Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Architectural Acoustics
6.1 Introduction
The term Acoustics comes from Greek word akoustikos meaning "of or for
hearing, ready to hear" is the studies of sound, its production, propagation and its effects.
A scientist who works in the field of acoustics is an acoustician. The application of
acoustics in technology is called acoustical engineering.
6.2 Sound wave propagation
Sound can be defined as the mechanical vibrations due to any vibrating body that
persist through the medium like air, liquid or solids. For the propagation of these
mechanical vibrations, an elastic medium is required. Sound can not propagate in a
vacuum. When the body vibrates, sound waves persist in the medium by vibrating the
surrounding particles of the medium. Let us discuss the sound propagation in air. When
sound source starts to emit the sound waves, the surrounding air molecules will vibrate
with the same frequency as the source and the direction of vibration is the same as wave
propagation and hence called longitudinal waves. As a result, in certain regions of the air
medium, the air molecules displaced to nearby other regions. Consequently, such
condensation of molecules will increase air pressure certainly called compression. On the
other hand, in certain regions from where the molecules displaced, the air pressure will
reduce and is called rarefaction. In the medium, such compressions and rarefactions are
repeated and in this manner, sound waves propagate by means of propagation of pressure
variation as shown in the Fig. (6.1).
The velocity of sound waves is given by
B
v
(6.1)
where, B is the bulk modulus and
.This means that the sound intensity for such waves reduces
with the square of the distance r from the source. The intensity of
faintest sound that we can listen is about 10
-16
W/cm
2
. The intensity I is
related to material density, frequency and displacement as
2 2
1
2
I vf D (6.2)
Above equation is obtained from following observations: the denser the medium,
the more intense the wave because a dense medium contains more mass into any volume
than a rarefied medium and hence the kinetic energy will be greater as the mass is
greater. The more the frequency f of wave, the more intense the wave is. Further, the
faster the wave travels, the more quickly it transmits energy. Moreover, the greater the
amplitude D, the more intense the wave.
6.4 The sound intensity measurement
The loudness of a sound is justified by the ear and is proportional to the logarithm
of intensity. Let I
1
and I
0
be the intensities of two sounds of a particular frequency and L
1
and L
0
are the corresponding measure of loudness. Then,
0 0
log L I
and
1 1
log L I
Therefore, the difference in the loudness of two sounds is given by
( ) ( )
1
1 0 1 0
0
log log log
I
L L L I I
I
_
,
(6.3)
Here, L is known as intensity level and is measured in bel in honors of Alexander
Graham Bell who was the inventor of telephone. This unit bel is very large and
practically the tenth part of bel i.e. decibel (dB) is used. So, above eq. (6.3) can be written
in terms of decibel as
1
0
10 log
I
L dB
I
_
,
(6.4)
As the minimum sound intensity that a human ear can detect is 10
-16
W/cm
2
, we can take
this level as the reference level and is known as threshold of audibility. The
corresponding intensity level is L=0 dB as we put I
1
=I
0
in eq. (6.4).
If I
1
=10 I
0
then on substituting this in eq. (6.4) we get,
0
10
0
10
10 log 10
I
L dB dB
I
_
,
Similarly, if I
1
=10 I
0
then on substituting this in eq. (6.4) we get,
( ) ( )
2 0
10 10 10
0
100
10 log 10log 10 20log 10 20
I
L dB dB dB dB
I
_
,
Thus, if the intensity I
1
increase10
n
times of the reference intensity I
0,
then the loudness
level L increased by 10(n) dB for finite value of n.
If I
1
=1.26 I
0
, then on substituting this in eq. (6.4) we get,
0
10
0
1.26
10 log 1
I
L dB dB
I
_
,
This means that a change in intensity by 26% increases the intensity level by 1 dB.
6.5 Weber Fechner law
Statement: As the strength of the stimulus (i.e. the sound intensity from the
source) is increased geometrically in regular steps, the intensity of a sensation by a
person varies by a series of equal increments arithmetically.
Explanation: From the above statement we can say that the relationship between
stimulus and perception is logarithmic. This can be understood as follows. The
logarithmic relationship means that if a stimulus varies geometrically (i.e. multiplied by a
fixed factor) then the corresponding perception by the person is altered in an arithmetic
progression (i.e. in additive constant amounts).
6.6 Reflection of Sound waves
Sound waves are reflected by the surface when the dimensions of the surface are
larger than the wavelength of sound. Reflection of sound plays an important role in
enclosed spaces. It is our general experience that when we walk in the narrow passages,
the reflection of sound from walls and ceilings make it louder. In the closed spaces, the
reflection of sound may lead to two important defects, namely, (1) echo and (2)
reverberation.
