental ano biological systems , tbe bierarcby is not only a listofc

classes ofclasses ano classes ofclasses ofclasses but bas also beco

:tg:ag /addcr dta/cttt./ctwccn)er andret.
!94 M mP AP PA
I shall rther suggest that the very nature ofperceptionfollows
th
isparaoigm that learning is to be meleoon the same sort ofzigzag
paraoigm that in the social worlo, the relation between love ano mar-
ria
ge or eoucation ano status necessari ly follow a similarparaoigm that
in evolution the relation between somatic ano phylogenetic change ano
the relation between the ranoom ano theselecteo have this zigzag form.
I
shall suggest that similar relations obtain at a more abstract level be
tween speciation ano variation, between continuity ano oiscontinuity
an
o between numberano quantity.
In other woros, I am proposing that the relationship, which is
ratherambiguously outl ineo in mystoryabout analyzingaNewuinea
culture, i s, infact, arelationship that will resolveaverylargenumberof
ancient puzzles ano controversies in the helos ofethics , eoucation, ano
evolutionary theory.
I begin from a oiscrimination owe to orst Mittelstaeot, who
pointeo out that there are two::rt: ofmethoos ofperfectingan aoaptive
act Let us suppose that the act is the shooting ofa biro. In the hrst
case, this is to be oone with a ri e. The marksman will look along the
sights ofhis rie ano will note an error in its aim. e will correct that
error, perhaps creating a new error which again he will correct , until he
s satisheo. ewill thenpress the trigger ano shoot.
Vhat is signicant is that the act ofself-correction occurswtthtn
the singleact ofshooti ng. Mittelstaeot uses the term)ccd/a.k tocharac
terize this wholegenus ofmethoos ofperfecting an aoaptive act .
ncontrast, consioer the case ofthe manwhoi s shooting aying
iro withashotgunorwhousesarevolverhelo unoerthe tablewherehe
annot correct its aim. In such ces, what must happen is that an
aggregateofinformation is taken in through senseorgans that upon this
information, computationiscompleteo anothatuponthe(approximate)
result ofthat computation, the gun is hreo. There is no possi bility of
error
correction in the single act . To achieve any improvement, correc-
tion
must be performeo upon a large ./a:: of actions . The man who
o
ul
oacquireskill withashotgunorin theart ofshooting pistols unoer
he
table must practice his art again ano again, shooting at skeet or
Owc thc hrst scp tOwads thts tnstght O mtttcstacts prcscntattOn tn I v60 Othts stdy t hOw
a pray
tn
antis catChcs tcs. c `hc AnaIysts Ot DchatOr t n cms O LOntrOI Syscms` tn
7r
aos
act:oo: o/tbt F:b Coo/rtoct oo Cu Proces: (PcwOrk:Ostah macy, r. , OundattOn, I960).
W
I 95 M LASSLALP AP1
some dummy target. By long practice, be must adust tbe:ctttng
of
hs
nerves and muscles so tbat in tbe critical event , be will 'automati
ca

give an optimumperformance. Tbsgenus ofmetbods ittestaedt

a
Is
.a/t/ratten.
It seems tbat, in tbese cases , cal ibration is related to
tcc-
backas bigberlogical type is related tolower. Tbisrelation isindi
cat

by tbe fact tbat selfcorrection in tbe use oftbe sbotgun is necess

ai
possibleonly from i nformationderived frompractice(i . e. , fromaa

past , completed actions.

It is, of course, true tbat skill i n tbe use of tbe rie can c
increased by practice. Tbe componentsofaction tbataresoimproved
a
common to tbeuse ofbotb rieand sbotgun. Vitbpractice, tbemas
man will improve bisstance, learn topress tbe triggerwitboutdistu
ing bis aim, learn tosyncbronie bis moment ofhring witb tbe moen
ofcorrecting bis aim so tbat be does not overcorrect , and so on. hcsc
components of rie sbooting depend for improvement onpractice an

tbat calibration ofnerve, muscle, and breatbingwbicbi nformationf
aclass of completed actions will provide
Vitb respect to aim, bowever, tbe contrast of logical typin
follows from tbe contrast between single instance and class of in
stances. It also appears tbat wbat Mittelstaedt calls :at/ratten is a cas
ofwbat I callr or ./a::catten and tbat bis)ecd/ack is comparable t
myc::
Tbe next obvious question concerns tbe relation between t
tbree dicbotomies formprocess , calibrationfeedback, and bigberlow
logical type. Are tbese synonymous I sball argue tbat form-process an
calibrationfeedback are indeed mutually synonymous but tbat tbe e

tion between bigberand lower logical type is more complex. from w

bas already been said it isclear botb tbat structure may determinep
cess and tbat, conversely, process may determine structure. t fo
tbat tbere must be a relation between two levels ofstructure ediat

by an intervening descrption ofpress. beleve tbat tbis is tbe

logue in tbe real world of Russells abstract step from ./a:: to a I
a::c:.
Letuconsidertbe relation between feedbackandcalibratio
n in
bierarcbic example sucb as is provided by tbe temperature control in
dwelling bouse equipd witb furnace, tbermostat , and buman resi
n

(see igure .
'
L^L K^ \|
C|SOGd|
SdUS, CC.

C|SOGd
O|CSOO| O
| dS
w

L^LK
LCGC| CSdGO
|d| G| G_O!
QC|SOG
1OOCOO O|
1OOOO
\SC| | | d| G_
C0QC|du|CS
rurc Lac o[Con|rol o[ou1c 1]ou|urc. 1hcurr1 murk |hcdtrct|ton o[ ton|rol.
At tbe lowest l evel , tbere is tbe temperature. Tbis actual tem
peraturefrom moment tomoment(aecc::) ahects atbermometer(asort
of
sense organ) tbat is connecteo to tbewbole system in sucba way tbat
tbe
temperature, as expresseo by tbe benoing ofa oouble metal plate,
will make or break an electric connection (a switcb, a calibration tbat
co
ntrols tbe furnace. Vben tbe temperature risesabove a certain point
tbeswtcb willbe cbangeo totbestate calleoL wbentbe tempera
ture fallsbelow some lower point , tbe switcb will be cbangeo to L!
be
bouse will tbus oscillate arouno some temperature between tbe two
t
br
esbolopoints . At tbis level , tbe system isasimple, servocircuitsucb
as I oescribeo in Cbapter4.
W
However , this simle feeoback circuit is controlleo by a calibra
tion houseo in the same small box that contains the thermometer n
the box is aknob that the householoercan turn tochangethe setting, o
/ta:. of the thermostat to a oifferent temeraturearouno which the te
eratureofthehousewill oscillate. Note thattwe calibrations have the
location in the box There is the control ofstate, G/Gii, ano the co
n
trol of temerature arouno which the system will oerate I
the former mean temerature was f. , the owner ofthe house a
say, 'It s been too colo lately. He will uoge from a:a/c ofhis exe
riences ano then change the setting to some temerature which
wil
erhas seem more comfortable. The bias (the calibration of the feeo
back) is itselfgoverneo by a feeoback whose sense organ is locateo, no
on the living room wall , but in the skin ofthe man.
But the mans biasusually calleo his thrc:he/ds in turn, se
by a feeoback system. He may become more tolerant ofcolo as a resul
of haroshi or exosure he may become less tolerant as a result o
rolongeo resioence i n the troics. He might even say to himself, I
getting to soft , ano engage in outooor training that will al ter his
calibration. Beyono that, whatmakesthe manengagei nsecial trann
or exosure to colo might be a change in status. He might become a
monk or a soloier ano thus become calibrateo toa nameo social status.
Inother woros, the feeobacks ano the calibrations alternate ina
hierarchic sequence. Note that with each comleteo alternation (fro
calibration to calibration or from feeoback to feeoback , the shere o
relevance that we are analyzing has increaseo. At the simlest, lowes
eno of the zigzag laooer, the shere of relevance was a furnace, G o
Gii at the next level , a house oscillating arouno a certain temeratu.
At the next level , that temerature coulo be changeo within a shere
o
relevance that now incluoeo house /a: resioent over a much
lon
time, ouring which the man engageo in various outsioe activities
Vitheach zigzag ofthe laooer, the shere ofrelevancei ncreases
In other woros, there is a change in logical tying ofthe informaion
collecteo by the sense organ at each level
Let us consioer another examle A oriver of an automo

il
travels at 0 miles er hour ano thereby alerts the sense organ (rao
erhas) ofa trafhc oliceman. The bias or thresholo of the olicean
oictates that he shall resono toanyoiherence greater than 0 miles

hour above or below the seeo limit

Tbe olicemans bias was set by tbe local cbiefof olice, wbo
acteo selfcorrectively witb bis eye on oroers (i . e. , calibration receiveo
from tbe state caital .
Tbe state caital acteo selfcorrectively witb tbe legislators' eyes
on tbeirvoters . Tbe voters in turn, set a calibrationwitbi n tbe legisla
ture in favor ofDemocratic or Reublican olicy.
Agai n, we oteanalternating laooer ofcali bration anofeeoback
u to larger ano larger sberes ofrelevance ano more ano more abstract
information ano wioer oecision.
Notice tbat witbin tbe system of olice ano law enforcement ,
ano i noeeo in all bierarcbies, it is most unoesirable to bave oirect con
tact between levels tbat are nonconsecutive. It is not gooo for tbe total
organization to bave a ieline ofcommunication between tbe oriver of
tbeautomobileano tbestateolicecbie ucb communication isbaofor
tbe morale of tbe olice force. Nor is i t oesirable for tbe oliceman to
baveoirect access to tbelegislature, wbicb woulo unoerminetbeautbor-
ity oftbe olice cbief
To um oownwaro two or more stes in tbe bierarcby is like-
wise unoesirable. Tbe oliceman sboulo not bave oirect control over tbe
accelerator or tbe brake system oftbe automobile.
TbeeHect ofany sucb uming oflevels, uwaro oroownwaro,
is tbat information aroriate as a basis for oecision at onelevel will be
useo as basis for oecision at some otber level a common variety oferror
ogca tyi ng.
In legal ano aoministrative systems, sucb juming of logical
levels is calleo cxe:t)acte l egislation In fami l ies , tbe analogous errors
are calleo deu//c /tnd:. In genetics, tbe Veissmannian barrier wbicb
revents tbe inberitance ofacquireo cbaracteristics seems to reventoi-
sasters oftbis nature. To ermi t oi rect inuence from somatic state to
g
enetic structure migbt oestroy tbe bierarcby oforganizationwitbin tbe
c
reature.
Vben we comare /catng to sboot witb a rie witb/carntng to
sbo
ot witb a sbotgun, anotber comlication i s introouceo into tbe sim

leabstractaraoigmofRussellsbierarcbyoflogical tyes. Botb oera-

ti
ons incluoecybernetic, self-corrective sequences. But tbe systemic oif
erence between tbem is immeoiately evioent wben tbe sequences are
vieeo as contexts oflearning.
W
Tbe case ottbe rieiscomparatively simple Tbeerror tobeco
recteo (i . e. , tbe intormation to be useo) is tbedtrcn.c between tbe aim
ottbebarrelano tbeoirectionottbetargetasoiscloseo bytbealignment
otsigbtano target. Tbe marksman maybavetogorounoanorouno tbis
circuit many times, receiving news oterror correctng, receiving new
s
otnew error , correcting, receiving news otzero or minimal error, ano
hring.
But note tbat tbe marksman ooes notor neeo notcarry tor
waro news about wbatbappeneo i n tbe hrst rouno intobiscomputation
in tbe next rouno. Tbe only relevant intormaton s tbeerrorottbe im-
meoiate moment Heooes not neeo tocbangeht:c(.
Tbe man witb a sbotgun is in an entirely oierent posi tion. for
bim, tbere is noseparation between aim anohring tbat migbtallowbim
tocorrect bisaimbetore bepresses tbetrigger. Tbeaiminganohring,
bypbenateo, is a single act wbose success or tailure must be carrieo
torwaro as i ntormation to tbe next act ot hring. Tbe entire operation
must beimproveo, ano tberetore tbe entire operation is tbe subjectmat-
ter ottbe intormati on
At tbe nextact otsbooti ng , tbe marksman must computebisac-
tionon tbe basis ottbepositionottbe new target/u: i ntormationabout
wbat beoio in tbe previous rouno ottbe cybernetic circuit/u: intorma
tion about tbe outcome ottbose actions.
In tbe tbiro rouno ottbe circuit witb anotbertarget, be sboulo
ioeally use i ntormation about tbe d;rcn.c between wbat bappeneo i n
tbehrst rouno ano wbat bappeneo i ntbesecono rouno. He migbt use
tbe i ntormation at a nonverbal , kinestbetic level , saying to bimselt in
muscular imagery, 'tbat' s wbat it tel tlike to overcorrect.
Tbe rieman simply goes rouno bis cybernetic circuit a number
ot:caratc times tbe man witb a sbotgun must accumulate bis skil l ,
packing bis successive experiences, like Cbinese boxes , eacb witbin tbe
context oti ntormation oeriveo trom all previous relevantexperiences
mysc!Iwas taught tO sht durng MOr!d Mar , usng an army atOmatc. hc nstructOr had
mc stand wth my ack tO a bg tcc and aut sx I IrOm t. my rght hand had a grp On thc
wcapOn n ts hOIstcr On my hp. was tO ump and as umpcd, sng hc autOmatc and ht-
ng IOrc my Icct rcachcd thc grOund. rcIcraby thc bu!!ct shOu!d ht thc rcc, but thc sQcd
smOthncss OI thc whO!c OpcratOn wa mOtc mpOrtant than thc accuracy.
O ask abOut crtcra OI rc!cvancc wOu!d tac us Iar ahcId ntO prObIcms OI cOntcxtua! and
othct
!cvc!s OI!tnng.
200 M m AI IAK

from tbisparaoigm, it appears tbat tbe ioeaoflogical typing,

wben transplanteo from tbe abstract realms inbabiteo by matbemat-
icological pbilosopbers to tbe burlyburly oforganisms , takes on a very
oiherentappearance. Insteaoofabierarcbyofclasses , wefaceabierarcby
oferder: e) re.ur:tiene::.
Tbe question wbicb I am askingoftbese instances ofcalibration
ano feeoback concerns tbe necessity ofoiherentiati ng between tbe two
concepts in tbe real worlo. In tbe longer cbains ofoescription ofbouse
tbermostatano law enforcement , is it so tbat tbepbenomenatbemselves
contain are cbaracterizeo by) sucb a oicbotomy oforganization Or is
tbat oicbotomy an artifact of my oescription an sucb cbains be
imagineo wttheut an immanent alternation offeeoback ano calibration
Is it perbaps so tbat sucbanalternation i sbasic to tbewayin wbicb tbe
worlo of aoaptive action i s put togetber Sboulo tbe cbaracteristics of
mental process see bapter4) be extenoeo to incluoe terms ofcalibra-
tion ano feeoback
Tbere will surely bepeoplewborer to believe tbat tbeworlo i s
preponoerantly punctuateo by calibration, tbose typologists wbo, ac-
coroing to Frnst Mayr, can never unoerstano natural selection. Ano
tbere will beotbers wbo see only process or feeoback.
Notably, eraclitus , witb bis famous statement into tbe same
river no man can step twice, woulo be oeligbteo by contemplation of
tbe man witb tbe sbotgun. e migbtcorrectly say, 'No man can sboot
twice wi tb a sbotgun, because at every sbooting, it will be a oiherent
man, oiherently calibrateo. But later, remembering bis oictum tbat ev
erytbing ows notbing is stationary, eraclitus migbt turnarounoano
oeny tbe very existence ofall calibration. After all , to be still is tbe es
sence ofcalibration. Tbe still point i s tbe setting oftbe turning worlo.
I believe tbat tbe resolution oftbis question oepenos upon our
ioeas oftbe nature oftime as also, tbe Russellian paraooxes ofabstrac-
tion are resolveo by tbe i ntroouction of time into tbe argument see
bapter 4).
Tbe ongoing business oflearning to sboot witba sbotgun i sne.-
:art/, oisconti nuous because tbe information about tbe self i . e. , tbe in
formation requireo for calibration) can be barvesteo onlyaer tbe mo
ment of hring. I noeeo, tbe hring oftbe gun is to tbe banoling ofit as
tbe ben is to tbe egg. Suel Butler's famous est tbat tbe ben is an
20I M LLAbllLAL! A KLLLb
egg' s way of making another egg shoulo b correcteo to say that th
e
hen's later success in raising afamilyis the test ofwhether theegg fro
which she hatcheo was reall ya gooo egg If the pheasant fall s , the g
was well hanol eo, the man well calibrateo.
This view makes the process oflearning to hanole a gun nece
sarily oiscontinuous The l earning can occur only in separate increme
at the successive moments ofh ring
Similarly, the system ofthermostatic control ofthe temperare
ofthehouseano the system oflaw enforcementare necessarilyoiscont
uous for reasons connecteo with tt. Ifany event is to oepeno po
some characteristic ofa multiple sample ofsome other species ofeve
time must elapse for the accumulation ofthat sample, ano this elape
time will punctuate the oepenoent event to proouce a oiscontnt
But , ofcourse, there woulo be no such samples in a worlo ofpe
physical causation. Samples are artifacts of oescription, creatres
mino, ano shapers ofmental process.
A worlo of sense, organiation, ano communication is not co
ceivable without oiscontinuity, without thresholo. If sense organs
receive news only ofoifference, ano ifneurons either h re or or oo
hre, then thresholo becomes necessarily a feature ofhow the l iving
mental worlo is put together.
Chairoscuro is all very well , but Vill iam Blake tells us r
that wise men see outlines ano therefore they oraw them.
202 M mI AI IAKL
N
'\
V|P:
, rcu16n n6| |hc nccd: 6ur bu1c1| bcur1
Arc rn |hc ]66rc1| |hn 1u]cru6u1
A/l6 n6| nu|urc rc |hun nu|urc nc1.
un'1 /qc r1 .hcu] u1 bcu1|'1.
SHAHSHAH, Krn cur
l
. l
ALLmH. So wbat You tell usaboutafew strong resuositionsano
great stocbastic systems. Ano from tbat we sboulo go on to
imagine bow tbe worlot:. But
AmH` Ob, no. I also tolo you sometbing about tbe limitations of
imagining. So you sboulo know tbat you cannot imagine tbe
worlo as it t:. (Ano wby stress tbat l ittle woro
Ano I tolo you sometbing about tbe selfvalioating ower of
ioeas tbat tbe woro arty becomesomes to b bow it s
imagineo.
ALLmH. Is tbat evolution, tben Tbat goingon sbifting anoslioing
ofioeas to make all tbe ioeas agree Buttbey never can.
AmH. Yes , i noeeo. It all sbifts ano swirls arouno tbe verities. five
lussevenwill continue to equal twelve Intbeworloofioeas ,
205 M MlA
numbers wll still be in contrast witb quanttes. e
ole
w

robably go on using nucra/: as names botb tor quan

titie
s
a
tor numbers. Ano tbeyll go on being misleo by tbeir
ow
n
babits. Ano so on. But, yes , your image ot evolution is

a
t,
Ano wbat Darwin calleo natural selection is tbe surta
cin
g
o
tbe tautoogy or resuosition tbat wbat stays true long
er
o

inoeeo stay true longer tban wbat stays true not so long.
ALmH. Yes , I know you love reciting tbat sentence. But
oo
t
hc
verities stay truetorever Anoare tbese tbings you call
icritic:
aII
tautological
AmH` ai t , wait. Tbereareat least tbree questionsall tieotog
etbe
lease.
first, ne. Our oinions about tbe verities are surely l iale to
cbange
Secono, wbetber tbeverities tbat Saint Augustine calleoct
veritiesaretruetoreveraarttrom our oinions, I cannotkno.
ALmH. But can youknew itit' s all tautological
AmH. No, otcourse not. But ittbe question is once askeo, I annot
avoio baving an oinion.
ALmH` ell , is it
AmH` Is itwbat
ALmH Tautological
AmH` All rigbt. yoinion is tbat tbe Creatura, tbe worlo otmetal
rocess, is botb tautological ano ecological. I mean tbat it is a
slowly selt-bealing tautology. Lett to itselt, any large iece ot
Creatura will teno to settle towaro tautology, tbat is, toaroi
tcrna/ .en:t:tcn ot ioeas ano resses. Buevery now ano tbe
tbe consistency gets torn tbe tautology breaks u l ike tbe u
tace otaono wben astone is tbrownintoi t. Tben tbe tautolo
slowly but immeoiately starts to beal . Ano tbe bealng may
rutbless. Vbole secies maybeexterminateo in tbe ress
ALmH` But , Daooy, you coulo make consistency out ottbe
o
tbat it always starts to beal .
AmH. S, tbetautology is not broken it sonly usbeo uto
tbe
n
level otabstraction, tbe next logical tye Tbat' s so.
ALmH But bow many levels are tbere
AmH No, tbat cannot know. I cannot know wbetber it is
u