Source Intensity
(W/m
2
)
Level of
Intensity
(in dB)
No. of Times
greater than
the threshold
of audibility
(dB)
Audibility threshold 110
-12
0 10
0
Rustling Leaves 110
-11
10 10
1
Whisper 110
-10
20 10
2
Normal Conversation 110
-6
60 10
6
Busy Street Traffic 110
-5
70 10
7
Vacuum Cleaner 110
-4
80 10
8
Large Orchestra 110
-3
98 10
9.8
Walkman at Maximum Level 110
-2
100 10
10
Front Rows of Rock Concert 110
-1
110 10
11
Threshold of Pain 110
1
130 10
13
Military Jet Takeoff 110
2
140 10
14
Instant Perforation of Eardrum 110
4
160 10
16
Table 1. Relative intensity level of sounds from different sources
(1) Echo
If the time between the original sound and its reflection is long enough that both
sounds can be heard separately then this type of reflection is called echo of sound. Thus,
the sound is repeated in this case. Generally, it is observed that when the distance
between obstacle and the source is 17 meter or more then the echo may be heard clearly
and separately. Similarly, in the sense of time, when the sound reaches back to the ear
after 100 ms, echo can be heard separately.
(2) Reverberation
It is general experience that when a sound is produced in certain building, it
persists too long after its production. It reaches to a listener a number of times. Once it
reaches directly from the source and subsequently after reflection from the walls,
windows, ceiling and floor of the hall. The listener, therefore, receives series of identical
sounds of diminishing intensity. Thus, the prolonged reflection of sound from the walls,
floor and ceiling of a room is called reverberation. It is also defined as the persistence of
audible sound after the source has stopped to emit sound. The duration for which the
sound persists is called reverberation time. This time is measured from the instant source
stops emitting sound. The time of reverberation is also defined as the time taken by sound
to reduce to one millionth of its original intensity just before the source is cut off. It is
found that the time of reverberation depends upon the size of the hall and loudness of the
sound.
6.7 Absorption of sound waves
When a sound wave incidence on a surface, some part of its energy is absorbed,
some part will be transmitted and remaining part will be reflected. So, the absorption of
sound energy will take place. The coefficient of absorption of a material is defined as the
ratio of the sound energy absorbed by the surface to that of the total incident sound
energy on the surface, i.e.
Absorption coefficient (a) =
Sound energy absorbed by the surface
Total sound energy incident on the surface
(6.5)
As the energy of sound waves falling on an open window will be transmitted and
hence pass through it and hence absorbed, an open window behaves as a perfect absorber
of sound. Therefore, the standard of absorption is taken as the unit area of an open
window. Thus, the absorption coefficient of a material is defined as the rate of the sound
energy absorbed by a certain area of the surface to that of an open window of same. The
absorption coefficient is measured in Open Windows Unit (O.W.U.) or Sabine. The
following table contains the values of absorption coefficient of some common materials
for sound of medium pitch.
Material Absorption
co efficient
Plaster walls 0.01 - 0.03
6 mm cork sheet 0.1 - 0.2
Curtain in heavy folds 0.40-0.75
25 mm sprayed asbestos 0.6 0.7
Open Window 1.00
Table 2. The absorption co efficient of materials
6.8 Sabines formula for reverberation time
Prof. W.C.Sabine (1868-1919), did a systematic study of the problem of audibility
of an auditorium. He derived formula for reverberation times for empty and furnished
walls of different sizes. This derivation is to be called reverberation theory which
explains the nature of growth and decay of sound energy in a closed volume. The
assumptions of the theory are as follows: (i) the closed volume is vary large so that the
sound energy can be uniformly distributed in it. (ii) Sound absorption by air is neglected.
(iii) Standing wave formation is neglected (iv) Sound travels in all directions uniformly.
The various steps in the derivation are as follows:
(6.8.1) The absorption rate of sound energy
At first, let us calculate the rate at which the energy is incident upon the walls and
other surfaces and hence the rate at which it is being absorbed. Consider the reception of
sound energy by small element ds of a plan wall AB as shown in Fig. (6.2).
From the centre of surface element ds and with radii r and r + dr, let us draw two
circles such that they lie in the plane containing the normal to ds. Now consider the area
between the circles that lies between the angles and d + as shown by shaded region.
The arc of this area is r d and the radial length is dr. Hence its area is rd dr . If the
whole figure is rotated about the normal through an angle
d
, the distance traveled by
this area will be the circumferential distance
sin r d
. Here, radius of the rotating figure
being sin r . Therefore, Volume occupied by this area element is given by
( )
2
sin sin rd dr r d r d drd
(6.6)
Let E be the value of sound energy density i.e., energy per unit volume, then the energy
contained in the above volume is given by
2
sin Er d drd (6.7)
Fig. 6.2 Sound energy received by small element ds of wall AB.