mateyatautologynorbow manylogcal evels itbas aminside

it andtberefore cannotknow its outer limitsifi tbas any.
ALmH` I tbink its gloomy. Vbat's tbe point ofitall
AmH. No, no. Ifyouwere inlove, youwould not ask tbat question
ALmH` Youmeantbat love is tbe point
Am
H. Butagain, no. I wassayingnotoyourquestion, notanswering
i t. It's a question for an occidental industrialist and an engineer.
Tbis wbole book isabout tbe wrongness oftbat quest ion.
ALmH. You never said tbat in tbe book.
AmH` Tbere are a million tbings I never sai d. But I ll answer your
question It bas a millionan inhnite numberofpoints , d
you call tbem
ALmH. But tbats ike baving nopointDaddy , is it a spbere
AmH` Ab, all rigbt Tbat will doforametapbor. Amultidimensional
spbere, pebaps .
ALmH. Hmma selfbealing tautology, wbicb is also a spbere, a
multidimensional spbere.
ALmH` So wbat
AmH. ButI keep telling you Tbereisnowbat. Amillionpoints or
none
A
LmH` Tben wbywrite tbis book
AmH. Tbats dierent. Tbis book, or you and me talking, and so
ontbese are only little pieces oftbe bigger universe Tbe total
selfbealing tautology bas no points tbat you can enumerate.
But wben you break it up into littlepieces, tbats anotber story.
urpose appearsd tbeuniverse isdissected. Vbataleycalled
design and Darwin called adaptation.
A
LmH` ustan artifactofdissectionButwbat'sdissection forTbis
wbolebook is a dissection Vbats itfor

A
mH. Yes , it spartly dissectonand partly syntbesis . And suppose
tbat under a big enougb macroscope, no idea can be wrong, no
purpose destructive, no dissection misleading.
A

LmH. You said tbat we onlymk: tbepartsofanywbole.

A
mH. No, said tbat parts are ue)u/ wben we want to describe
wboles.
l
ALmH` So you want to oescrie wboles But wben you'
e oo
ne
It
7
wbat tben
AmH. All rigbt, let'ssay welie, I saio, i na selt-bealig
(autOO_y
tbat is more or less otten getting torn more or less aoly. hat
seems toe bow it is in our neigborbooo otspacetie. I u0ss
some tearing ot tbe tauological ecological system is venn a
waygooo tor i t. Its capacitytor selt-bealingmay neeo toee
ercizeo d Tennyson says , ' est one gooo custom sbo COrru
]
t
tbe worlo.
Ano, otcourse, oeatb bas tbat positive sioe. However goo th0
man be ecomes a toxic nuisance it be stays arouno too lon
Tbe lackoaro, wbereall tbe i ntormation accumulates, mustb0
wipeoott, ano tbepretty lettering on itmust ereouceotoraU-
oom cbalky oust.
ALmH. But
AmH. Ano so on Tbere aresucycles otliving ano oyin witbnth0
igger, more enouring ecology. But wbat sball we say Ol th0
oeatb ottbe largersystem 0ar iospbere erbaps uoer tbe eye
otbeaven or Sbiva, i t ooesn' t matter. But it' s tbe nly one W0
know.
ALLmK Butyour ook is a part otit .
AJK. Otcourse it is . But, yes , l see wbat you mean, ano otCOut0
you are rigbt. eitber tbe oeer nor tbe mountain l i neeos
excuse tor eing, ano my ook, too, as part ot tbe
iospbere
neeos no excuses . Fven itI 'm all wrong
ALLK. Can tbe oeeror tbe mountain l ion ewr:ng.
AJK. Any species can get into an evolutionary cul-oe-sa
c ,
ano su
pose it is a mistake otsorts tor tbat species to e a
p
arty t
own extinction Tbe buman species , as we all know
,
ay etn
gusb seltany oay now
ALK. o wbat Vby write tbe ook
AJK Ano tbere s soe prioe in it to a teel ing tbat
we a
all
going oown to tbe sea like lemmings tbere sboulo

e at
I
t
o
one lemming taking notes ano saying ` olo you
2o N mI AI IAJKL
tcVc that COuC stOQ thc raCc tO thc OCcan WOuC c cVcn mOrc
arrO_ant than saytn_, ` tOC yOu sO.
A
LmJH` thtnK yOu arc taKtn_ nOnscnsc, aCCy . COn t scc yOu as
thc Ony tntct_cnt cmmtn_ taKtn_ nOtcs On thc sclCcstruCttOn
Ol thc Othcrs . ts nOt tKc yOusO thcrc . POOCy ts _Otn_ tO
uy a OOK y a sarCOntC cmmtn_.
A
JmH` Lh, ycs . t s ntCc tO haVc a OOK sc , ut aWays a surQrtsc,
_ucss. PnyhOW thats nOt What Wc arc taKtn_ aOut . (PnC yOuC
c surQrtscC at hOW many OOKs y sarCOnC cmmtn_s CO, tn
laCt , sc Vcry ntCcy. )
ALmH` bO What
AJmH. Or mc, altcr hlty ycars Ol Qushtn_ thcsc tCcas aOut, tt has
sOWy cCOmc Ccar that muCCchcaCcCncss ts nOt ncCcssary .
haVc aWays hatcC muCCchcaCcCncss anC aWays thOu_ht tt Was
a ncCcssary COnCtttOn lOr rct_tOn. ut tt sccms that that ts nOt
sO.
ALLmJH` Lh, tsthat Whatthc OOK ts aOut'
AJmH. YOu scc, thcy QrcaCh )atth anC thcy QrcaCh :urrcnder ut
WantcC ./artt,. YOu COuC say that latth anC surrcnCcr Wcrc
ncCcssary tO matntatn thc scarCh lOr Cartty. ut haVc trtcC tO
aVOtC thc sOrt Ollatth that WOuC COVcr uQ thc _aQs tn thc Car-
tt.
lALLmJH. LO On.
AJmH. c , thcrc Wcrc turntn_ QOtnts Lnc Olthcm Was Whcn saW
that thc rascrtan tCca Ol ma_tC Was uQstCc COWn Or tnstCc Out.
Ou KnOW, thc COnVcnttOna VtcW ts that rct_tOn cVOVcC Out Ol
ma_tC, ut thtnK tt Was thc Othcr Way arOunCthat ma_tC ts a
sOrt OlCc_cncratc rct_tOn.
lAL
LmJH. b What CO yOu n: ctcVc'

AJ
mH
. c , lOr cXamQc, CO nOt ctcVc that thc Ort_tna QurQOsc Ol
thc ratn CanCc Was tO maKc `tt ratn. susQcCt that that ts a
Cc_cncratc mtsunCcrstanCtn_ Ol a muCh mOrc QrOlOunC rct_tOus
nccC tO alh rm mcmcrshtQ tn What Wc may Ca thc c.:/:gt.a/
taut:/:g thc ctcrna Vcrttcs Ol tlc anC cnVtrOnmcnt.
W
209 M M A
There s always a tenoencyalmost a neeoto vulgarize re
l igion, to turn it into entertainment or politics or magic or
power.
ALLmH` Ano FS Ano material ization Ano out-ofbooy experi
ence Anospiri tualism
AmH All symptoms, mistaken attempts atcuteeffortstoescape from
a cruoe materialism that becomes intolerable. A miracle a
materialist's ioea ofhow to escape from his materialism.
ALLmH. Is there no escape I oont unoerstano.
AmH. Oh, yes . But, you see, magic is really only a sortofpseuoosci-
ence. Ano l ike applieoscience, italways proposes thepossibility
of.entre/. Soyouoon tgetaway from allthatway ofthought by
seuences into which that way ofthinking is alreaoy bui lti n.
ALLmH` howooyougetaway
AmH Ah, yes . The reply to cruoe maerial ism is not miracles but
beautyor, of course, ugliness . A small piece of Beethoven
symphony, a single oloberg variation, a singleorganism, a cat
or a cactus, the twentyninth sonnet or the Ancient Mariners
sea snakes. You remember he blesseo them, unaware, ano the
Al batross then fell from his neck into the sea.
ALLmH Butyou oion't write that book. That's the one you shoul
havewritten. The one about the Albatross ano the Symphony.
AmH. Ah, yes . But you see, I coulon' too that. Thisbookhao tobe
oone hrst . Now, after all the oiscussion ofmi no ano tautology
ano immanent oiherencesano soon, I am beginningtobereaoy
for symphonies ano albatrosses. . . .
ALLmH. oon.
AmH. No, yousee it' snotpossibletomapbeautyanougl iness ontoa
at piece ofpaper. Oh yes, a orawing may be beautil ano on
atpaper but thats notwhat I m talkingabout. The questioni s
onto what surface shall a tbe of aesthetics bemappeo Ifyo
k me that uestion tooay I coulo attempt an answer. But ot
two years agowhen this book was still unwritten.
ALLmH. All right . Sotooay how woulo you answer
2 I0 M A AH
\

AmH. Ano tben tbere's .em.teu:nc:: wbicb I bave not toucbeoor
toucbeo only once or twicei n tbis book. Consciousness ano
aestbetics are tbe great untoucbeo questions .
ALLmH. But wbole rooms in l ibraries are full of books about tbose
untoucbeo questions.
AmH` No no. Vbat is untoucbeo is tbe question Onto wbat sort of
surface sball aestbetics ano consciousness be mappeo
ALLmH I oon't unoerstano.
AmH. I mean sometbing like tbis Tbat botb consciousness ano
aestbetics (wbatever tbose woros mean) are eitber cbaracter
istics present in all tnd: (as oehneo in tbis book) , or tbey are
spinohsatefancy creations from sucb minos. In eitber case, i t
is tbe primary oehnition otmino tbat bas toaccommooate tbe
tbeories of aestbetics ano consciousness . It' s onto tbat primary
oehnition tbat tbe nextstep must be mappeo. Tbe termi nology
to oeal witb beautyugliness ano tbe terminology for conscious-
nessbavegot to be elaborateo out of(or mappeo onto) tbe ioeas
in tbe present book or similar ioeas. It' s tbat simple.
ALLmH. imple
AmH. Yes. imple. I meantbepropositiontbattbatiswbatmust be
oone is simple ano clear. oon' t mean tbat tbe detng wil be
simple.
ALLmH. Vel l . How woulo youbegi n
AmH In, a quc crctcra: qut .etc. It' s tbe hrststep tbat i soif-
hcult.
ALLmH. All rigbt . Never mino abouttbat . 0hc woulo you begi n
AmH. Tbere bas tobe a reason wbytbese questions bave never been
answereo. I mean, we migbt take tbat our hrst clue to tbe
answertbe bistorical fact tbat so many menbavetrieo ano not
succeeoeo. Tbe answermust be somebowbiooen. It must be so
Tbat tbeveryposingoftbesequestionsalwaysgives afalsescent
l eaoing tbe questionerohon a wilo goose cbase. A reo berring.
ALLmH. Vell
AmH let' s look at tbe 'scboolboy truisms tbat I bave put
2 I I M M MlA
togetber in tbis bk to see if one or more of tbose coulo b
e
answers to tbe questions ofconsciousness or aestbetics. m sure
tbat aperson ora poem orapot . . or alanoscape . .
ALLmH. Vbyoon' tyou makeal ist ofwbatyoucall tbe 'scboolboy
points Tben we coulo try tbe ioeas , 'consciousness an
beauty on tbe list.
AmH. Here i sa l ist. firsttbere were tbesixcriteriaoftnd(Cbapter
)
. aoe of parts wbicb are not tbemselves mental.
ino` is immanent i ncertain sorts ofergantzatten ofparts
Tbe parts are triggereo by events in time. Differences
tbougb static in tbe outsioe worlo can generate events if
move in relation to tbem
. Collateral energy. Tbe stimulus (being a oifference)
may provioe no energy but tbe responoent bas energy, usuay
provioeo bymetabolism.
. Tben causesano-effects form into circular (or more
complex cbains.
. All messages are cooeo.
. Ano last, most important , tbere i stbe fact oflogical
typing
Tbose are all fairly welloehneo points ano tbey support eacb
otber pretty wel l . erbaps tbe list is reounoant ano coulo be
reouceo, but tbats not important at tbismoment. Beyono tbose
hvepoi nts, tbere is tbe remainoeroftbe book. Ano tbat isabout
oifferent sorts ofwbatI calleodeu//cdc:.rttten ano ranging from
binocular vision to tbe combineo ehect oftbe 'great` stocbastc
processes ano tbe combineo ehect of 'calibration` ano 'feeo
back. ` r call i t rigor ano imagnation` or tbougbt ano a
tion.
Tbat'sall .
ALLmH. All rigbt. So wbere woulo you attacb tbe pbenomena
of
beauty ano ugliness ano consciousness
I2 M mI AI IALHL

'
AmH. And don' ttorget the:acred. That's anothermatter that was not
dealt with in the book.
ALLmH. lease Daddy. Don t do that. Vhen we get near to asking
auestion, yo umpawaytrom i t. There's alwaysanotherues
tion it seems. Ityou could answer:ne uestion. ust one.
AmH` o. You don' t understand. Vhat does e. e. cummi ngs say
'Aways the more beautitu answer whoasks the more di thcult
uestion. Somethingl ike that. YouseeI notskinganothe
uestion each time. I making thesame uestion bigger. The
:acred (whatever that means) s surely related (somehow) to the
/eautt)u/ (whatever that means) . And it we could say how they
are related, we could perhaps say what the words mean. r
perhaps that would never be necessary. Fvery time we add a
related piece to the uestion, we get more clues to what sort ot
answer we shoud expect.
ALLmH. Snow wehave si xpieces ottheuestion
AmH. Six
ALLmH Yes. It ws twoat the beginning otthisconversation. ow
it's six. Theres conscousness , and beauty and the sacred, and
then there's the relation between consciousness and beauty and
the relation betweenbeauty and the sacred, and the relation be
tween the sacredand consciousness . That makes six.
AmH o. Seven. Youre torgetting the book. All your six make up
together a triangular sor ot uestion and that triangle is to be
related to what's in this book.
ALLmH. All right. o on. lease.
AmH I think I would like to cal mynext book 0heAnge/:eart
Tread. Fverybody keeps wanting me to rush i n. It is mon
strousvulgar, reductionist , sacreligiouscall it what you
willto rush in with an oversimplihed uestion. It' s a sin
against all three otour new prncples . Agai nst aesthetics and
againstconsciousness and against the sacred.
ALLmH But where
AmH. Ah. Yes. That uestion proves the close relationship between
consciousnessand beauty and the sacred. It is consciousness un
ningaound like adog with its ongueoutliterallycynicism
2 I 5 M 5L MmAJ
tbat asks tbe too simpe question ano sbapes up tbe vulgar an
swer. To beconsciousoftbe natureoftbe sacreo oroftbe nature
of beauty is tbe folly ofreouctionism.
A\LmH saltbat relateo to tbis book
AmH Yes. Yesinoeeo it is. Cbapter, tbelistingoftbe criteria, ift
stooo alone, woulo be 'gross , ` d tbekios say. A vugar answ
e
to an oversimpliheo question. Or an oversimpliheo answer to a
vulgar question. But, precisely tbe elaboration of oiscussion
about 'oouble oescription, structureano process , anoooube
stocbastic systemstbat elaboraton saves tbe bk fromvulgar
ity. I bope so at least .
A\LmH. Ano tbe next book
AmH. Vill start from a map oftbe regionwhcrcangc/:ar tetrcad.
A\LmH. A vulgar map
AmH. erbaps . But I oo not know wbat will follow tbe map ano
enclose it in some wioer ano more oifh cult question.

l
P1i2.
i1
i' \
\ |\i

At thc mccttn_ Otthc LOmmtttcc On LducattOnaI OItcy, juIy

U, I V7b, rcmarkcd that currcnt cducattOnaI prOccsscs arca
'ri e' trOm thc pOtnt Ot vtcW Ot thc studcnt. hc prcscnt
nOtc ts tO cxpIatn thts vtcW.
t ts a mattcr Ote/se!escence. htIc much that untvcr-
stttcs tcach tOay ts ncW and up tO datc, thc prcsuppOstttOn Or prcmtscs Ot
thOu_ht upOn Whtch aI Our tcachtn_ ts bascd arc anctcnt and, asscrt, e/se!ete.
rctcr tO such nOttOns as.
a. hc Lartcstan duaItsm scparattn_ `mtnd and `mattcr.
b. hc stran_c phystcaItsm Ot thc mctaphOrs Whtch Wc usc tO dcscrtbc
and cxpIatn mcntaI phcnOmcna`pOWcr, `tcnstOn, `cncr_y, `sOctaI tOrccs ,
ctc.
c. Lur antt-acsthcttc assumpttOn, bOrrOWcd trOm thc cmphasts Whtch
DacOn, LOkc, and ^cWtOn IOn_ a_O_avc tO thc phys:caI sc:cnccs, vtz. that aII
2 I7 M ALIX

'

'

'
phcnOmcna (tncIudIn_ thc mcntaI) can and shaII bc studtcd and e:a/uat
m
t
guantttattvc tcrms.
hc vIcW Otthc WOrIdthc Iatcnt and partIyuncenscieus cptstcmOIO_y
Whtch such Idcas tO_cthcr _cncratc Is Out Ot datc tn thrcc dthcrcnt Ways.
a. ra_mattcaIIy, t tt scIcar that thcscrcmtscs and thctr cOrIIattcs Ica
tO _rccd, mOnstrOus Ovcr-_rOWth, Wat, tyranny, and pOIIuttOn. n thts scnc,
eur prcmIsc arc datIy dcmOnstratcd taIsc, and thc studcnts arc haIt aWarc Ot
thts.
b. |nte//ectua//, thcprcmtscs arcObsOIctc Inthatsystcms thcOry, cybcr
nctIcs, hOItstIc mcdtctnc, ccOIO_y, and _cstaIt psychOIO_y Ottcr dcmOnstrabI
bcttcr Ways OtundcrstandIn_ thc WOrId Ot bIOIO_y and bchavIOur.
c. As a bac tOr re/igien, such prcmtscs a havc mcnttOncd bccamc
c/mr/ inte/era//e am thoqere e/se/ete aut ycars a_O. n thc attcrmath Ot
LarWtntan cvOIuttOn, thts Was statcd rathcr cIcarIy by such thtnkcrs a 5amucl
DutIcr and rtncc apOtktn. Dut aIrcady tn thc cI_htccnth ccntury, tIIta
DIakc saW that thc phtIOsOphy OtLOckc and ^cWtOn cOuId OnIy _cncratc `dark
5atantc mtII s.
^cccssartIy cvcry aspcct Ot Our ctvtI tzattOn t s spIIt WIdc Opcn. n thc
hcId Ot ccOnOmtcs, Wc tacc tWO OvcrdraWn cartcaturcs Ot I ttcthc capttaItst Or
thc cOmmuntstand Wc arc tOId that Wc must takc sIdcs In thc stru__Ic b-
tWccn thcsc tWO mOnstrOus IdcOIO_tcs . n thc bustncss Ot thInktn_, Wc arc tOrD
bctWccn vartOus cxtrcmcs Ot ahcctIcssncss and thc strOn_ currcnt Ot antt-
IntcIIcctuaI tanattctsm.
As tn rcII_IOn, thc cOnstttuttOnaI _uarantccs Ot`rcIt_tOus trccdOm sccm
tO prOmOtc stmtIar cxa__cratIOns. a stran_c tOtaIIy sccuIar rOtcstantIsm,
Wtdc spcctrum Ot ma_tcaI cuIts and tOtaI rcIt_tOus t_nOrancc t ts nO acctdcn
that stmuItancOusIy thc KOman LathOItc Lhurch ts _IvIn_ up thc usc Ot ttn,
WhIIc thc rtstn_ _cncrattOn ts Irntn_ tO chant tn 5anskrIt!
5O, tn thts WOrId Ot IV78, Wc try tO run a unIvcrsIty and tO matntatD
standards Ot `cxccIIcncc tn thc tacc Ot _rOWtn_ distrust, :u/garit, insanit,
ex/eitatien e/ reseurces, :ictimisatien e/ rsens, and quick cemmocia/ism. [c
scrcamtn_ vOtccs Ot_rccd, trustrattOn, tcar, and hatc.
t ts undcrstandabIc that thc DOard Ot Kc_cnts cOnccntratcs attcnttOn
upOn mattcrs Whtch can bc handIcd at a suprhctaI IcvcI , avOtdtn_ thc sWams
Ot aII sOrts Ot cxtrcmtsm. Dut sttII thtnk that thc tacts Ot dccp ObsOIcsccncc
WtII, In thc cnd, cOmpcI attcnttOn.
As a tcchnIcaI schOOI, Wc dO prctty WcI I . c can at Ist tch yOun_
pcOpIc tO bc cn_tnccrs, dOtOrs, IaWycrs. c can cOntcr thc skIIIs Whtch Icad
tO
succcss In tradcs WhOsc WOrktn_ phIIOsOphy ts a_atn thc samc OId duaItsttc pr
2l8 M ALI7
mattsm. And that ts much. t ts Qrhaps nOt thc matn duty and tuncttOn Ot a
_rcat untvcrstty. . . .
Dut dO nOt _ct thc td that thc tacuIty and thc admtntstrattOn and thc
rc
_cnts arc thc OnIy ObsOIctcs, WhtIc thc studcnts arc Wtsc and nObIc and up-tO-
datc. Th are )ust as e/se!ete as we. c arc aII tn thc samc bOat, WhOsc namc ts
`M V7b, thc ttmc Whtch ts Out Ot Otnt. n IV7V Wc shaII knOW a ItttIc
mOrc by dtnt Ot rt_Or and tma_tnattOn, thc tWO_rcat cOntrartcs Ot mcntaI prO-
ccss, ctthcr OtWhtch by ttscItts IcthaI . Kt_Or aIOnc ts paraIyttc dth, but tma_-
tnattOn aIOnc ts tnsantty.