This sound energy is traveling through the element equally in all directions. The
energy traveling per unit solid angle along any direction is given by
2
sin
4
Er d drd
(6.8)
But the solid angle subtended by ds at the element of volume is
2
cos ds
r
(6.9)
Therefore, the energy in the element of volume that is traveling to ds is given by
2
2
sin . cos
. sin cos
4 4
Er d dr d ds Eds
dr d d
r
(6.10)
In order to find out the value of the energy reaching ds in unit time, the above
expression should be integrated from r=0 to r = v
s
, where v
s
is velocity of sound.
Integrating equation (6.10) , first with respect to
1
]
Q
(6.11)
Now integrating with respect to , we have energy received at ds
2
0
. .
. sin cos . sin cos
4 2
E ds E ds
dr d d dr d
2
0
2
0
2
0
2
0
.
. sin cos
2
.
. 2sin cos
4
.
. sin 2
4
.
. sin 2 1
4
E ds
dr d
E ds
dr d
E ds
dr d
E ds
dr d
1
1
]
Q
Now integrating again with respect to r whose value varies between 0 to v
s
, we get the
energy received per unit time at ds
0
4 4
s
v
s
Ev ds Eds
dr
(6.12)
If a be the absorption coefficient of the wall AB whose value ds is a part, then
Energy absorbed by ds per unit time is
1
. . .
4
s
Ev a ds
(6.13)
Hence, total absorption at all the surface of the wall where the sound is absorbed is
1
. .
4 4
s
s
Ev A
Ev ads
(6.14)
where
ads A
, the total absorption on all the surface on which the energy incidents.
(6.8.2) The growth and decay of sound energy in the hall
Let P be the power output i.e. ,rate of emission of energy from the source and
V is the total volume of the hall. Then the total energy in the room at the instant when
energy density is E will be E V. Therefore, the growth Rate of energy is given by
( )
d dE
EV V
dt dt
(6.15)
But at any instant, rate of growth of energy in space is given by the difference
between the rate of supply of energy from the source (P) and rate of absorptions by all
the surfaces
4
s
Ev A dE
V P
dt
(6.16)
From above eq. (6.16)
4
s
Ev A dE P
dt V V
or
4
s
Ev A dE P
dt V V
+ (6.17)
Now, let
4
s
v A
V
and therefore,
1 4
s
V v A
So, above eq. (6.17) can be written as
4
.
s
dE P
E
dt v A
+
(6.18)
Multiplaying both sides by
t
e
,we have
4
t t
s
dE P
E e e
dt v A
_
+
,
or
( )
4
t t
s
d P
Ee e
dt v A
(6.19)
Integrating the above equation , we get
4
t t
s
P
Ee e C
v A
+
(6.20)
where C is a constant of integration . Using the boundary conditions we can find the
value of C as at t= 0. E = 0. Applying this condition to eq. (6.20) ,we get
4
s
P
C
v A
(6.21)
Substituting this value in equation (6.20), we get
4 4
t t
s s
P P
Ee e
v A v A
( ) ( )
4
1 1
t t
m
s
P
E e E e
v A
(6.22)
Above eq.(6.22) shows the growth of energy with time t. The growth is along the
exponential curve shown in fig.(6.3) which shows that E, increase along the curve with
time till at
,
m
t E E
Fig. 6.3 Growth and Decay of sound wave energy
Decay of sound energy density
Let the source is made off when E has reached the maximum value of
m
E
, so that
P = 0 and t= 0 when max
4
s
P
E E
v A
From equation (6.20)
m
C E
t
m
Ee E
(Since P=0)
Therefore,
t
m
E E e
(6.23)
Eq. (6.23) shows the decay of the energy density with time after source stops. This decay
is shown by the exponential curve of Fig. (3)
(6.8.3)Derivation of Sabines formula for reverberation time
We know that the persistence of audible sound in the room after source is stopped
is called reverberation and time of reverberation T is defined as the time taken for the
energy density to fall to the maximum audible value from the initial value 10
6
times
higher . Hence to calculate T, we put E
m
/E=10
6
and t= T in equation (6.23).
max
t
E
e
E
or
6
10
t
e
or
6
10
t
e
,
Taking log, we have
6log 10 2.3026 6
e
T
Therefore,
2.3026 6
4
s
v A
T
V
Taking
344 /
s
v m s
, the reverberation time is given following expression,
4 2.3026 6
344
V
T
T
or
0.161 0.161 V V
T
A aS
(6.24)
This equation is in good agreement with the experimental values obtained by Sabine.
6.8.1 Eyrings Equation
If we consider the hall for which the entire sound energy incident on the surfaces
of the hall is totally absorbed i.e. a=1, then reverberation time T will not be there and
hence, for a=1, T=0. Such rooms are called dead rooms in acoustical physics. But,
according to Sabines formula, If a=1, then
0.161
V
T
S
1
]
(6.25)
In the limiting condition, above formula approaches to Sabines formula means
( )
0
lim log 1
a
a a
1
]
which gives the Sabines formula
0.161V
T
A