..
WccdIcdum and WccdIcdoagrem tO havc a battIc, and tsn t tt a bIcss-
tn_ that thc cOntrasttn_ _cncrattOns can a_rcc that sOctaI `pOWcr has phystcaI
dtmcnstOns and can cn_a_c tn battIcs tOr thts stran_c abstracttOn. (n Othcr
ttmcs and Othcr pIaccs , battIcs Wcrc tOu_ht tOr `hOnOr, `bcauty, and cvcn
`truth. . . . )
Loktn_ at thc WhOIc mcss trOm anOthcr an_Ic, bcItcvc that thc stu-
dcnts Wcrc rt_ht tn thc stxttcs. hcrc Was sOmcthtn_ vcry WrOn_ tn thctr cduca
ttOn and tndccd tn aImOst thc WhOIc cuIturc. Dut bcItcvc that thcy Wcrc WrOn_
tn thctr dta_nOsts Ot Whcrc thc trOubIc Iay. hcy tOu_ht tOr `rcprcscntattOn
and `pOWcr. Ln thc WhOIc, thcy WOn thctr battIcs and nOW Wc havc studcnt
rcprcscntattOn On thc DOard OtKc_cnts and cIscWhcrc. Dut tt bccOmcs tncrcas-
n_Iy cIr that thc Wt nntn_ Ot thcsc batIcs tOr `pOWcr has madc nO dthcrcncc
tn thc cducattOnaI prOccss. hc ObsOIcsccncc tO Whtch rctcrrcd ts unchan_cd
and, nO dOubt, tn a tcW ycars Wc shaII scc thc samc battIcs, tOu_ht Ovcr thc
samc phOncy tssucs, aII Ovcr a_atn.
hcrc rcaIIy ts sOmcthtn_ dccpIy WrOn_ . . . and am nOt cOnvtnccd
that What ts WrOn_ ts a ncccssary trtbuIattOn abOut Whtch nOthtn_ can bc dOnc.
A OttrcdOm

trOm rcc

zt
.

sartIy

O. r
that ts rccO_ntcd cOmcs a knOW

cd_c Ot hOW tO act . XOu can rtdc a btcycIc

OnIy attcr yOur partIy uncOnsctOus rchccs acknOWI
q_c thc IaWs Ot tts mOvtn_
cgutItbrtum.
must nOW ask yOutOdOsOmc thtnktn_ mOrc tcchntcaI and mOrc thcO-
rcttcaI than ts usuaIy dcmandcd Ot _cncraI bOards tn thctr pcrccpttOn Ot thctr
Wn pIacc tn htstOry. scc nO rcasOn Why thc rc_cnts Ot a _rcat untvcrstty
shOuId sharc tn thc antttntcIIcctuaI prctcrcnccs Otthcprcss Or mcdta. ndccd tO
tOrcc thcsc prctcrcnccs upOn thcm WOuId bc tnsuIttn_.
thcrctOrc prOpOsc tO anaIyzc thc IOpstdcd prOccss caIIcd ObsOIcsccncc
Whtch Wc mt_ht mOrc prcctscIy caI Onc-stdcd prO_rcss. LIcarIy tOr ObsOIcs-
ccncc O Ocur thcrc must bc, tn Othcr parts Ot thc systcm, Othcr chan_cs cOm-
parcd Wtth Whtch thc ObsOIctc ts sOmchOW Ia__tn_ Or Ictt bchnd. n a stattc
systcm, thcrc WOuId bc nO ObsOIcsccncc!
Z IV M ALIX

t sccms that thcrc arc tWO cOmpOncnts tn cvOIuttOnary prOccss, and that
mcntaI prOccss stmtIarIy has a dOubIc structurc. Lct mc usc btOIO_tcaI cvOIuttOn
as a parabIc Or paradt_m tO tntrOducc What Want tO say Iatcr abOut thOu_ht
cuIturaI chan_c and cducattOn.
5urvtvaI dcpcnds upOn tWO cOntrasttn_ phcnOmcna Or prOccss
cs,
tWO
Ways OI achtcvtn_ adapttvc acttOn. LvOIuttOn must aIWays , janus-Itkc, tacc
tn
tWO dtrccttOns. tnWard tOWards thc dcvcIOpmcntaI rc_uIartttcs and phystOIO_y
thc Itvtn_ crcaturc and OutWard tOWards thc va_artcs and dcmands Ot thc
cnvt
rOnmcnt . hcsc tWO ncccssary cOmpOncnts OI Ittc cOntrast tn tntcrcsttn_
Ways
thc tnncr dcvcIOpmcntthc cmbryOIO_y Or cpt_cncststs censeat:te and
dcmands that cvcry ncW thtn_ shaII cOntOrm Or bc cOmpattbIcWtth thc rc_uIatt-
ttcs OI thc status que ante. t Wc thtnk OI a naturaI scIccttOn OI ncW tturC Ot
anatOmy Or phystOIO_ythcn tt ts cIcar that Onc stdc Ot thts scIccttOn prOcs
WtII IavOr thOsc ncW ttcms Whtch dO nOt upsct thc OId appIc cart. hts ts
mtntmaI ncccssary cOnscrvattsm.
n cOntrast, thc Outstdc WOrId ts pcrpctuaIIy chan_tn_ and bccOmtn_
rcady tO rccctvc crcaturcs Whtch havc undcr_Onc chan_c, aImOt tnststtn_ un
chan_c. ^O antmaI Or pIant can cvcr bc rcady madc. hc tntcrnaI rcctpc tn
ststs upOn cOmpattbtItty but ts ncvcr suthctcnt IOr thc dcvcIOpmcnt and Ittc Ot
thc Or_antsm. AIWays thc crcaturc ttscIImust achtcvc chan_c OI tts OWn bOy.
t must acgutrc ccrtatn sOmattc charactcrtsttcs by usc, by dtsusc, by habtt, by
hardshtp, and by nurturc. hcsc 'acqu:rm characto:st:cs must, hOWcvcr, ncvct
bc passcd On tO thc Ottsprtn_. hcy must nOt bc dtrcctIy tncOrpOratcd tntO thc
L^A. n Or_antsattOnaI tcrms, thc tnuncttO. _. , tO makc babtcs Wtth
strOn_ shOuIdcrs WhO WtII WOrk bcttcr tn cOaI mtncsmust bc transmtttcd
threuh channe!s, and thc channcI tn thts casc ts ::a naturaI cxtcrnaI scIccttOn Ot
thOsc OIIsprtn_ WhO happcn (thanks tO thcrandem shutn_ OI_cncs and randOm
crcattOn OI mutattOns) tO havc a _rcatcr prOpcnstty IOr dcvcIOptn_ strOn_cr
shOuIdcrs undcr thc strcss Ot WOrktn_ tn cOaI mtncs.
hc tndtvtduaI bOdyundcr_Ocs adapttvc chan_c undcr cxtcrnaI prcssurc,
but naturaI scIccttOn acts upOn thc _cnc pOOI Ot thc eu!at:en. Dut nOtc thts
prtnctpIc Whtch btOIO_tsts cOmmOnIy OvcrIOOk, that tt ts an acgutrcd charactcr
tsttc caIIcd werk:n :q cea! m:nes Whtch scts thc cOntcxt IOr thc scIccttOn Ot thc
_cncttc chan_cs caIIcd ` tncrcascd prOpcnstty IOr dcvcIOptn_ strOn_cr shOuIdcrs.
hc acgutrcd charactcrtsttcsdOnOt bccOmc untmpOrtant by nOt bctn_ carrtcd tn
and passcd On by L^A. t ts sttII ha/:ts Whtch sct thc cOndtttOns IOr naturaI
scIccttOn.
And nOtc thts cOnvcrsc prtnctpIc that thc acgutstttOn Otbad habtts,
at a
Uysurvva! , mn thcmantcnancc Ota stcady statc thrOugh succcssvcgcncratOns. Lr, tn
ncg
tvc tcrms, mcan thcavOdanccOtthcdtbgtbtlat+t:tmabutitb tao. LxttnctOn
Ol
thc dtnOsaurs was trtva! n ga!actc tcrms but ths ts nO cOmlOrt tO thcm. Mc cannOt cac mch
abOut thc tncvttab!c survva! Ot systcms argcr than Our Own ccO!Ogy.
220 M AL!X
sOctaI IcvcI , surcIy scts thc cOntcxt IOr scIccttOn OI uIttmatcIy IcthaI _cncttc
prOpcnstttcs.
c arc nOW rcady tO IOOk at ObsOIcsccncc tn mcntaI and cuIturaI prO
ccsscs.
I yOu Want tO undcrstand mcntaI prOccss , IOk at btOIO_tcaI cvOIuttOn
and cOnvcrscIy tIyOu Want tO undcrstand btOIO_tcaI cvOIuttOn, _O IOk at mcn-
taI prOccss.
caIIcd attcnttOn abOvc tO thc ctrcumstancc that t ntcrnaI scIccttOn tn bt
OIO_y must aIWays strcss cemati/i!it, Wtth thc tmmcdtatc past and that Ovcr
IOn_ cvOIuttOnary ttmc tt ts tntcrnaI scIccttOn Whtch dctcrmtncs thOsc `hOmOI-
O_tcs Whtch uscd tO dcIt_ht a prcvtOus _cncrattOn OI btOIO_tsts . t ts tntcrnaI
scIccttOn Whtch ts cOnscrvattvc and thts cOnscrvattsm shOWs ttscII mOst strOn_Iy
tn cmbryOIO_y and tn thc prcscrvattOn OI abstract IOrm.
hc IamtItar mcntaI prOccss by Whtch a tautOIO_y _rOWs and dtIIcrcn-
ttatcs tntO muIttpIc thcOrcms rcscmbIcs thc prOccss OIcmbryOIO_y.
n a WOrd, cOnscrattsm ts rOOtcd tn ceherence and cemati/i!it, and thcsc
_O aIOn_ Wtth What, abOvc, caIcd rier tn thc mcnta prOccss. t ts hcrc that
Wc must IOOk IOr thc rOOts OIObsOIcsccnccs.
And thc paradOx Or dtIcmma Whtch pcrpIcxcs and dtsmays us Whcn Wc
cOntcmpIatc cOrrccttn_ Or h_httn_ a_atnst ObsOIcsccncc ts stmpIy thc Icar tht
Wc must IOsc cOhcrcncc and cIartty and cOmptttIty and
,,,
n sanit,, t

Wc Ict
_O OIthc ObsOIctc.
hcrc ts hOWcvcr anOthcr stdc tO ObsOIcsccncc. LIcarIy tIsOmc part OI a
cuIturaI systcm `Ia_s bchtnd, thcrc must bc sOmc Othcr part Whtch ha cvOIvcd
`tOO Iast. LbsOIcsccncc ts tn thc cOntrast bctWccn thc tWO cOmpOncnts. I thc
Ia__tn_ OIOncpart ts duc tO thc tntcrnaI haIIOInatura scIccttOn, thcn tt ts nat-
uraI tO _ucss that thc rOOts OI tOO raptd `prO_rcsstI yOu pIcascWtII bc
IOund tn thc prOcsscs OI cxtcrnaI scIccttOn.
And, surc cnOu_h, that ts prcctscIy What ts thc casc. `tmc ts Out OI
Otnt bccausc thcsc tWO cOmpOncnts OIthc stortn_ OIcvOIuttOnary prOccss arc
mutuaIy Out OIstcp. ma_tnattOn has _Onc tOO Iar ahcad OI rt_Or and thc rcsuI
IOOks, tO cOnscrvattvc cIdcrIy QrsOns Itkc mc, rcmarkabIy Itkc tnsantty Or
pcrhaps Itkc nt_htmarc, thc ststcr OI tnsantty. Lrcam ts a prOccss, uncOrrcctcd
by ctthcr tntcrnaI rt_Or Or cxtcrnaI `ratty.
nccrtatn hcIds, What havc satd abOvc ts aIrcady IamtItar. ^OtOrtOusIy
thc IaW Ia_s bchtnd tcchnOIO_y, and nOtOrtOusIy thc ObsOIcsccncc Whtch _Ocs
autOlO_y' s thc thnca! tcrm tOr such a__rc_atcs or nctwOrks OtQrOQOstOns as Luc!dcan _c
Omctry cmannan _cOmctry, or arthmctc. c a__rc_atc sQrn_s trOm a sct c!ustcr Ot arbtrary
axOms Or dchntOns and no 'ntw'in/otion btadmtO that custcr attcr thc asscrtOn Otax
Oms. hc 'QrOt Ota thcOrcm s thc dcmOnstratOn that ndd thc thcOrcm was cntrcy atcnt n
thc axOms ad dcntOns .
22| M AL7

l l

Wtth scncsccncc ts an ObsOIcsccncc OtWays Ot thOu_ht Whtch makcs tt dtthcuIt

tOr thc OId tO kccp up Wtth thc mOrcs Otthc yOun_. And sO On.
Dut havc satd a IttIc mOrc than thcsc parttcuIar cxampIcs cOuId cOn-
vcy. t sccms that thcscarc cxampIcs Ota vcry pOtOund and _cncraI prtnctpIc,
WhOscWtdc _cncraItty ts dcmOnstratcd by tts bct n_ appItcabIc tO cvOIuttOnary as
WcII as tO mcntaI prOccss.
c arc dcaItn_ Wtth a spcctcs Otabstract rcIattOn Whtch rccurs a a ncc-
cssary cOmpOncnt tn many prOcsscs Ot chan_c and Whtch has many namcs.
5Omc Ot tts namcs arc tamtItar. pattcrn
]
guanttty, tOrm
]
tupOn, Icttcr
]
sptrtt ,
rt_r

a_tnattOn, hOmOIO_y
]
anaIO_n

ccdback, and sO On.

ndtvtduaI pcrsOns

y tavOr Onc Or thc Othcr cOmpOncnt Ot thts duaI-

tsm and Wc WtII thcn caII thcm `cOnscrvattvcs, `radtcaI s, `It bcraIs, and sO
On. Dut bchtnd thcsc cptthcts Itcs c

tstcmOIO_tcaI truth Whtch WtII tnstst that

thc pOIcs

Ot c

rast d

n_ thc QrsOns

c tndccd qtaIccttcaI nccsstttcs Ot th

Itvtn_ WOrId. XOu cannOt havc `da WtthOut `nt_ht , nOr `tOrm WtthOut
`tuncttOn.
hc practtcaI prObIcm ts OtcOmbtnattOn OW, rccO_ntztn_ thc dtaIccttc
rcIattOn bctWccn thcscpOIcs Ot cOntrast, shaII Wc prOcccd' O pIay Onc haItOt
thc advcrsartaI _amc WOuId bc casy, but statesmnsh: rcgutrcs sOmcthtn_ mOrc
and, truIy, mOrc dtthcuIt.
su__cst that ttthc DOard OtKc_cnts has anynOn-trtvtaI duty tt ts that
Ot statcsmanshtp tn prcctscIy thts scnscthc duty Ot rtstn_ abOvc parttsanshtp
Wtth any cOmpOncnt Or parttcuIar tad tn untvcrstty pOItttcs.
Lct us IOOk at hOW thc cOntrasts bctWccn tOrm and mncttOn, ctc. arc
mct, rcmcmbcrtn_ that thc prObIcm ts aIWays a mattcr Ot ttmtn_. OW shaII
chan_c tn tOrm bc sa/!, spccdcd up tO avOtd ObsOIcsccncc And hOW shaII
dcscrtpttOns Ot chan_c tn ncttOntn_ bc summartzcd and cOdcd, nOt tOO tat,
tntO thc cOrpus OttOrm'
hc ruIc tn btOIO_tcaI cvOIuttOn ts pIatn hc tmmcdtatc tndtvtduaI
bOdtIy cttccts Ot mncttOntn_ shaII ncvcr b aI IOWcd tO tmptn_c upOn thc tndt-
vtduaI _cncttc cOdtn_. hc _cnc pOOI Ot thc eu!at:en ts hOWcvcr subcct tO
chan_c undcr a naturaI scIccttOn Whtch WtII rccO_ntzc dtttcrcnccs, cspcctaIIy dtt-
tcrcnccs tn abtItty tO achtcvc mOrc adapttvc mncttOntn_. hc barrtcr Whtch prO-
htbtts `Laarcktan tnhcrttancc prcctscIy prOtccts thc _cnc systcm trOm OO
raptd chan_c undcr pOsstbIy caprtctOus cnvtrOnmcntaI dcmands.
Dut tn cuI turcs and sOctaI systcms and _rcat untvcrstttcs thcrc s nO
cgutvaIcnt barrtcr. nnOvattOns bccOmc trrcvcrstbIy adOptcd tntO thc On-_Otn_
systcm WtthOut bcn_ tcstcd tOr IOn_ttmc vtabtItty, and ncccssary chan_cs rc
rcsstcd by thc cOrc OtcOnscrvattvc tndtvtduaIs WtthOut any assurancc that thcsc
parttcuIar chan_cs arc thc Oncs tO rcstst.
Ind:::dua! cOmtOrt anddtscOmtOrt bccOmc thcOnIy crttcrta tOr chOtcc Ot
se::a! chan_c and thc bastc cOntrast Ot IO_tcaI ptn_ bctWccn thc mcmbcr and
7 ^^11
thc catc_Ory ts
tOr_Ottcn unttI ncw dtscO
mtOrts
arc (tncvttabIy) crcatcd by thc
ncw statc Otattatrs.
car Ott ndtvtduaI dcath and _rtctprOpOsc that tt wOuId bc
`_OO tO cItmtnatc tdcmtc dtscasc and OnIy
attcr I ycars Ot prcvcnttvc
mcdtctnc dO wc dtscOvcr that thc puIattOn ts Ovcr_rOwn. And sO On.
LbsOIcsccncc ts nOt tO bc avOtdcd by stmpIy spccdtn_ up chan_c tn
structurc, nOrcan tt bc avOtdcd by stmpIysIOwtn_ dOwntuncttOnaI chan_cs. t
ts cIcar that nctthcr an Ovcr-aII cOnscrvattsm nOr anOvcr-aII _crncss tOr chan_c
ts apprOprtatc. advcrsartaI cOmbtnattOn Ot thc twO habtts Ot mtnd wOuId
prhaps bc bcttcr than ctthcr habtt aIOnc but, advcrsartaI systcms arc nO-
tOrtOusIy sub]cct tO trrcIcvant dctcrmtntsm. hc rcIattvc `strcn_th Ot thc ad-
vcrsartcs ts ItkcIy tO ruIc thc dcctstOn rc_ardIcss Ot thc rcIattvc strcn_th Ot thctr
ar_umcnts.
t ts nOt sO much `pOwcr that cOrrupts a thcmth OtpOwcr. t was
nOtcd ab

vc that `pOwcr' Itk

`cncr_y, `tcnstOn, and thc rcst Ot thc guast-

phystcaI mctaphOrs arc tO dtstrustcd and, amOn_ thcm, `pOwcr ts Onc Otthc
mOt dan_crOus. mc whO cOvcts a mythtcaI abstracttOn must aIways bc tnsa-
ttabIc! As tcachcrs wc shOuId nOt prOmOtc that myth.
t tsdtth cuIt tOr an advcrsary tO scc mrthcr than thcdtchOtOmy bctwccn
wtnntn_ and IOstn_ tn thc advcrsartaI cOmbat . Ltkc a chcss pIaycr, hc ts aIways
tcmptcd tO makc a trtcky mOvc, tO _ct a gutck vtctOry. hc dtsctpItnc, aIways
tO Iok tOr thc bcst mOvc On thc bOard, ts hard tO attatn and hard tO matntatn.
hc pIaycr must havc hts cyc aIways On a IOn_cr vtcw, a Iar_cr _cstaIt.
cmc back tOthc pIacc trOm whtch wcstartcdscctn_ that Iacc
tn a wtdcr prspcttvc. hc pIacc ts a untvcrstty and wc tts DOard Ot Kc_cnts.
hc wt

cr pcrs

cvc tsa/eut pcrspcttvcs , and thc gucsttOn pOscd ts LO wc,

a a bOard, tOstcr wbatcvcr

I

OmOtc tnstudcnts, tn tacuIty, and arOund thc

bOardrom tabIc thOsc wtdcr pcrscttvcs whtch wtII brtn_ Ou sstcm back tntO
an apprOprtatc synchrOny Or harmOny bctwccn rt_Or and tma_tnattOn:
Astmchos, arc wc wtsc:
- L. D.

22p M ALIX
M
Adtatien. A tcaturc Ot an Or_antsm Whcrcby tt sccmtn_Iy hts bcttcr tntO tts
cnvtrOnmcnt and Way OtI ttc. hc prOcss Ot achtcvtn_ that ht.
Ana!ei:. 5cc Diita!.
Brewnian metemnt. hc cOnstant mOvcmcnt OtmOIccuIcs, zt_za_ and unprcdtc-
tabIc, causcd by thctr mutuaI tmpacts.
Ce-L:e!utien. A stOchasttc systcm OtcvOIuttOnary chan_c t n Whtch tWO OrmOrc
spcctcs t ntcract tn such a Way that chan_cs tn spcctcs A sct thc sta_c tOr
thc naturaI scIccttOn Otchan_cs tn sQctcs D. Latcr chan_cs tn spcctcs D,
t nturn, sct thc sta_c tOr thc scIccttn_ OtmOrc stmtIar chan_cs t nspcctcs
A.
C,/~eti:s. A branch Ot mathcmattcs dcaItn_ Wtth prObIcms Ot cOntrOI rccur-
stvcncss, and tOrmattOn.
Diita!. A st_naI ts diita! tt thcrc ts dtscOnttnutty bctWccn tt and aItcrnattvc
st_naIs trOm Whtch tt must bc dtsttn_utshcd. Ye: and ne arc cxampIcs Ot
dt_ttaI st_naIs. n cOntrast, Whcn a ma_nttudc Or guanttty tn thc st_naI
22 M LLLbAKY
ts uscd tO rcprcscnt a cOnttnuOusy vartabc guanttty tn thc rctcrcnt ,
thc
st_na ts satd tO bcana!ei:.
Lideti:. A mcnta tma_c ts eidetic tt tt has a thc charactcrtsttcs Ot a pcrccpt
cspcctaIIy tt tt ts rctcrrcd tO a scnsc Or_an and sO sccms tO cOmc tn trOm
thc Outstdc.
Lno,. nthts bOOk, usc thc WOrdeno tO mcan aquantit, havtn_ thc dtmcn-
stOns mass ttmcs vcOtty sguarcd (A). Lthcr pcOpc, tncIudtn
_
phystctsts, usc tt tn many Othcr scnscs.
Lntre,. hc dc_rcc tO Whtch rcattOns bctWccn thc cOmpOncnts Ot any a_-
_rc_atc arc mtxcd up, unsOrtcd, undtttcrcnttatcd, unprcdtctabIc, and
randOm (g. v. ). hc OppOsttc ts neentre,. thc dc_rcc OtOrdcrtn_ Or sOrt-
tn_ Or prcdtctabtItty tn an a__rc_atc. n phystcs, ccrtatn sOrts Ot Ordcr-
tn_ arc rcatcd tO guanttty Ot avatabc cncr_y.
Lienesis. hc prOcsscs Ot cmbryOO_y sccn as rcatcd, at cach sta_c, tO thc
status guO antc.
Listme!egy. A branch Ot sctcncc cOmbtncd Wtth a branch Ot phtOsOphy. As
sccncc, cpstcmOO_y is thc study Ot hOW parttcuIar Or_aisms Or a_-
_rc_atcs Ot Or_antsms knew, think, and de:ide. As phtIOsOphy, cpts-
tcmOO_y ts thc study Ot thc ncccssary tmtts and Othcr charactcrtsttcs Ot
thc prOccsscs OtknOWtn_, thtnktn_, and dcctdtn_.
F!exi/i!it,. 5ccStress.
Geneti:. 5trtctIy thc sctcncc Ot _cncttcs dcaIs Wtth a aspccts Ot thc hcrcdtty
and vartattOn Ot Or_antsms and Wtth thc prOcsscs Ot _rOWth and dtt-
tcrcnttattOn Wtthtn thc Or_antsm.
Genet,e. hc a__rc_atc Otrcctpcs and tnuncttOns that arc thc hcrcdttary cOn-
trtbuttOns tO thc dctcrmtnatOn Otthc phcnOtyp (g. v. ) .
Heme!e,. A tOrma rcscmbancc bctWccn tWO Or_antsms such that thc rcIattOns
bctWccn ccrtatn parts Ot A arc stmtar tO thc rcattOns bctWccn cOrrc-
spOndtn_ parts Ot D. 5uch tOrma rcscmbIancc ts cOnstdcrcd tO bc cvt-
dcncc Ot cvOuttOnary rcIatcdncss.
ldm. n thc cptstcmOO_y Ottcrcd tn thts bOOk, thc sma cst untt Otmcnta prO-
ccss ts a dtttcrcncc Or dtsttncttOn Or ncWs Ota dtttcrcncc. at ts caIcd
anid tn pOpuIar spccch sccms tO b a cOmpcx a__rc_atc Otsuch unts.
DutpOpu spccch WtIhcsttatc tO caI , say, thc btatcra symmctry Ota
trO_ Or thc mcssa_c Ota stn_c ncura tmpuIsc an idm.
|n/tien. Any dtttcrcncc that makcs a dthcrcncc.
Linmr and !inm!. Linmr ts a tcchntcaI tcrm tn mathcmattcs dcscrtbtn_ a rcIa-
ttOnshtp bctWccn vartabIcs such that Whcn thcy arc pOttcd a_atnst cach
Othcr On OrthO_OnaI Lartcstan cordt natcs, thc rcsuIt WtI bc a stra_ht
Itnc. Linm! dccrtbcs a rcIattOn amOn_ a scrtcs Ot causcs Or ar_umcnts
such that thc scgucncc dOcs nOt cOmc back tO thc starttn_ pOtnt. hc
OppOsttc Ot!inear tsnen!inmr. hc Opsttc Ot!inm! ts re:ursi:e.
Leica! t,es. A scrtcs Ot cxampIcs ts tn Ordcr.
22o M LLL55AKY
I . hc namc ts nOt thc thtng namcd but ts OI dtcrcnt IOgtcaI
typc, htghcr than that OI thc thtng namcd.
Z. hc cass ts OI dtIIcrcnt Ogtca typc, htghcr than that OI tts
mcmbcrs
^ . hc tn uncttOns tssucd by, Or cOntrOI cmanattng IrOm, thc
btas OI thc hOusc thcrmOstat ts OI htghcr IOgtcaI typc than thc cOntrOI
tssucd by thc thcrmOmctcr. (hc /ia: ts thc dcvtcc On thc WaII that can
bc sct tO dctcrmtnc thc tcmpcraturc arOund Whtch thc tcmpcraturc OI
thc hOusc WtII vary. )
. hc WOrd tum/!ewem ts OI thc samc IOgtcaI typc as /u:h Or
tree. t ts nOt thc namc OIa spcctcs Or gcnus OI pIants rathcr tt ts thc
namc OI a cIass OI pIants WhOsc mcmbcrs sharc a parttcuIar styIc OI
grOWth and dtsscmtnattOn.
. A::e!oatien ts OI htghcr IOgtcaI typc thanve!e:it,.
Mutatien. n cOnvcnttOnaI cvOIuttOnary thcOry, OIIsprtng may dtIIcr IrOm thctr
parcnts IOr thc IOIIOWtng sOrts OI rc sOns.
. Lhangcs tn L^A caIIcd mutatien:.
Z. KcshuIhtng OIgcncs tn scxuaI rcprOucttOn.
^. 5Omattc changcs acgutrcd durtng thc tndtvtduaI`s ItIc tn rc-
spOnsc tO cnvtrOnmcntaI prcssurc, habtt, agc, and sO IOrth.
. 5Omattc scgrcgattOn, that ts, thc drOpptng Or rcshuItng OI
gcncs t n cptgcncsts rcsuIttng t npatchcs OIttssuc that havc dtIIcrcnttatcd
gcncttc makcup. Lcncttc changcs arc aIWays dtgttaI (g. v. ) , but mOdcrn
thcOry prcIcrs (Wtth gOOd rcasOn) tO bcI tcvc that :ma!! changcs arc, tn
gcncraI , thc stuII OI Whtch cvOIuttOn ts madc. t ts assumcd that many
smaI mutatiOna hangcs cOmbtnc Ovcr many gcncrattOns tO makc
Iargcr cvOIuttOnary cOntrasts.
Neentre,. 5ccLntre,.
0nteen,. hc prOccss OI dcvcIOpmcnt OI thc t ndtvtduaI , cmbryOIOgy!u: What-
cvcr changcs cnvtrOnmcnt and habtt may tmpOsc.
Para!!ax. hc awran:e OI mOvcmcnt tn Obscrvcd Ob]ccts, Whtch ts crcatcd
Whcn thc Obscrvcr`s cyc mOvcs rcIattvc tO thcm, thc dthcrcncc bctWccn
thc apparcnt pOstttOns OI Obccts sccn Wtth Onc cyc and thctr apparcnt
pOstttOns as sccn Wtth thc Othcr cyc.
Phenece,. A phcnOtypc g.v. ) that sharcs ccrtatn charactcrtsttcs WtthOthcr phcn-
Otypcs tn Whtch thcsc charactcrtsttcs arc brOught abOut by gcncttc Iac-
tOrs. n thchene:e,, thcsccharactcrtsttcs arcbrOughtabOut by sOmattc
changc undcr cnvtrOnmcntaI prcssurc.
Phenet,e. hc aggrcgatc OIprOstttOns maktng up thc dcscrtpttOn OIa rcaI Or-
gansm, thc apQarancc and haractcrtsttcs OIa rca Organtsm. 5cc Gene-
t,e.
Ph,!een,. hc cvOIuttOnary htstOry OIa sQctcs.
Prechren::m. hcgcncraI truththat Organtsms carry, t n thctr IOrms, cvtdcnccs OI
22V M
LLLbAKY
thctr past _rOwth. rOchrOntsm ts tO OntO_cny as hOmOIO_y (g. v. ) ts tO
phyIO_cny.
Randem. A scgucncc OIcvcnts ts satd tO bc randv tIthcrc ts nO way OIprcdtct-
tn_ thc ncxt cvcnt OI a _tvcn ktnd IrOm thc cvcnt Or cvcnts that havc
prcccdcd and tI thc systcm Obcys thc rc_uIartttcs OI prObabtItty. ^Otc
that thc cvcnts whtch wc say arc randem arc aIways mcmbcrs OI sOmc
Itmttcd sct . hc IaII OI an hOncst cOtn ts satd tO bc randem. At cach
thrOw, thc prObabtItty OI thc ncxt IaII bctn_ hcads Or tatIs rcmatns
unchan_cd. Dut thc randOmncss ts wtthtn thc Itmttcd sct. t ts hcads Or
tatIs nO aItcrnattvcs arc tO b cOnstdcrcd.
Rmu:tienism. t ts thc task OIcvcrysctcnttst tO hnd thc stmpIcst, mOst ccOnOmt-
caI , and (usuaIIy) mOst cIc_ant cxpIanattOn that wtII cOvcr thc knOwn
data. DcyOnd thts, rcducttOntsm bccOmcs a vtcc tItt ts accOmpantcd by
an OvcrIy strOn_ t nststcncc that thc stmpIcst cxpIanattOn ts thc OnIy cx
pIanattOn. hc data may havc tO bc undcrstOOd wtthtn sOmc Iar_cr_cs-
taIt.
Sa:rament. hcOutward and vtstbIc st_nOIan tnward and sptrttuaI _racc.
Semti:. (Lrccksem, bOdy) A charactcrtsttc ts satd tO bc OIsemati: Ort_tn whcn
thc spcakcr wtshcs tO cmphastzc that thc charactcrtsttc was achtcvcd by
bOdtIy chan_c brOu_ht abOut durtn_ thc ItIcttmc OI thc tndtvtduaI by
cnvtrOnmcntaI tmpact Or by practtcc.
Ste:hasti:. (Lrcck, ste:hazein, tO shOOt wtth a bOw at a tar_ct, that ts, tO scattcr
cvcnts tn a parttaIIy randOm manncr, sOmc OIwhtch achtcvc a prcIcrrcd
OutcOmc) I a scgucncc OI cvcnts cOmbtncs a randOm cOmpOncnt wtth a
scIccttvcprOcss sO that OnIy ccrtatn OutcOmcs OIthc randOm arc aIIOwcd
tO cndurc, that scgucncc ts satd tO bcste:hasti:.
Stres. Lack OIcntrOpy, a cOndtttOn artstn_ whcn thc cxtcrnaI cnvtrOnmcnt Or tn
tcrnaI stckncss makcs cxccsstvc Or cOntradtctOry dcmands On an Or_a
ntsms abtItty O adust. hc Or_antsm Iacks and nccds:::l havtn_
uscd up tts avatIabIc uncOmmtttcd aItcrnattvcs .
Taute!eg. Ana__rc_atc OII tnkcd prOpOstttOns tn whtch thc vaItdtty OI thc!inks
bctwccn thcm cannOt bc dOubtcd. hc truth OI thc prOpOstttOns ts nOt
cIatmcd. LxampIc. LucItdn _cOmctry.
Taxen. A untt Or a__rc_atc tn thc cIassthcattOn OI antmaIs Or pIants (c. _. , a
spcctcs , _cnus, Or IamtIy).
Tee!e. A branch OImathcmattcs that t_nOrcs guanttttcs and dcaIs OnIy wtth
thc IOrmaI rcIattOns bctwccn cOmpOncnts, cspcctaIIy cOmpOncnts that
can bc rcprcscntcd _cOmctrtcaIIy. OpOIO_y dcaIs wtth thOsc charactcr-
tsttcs (c. _. , OI a surIacc Or bOdy) that wtII rcmatn unchan_cd undcr
guantttattvc dtstOrttOn.
2p M LLLSAKY
i12
aUuctICn, I j,, IZ-I
^taXas , I 8
accImatICn, I ; ;-I ;6
acquItCU chatactCtIstIcs, I,, ZZU
UaQtatICn, I `Z-I `, I8
aUUIctICn, ;, I j,, I8, I `Z-I`, I `8
^CsCQ, I Z
aCsthCtIcs, 8-,, 8U, Z I I
^IcC anU hamIn_C, I`8n
aItCtnatICn C _CnCtatICns, `8
Al|c1 6b1|c|rtrtun1 (mIU WIC tCaU), I ;I
^mCs, ^. , jt. , jZj`
anaC_Ic chan_C, I 8 I
anaC_Ic cCUIn_, I I I
^ncICnt NatInCt, Z IU
2pp M IX
^QCCnIan cututC, I ,I
atmamCnts tacCs, l `
^shy, K. , I `
asymmCtty, UCuC, I
ymmCtty t n C__, I6
atttIutCs , 6UI
^u_ustInC, baI nt, Z, l `, ; Z, ZU6
^utI_nacIan att, I I
autCnCmy, IZ6
acCn, . , Z I `
aCt, . . VCn, I6`-I68
bulun6_l611uJ, I 8I
atCsCn, N. , I I-I Z
atCsCns tuC, I 6;
CCthCVCn, L. Van, Z IU
CnCUIct, K. , ,I
CtRCCy, IshCQ, ,` , ,,
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Ias, I ;8, I ,8
IC, I88
I_CCW, j. , I U6
IatCta symmCtty, I6Z
InCmIa thCCty, `j-`
ICC_Ica VauCs , ; j-;
b1|on bc|ulurtu, ;U
bt|horu, ;,
aRC, . , 4, ,` , I, ZUZ
y, CtCt, 8
tCWnIan mCVCmCnt, ,
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utCt, b. , ,, `8n, ,j , ,, 8Z,
ZU I-ZUZ, Z I8
uzzCt cItcuIt, ;8-;,, I Z;I Z6
caItatICn, j`, I ,6
LannCn, . , U6
LattC , . , 66
LattCsIan UuaIsm, Z I`
cats-CyC, I
chan_C, 6 I-6Z
ttCVCtsIC, Uj
ImIts CI, I`8
QCtcCQtICn CI, ,8
quantItatIVC, 8 I
chatactCt, ;
cImaX, CcCC_Ica , 8
cCUIn_, I U,- I , 8,
cCCVCutICn, 6
cCmQatatIVC anatCmy, 66
cCmQatatIVC mCthCU , 8`
cCmQCmCntaty IntCtactICn, I U;, I,Z-
,j
cCnch, I I-I Z
cCnscICusnCss, jZ, Z8, Z I I
cCnsCtVatIsm In CVCutICn, I `;
24 M ILX
cCnsCtVatIVC aWs, ;
cCntCXt , ` , ;
anatCmIca , I ;- 6
ICt chan_C, I 8I
anU mCanIn_, ;
as QattCtn thtCu_h tImC, I
aVCVIan, I8
cCnVCt_Cnt sCquCncCs, -;
cCttCsQCnUIn_ sta_Cs, 68
cta, `-I
ctCatuta, ` , ,, ZU6
ctImC, Ij,
ctCss-sQCcICs cCmmunIcatICn, 8, I j`
cyCtnCtIcs, IU, I,`
n hIstCty, IU;- IU6
cycCthymC, I,Z
atWI n, L , ,, j, 6, I6, I,, I`,
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UChnItICn, y ICC_y, 6
UCQth, QCtcCQtCn CI, jZ-j`
CscattCs , K. , ,U
UCsctIQtICn, 8 -86, I6,
UCuC, Z I Z
UCsI_n, I `Z
UCutCtC-CatnIn_, Ij
UIIICtCncC, Z,, 68-6,, ,-IUU, I IZ, I6Z
nCt CcatCU, ,8-,,
quantItatVC, U6
UI_Ita cCUIn_, I I
Ltn_ un 1trh, I , jU, 6,, I ,I
ICnysIan cututC, ,
UIscCntInuIty.
In ICtm, I`Z
Vs . LamatckIsm, 8Zn
UIsctImInatCn, I VZU
UIVCt_Cnt QhCnCmCna, I6Z, I`
UIVCt_Cnt sCquCncCs, Uj
^, I ;`
CZhansky, . , `,
UCQhIn, I Z I-I Zj, I j`- Ij8
CnnC, . , IjU

UCtmItIVC CXQanatICn, 8; , I jj
UCuC InU, I I ; , I Z; , I ,,
UtCam, ZZ I
tyUCn, j . , Z
CatthWCtm, ; I
CCQhant, I ;
CmtyCC_y, CQI_CnCsIs
CmCt_CncC, I U`
CmQtInCss, 8, I I
CnU InRa_C, I ,j
CnCt_y, cCatCta , I UUI UZ
Ln_Ish-^mCtIcan cCnttast , I ,j
CnI_htCnmCnt, ` ; , 86
CntCCchy, I8Z
CntCttaInmCnt, IZ
CnttCQy, 6, `, 6
CQI_CnCsIs , I6, `-8, I6Z, ZZU
LQImCnIUCs, I I6-I I `
CQIstCmCC_y,
CtCtna VCtItICs , ; Z, I ,I , ZU;
LucIU, 8 I
CXQanatICn, U, 8, 8 I-86, I8,
CXQCtatICn, I j,
ICnaccI sCtICs , I Z
dCXIIIty, I ; ; , I ; 6
Ct_CttIn_, I6;
Ctm, I ,U
anU 1nctICn, ZZZ
CttunC, b. . , I ,I
tasCt, bIt j. , ZU,
tC_s C__, I6Z-I6j
_amCs , thCCty C, ZU
_CnC QCC, `,
_CnCtIc assImIatICn, I ;,
_CnctIc cCnttC C mInU, I8
_CnCtIcs.
C CatnIn_, I I ;
C sCmatIc chan_C, I 6I
255 M l!LX
_CnCcCQy, I 6U
LnCstIcIsm, I 8
LCCthC, j. . VCn, I 6
_CUCn sCctICn, I Z
_tammat , anatCmIca , I 6-I`
LtCat LhaIn C CIn_, I,, I66
_tCCtIn_, I j`n
LtCsham s aW, 6
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aa_, b. , I ZZn
haIt, I 8
anU natuta sCCctICn, ZZU
aCcRC , L. . , I6`, I 8U
amQUCn-utnCt, C. , I Z
CnUtIx, L. , `;n
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hCtaUty, IU
hCXa_C-tCctan_C, j,, ; I-;Z
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hCmCC_y, I ;, I66-I `Z, I 8 I , ZZI
mCnta , I8
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atmu , I jZ, I ,Z
Ima_C CtmatICn, jZ-j8
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tCtschmCt, L. , I,Z
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amatcRIsm, I !8n , I,-I ; j, I`,
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