UNIT 2 PATTERN MAKING AND FOUNDRY

Structure
2.1 2.2 Introduction
Objectives

Pattern Making and Foundry

Pattern Making
2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.2.5 2.2.6 2.2.7 Pattern Materials Types of Pattern Pattern Making Allowances Colour Coding for Patterns Core Prints Core Boxes Master Pattern

2.3

Foundry
2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 2.3.4 2.3.5 2.3.6 2.3.7 2.3.8 2.3.9 2.3.10 Composition of Moulding Sand Types and Properties of Moulding Sand Sand Testing Methods and Types of Moulding Processes Definition of Gating System Function of an Ideal Gating System Types of Gate Factors of Directional Solidification Types of Core Metal Melting Furnaces

2.4 2.5

Summary Answers to SAQs

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The process of making a wooden or metallic pattern is known as pattern making. Pattern acts as a principle tool during the casting process and can be defined as a model of desired casting, so constructed that may be used for forming an impression or cavity called mould in moulding sand or other suitable material. This mould or cavity when filled up with molten metal, forms the desired shape of casting after solidification of the poured metal. Flow ability of metals is a very important and useful characteristics of metals. Foundry engineering deals with the process of producing castings in moulds prepared by patterns. The whole process of producing castings may be classified into different stages. Except pattern making stage, all other stages are done in foundry shop.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to classify the pattern materials, describe the types of patterns, distinguish between core and core print, explain the pattern making allowances, 25

Workshop Technology

classify the types and properties of moulding sand, describe the different methods of moulding process, explain parts and functions of gated system, elaborate classification of cores, and conceptualize about crucible and cupola furnace.

2.2 PATTERN MAKING

For producing a mould or impression of desired shape in moulding sand or other materials, one needs to have a wooden or metallic pattern similar to the shape of the mould. The art and science of preparing the pattern is called pattern making.

2.2.1 Pattern Materials

Some of the common materials used for pattern making are wood, metal, plaster, wax and plastic. Wood Wood is the most common material used for pattern making as it satisfies most of the essential requirements which are considered for a good pattern. It is light in weight and easily available at low cost, may be easily shaped into different forms as obtained good surface finish easily. The most common woods used for pattern are Deodar, Teak, Shishum and Mohogany. Metal It is used for pattern when a large number of casting with a closer dimensional accuracy is desired. The pattern of metal has a much longer life than wooden pattern as it does not change its shape when subjected to moist conditions. A metal pattern is itself cast from a wooden pattern called Master Pattern. Cast-iron, aluminium and its alloys, brass and white metal are commonly used as a pattern metals. Plaster Plaster of paris (gypsum cement) is also used for making patterns and coreboxes. It can be easily worked and casted into desired shape. It has a high compressive strength (up to 300 kg/ cm2). Its specific use is in making small patterns and core-boxes involving intricate shapes and closer dimensional control. Wax Patterns which are generally used in investment casting process are made by wax. The wax patterns are made by pouring the heated wax into a split die or metal mould. The die is kept cool by circulating the water around it. After complete cooling, the die parts are separated and wax in shape of pattern is taken out. Plastic At present, plastics are finding their place as a pattern materials due to their specific characteristics such as high strength and resistance to wear, lightness in weight, fine surface finish and low solid shrinkage etc.

2.2.2 Types of Pattern

The type of patterns selected for a particular casting depends upon many factors such as type of moulding process, number and size of casting and anticipated 26

difficulty of moulding on account of design or typical shape of casting. The most common types of pattern are listed and described below : (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) Solid or Single Piece Pattern Split Pattern Gated Pattern Loose Piece Pattern Sweep Pattern Match Plate Pattern Multipiece Pattern

Pattern Making and Foundry

Solid or Single Piece Pattern This type of pattern is the simplest of all the patterns. It is made without joints, partings or loose pieces (Figure 2.1). For moulding with two patterns, one or two moulding boxes may be used. Moulding operation with this pattern takes more times as the moulder has to cut his own runners, risers and feeding gates. This type of patterns are usually used for simple and large sizes of casting.

Figure 2.1 : Single Piece Pattern

Split Pattern Whenever the design of casting offers difficulty in making of mould and withdrawal of pattern with a single piece pattern, split or two-piece pattern is most suitable. This type of pattern eliminates this difficulty and can be used to form the mould of intricate design or unusual shape of casting. Split patterns are made in two parts so that one is placed in cope and other in drag with the dowel pins holding the two together (Figure 2.2). The surface formed at the line of separation of the two parts, usually at the centre line of the pattern, is called parting line.
Parting Line

Core Prints

Figure 2.2 : Split Pattern

27

Workshop Technology

Gated Pattern In mass production, a number of castings are prepared in a single multicavity mould by joining a group of patterns. In such type of multicavity mould, gates or runners for the molten metal are formed by connecting parts between the individual patterns as shown in Figure 2.3.

Section on AB

Figure 2.3 : Gated Pattern

These are made of wood or metal and specially used for mass productions of small castings. Loose Piece Pattern As per requirement, some solid or single piece type of patterns are made as assemblies of loose component pieces. Loose pieces are arranged in such a way that it can be removed from the mould easily as shown in Figure 2.4.

Loose Pieces Rammed Pattern Core Prints Sand Loose Pieces being Withdrawn Mould Cavity

Figure 2.4 : Loose Piece Pattern

Usually, this type of pattern requires much maintenance and are slower to mould. Sweep Pattern Large sizes of symmetrical moulds are generally prepared by means of sweep patterns. It consists of a base, a wooden sweep board and a vertical spindle. The outer end of sweep board carries a shape corresponding to the shape of desired casting. Usually, sweep patterns are employed for moulding part carrying circular sections. The sweep board is attached with the vertical spindle. 28

After holding the spindle in vertical position, the moulding sand is rammed in place. As the sweep board is rotated about the spindle it will form a desired cavity in the moulding sand as depicted in Figure 2.5.
Sweep Spindle

Pattern Making and Foundry

Figure 2.5 : Sweep Pattern

Match Plate Pattern Such type of patterns are widely used for producing small sizes of castings in mass scale and are made of metal. Match plate patterns are made in two pieces like split patterns. It consists of a wooden or metallic plate, called match plate. Both the parts of split pattern are mounted on both sides of this match plate (Figure 2.6). Groups of patterns on both sides of match plates are used to prepare the moulds at a time separately, i.e. for group of patterns on one side is prepared in drag while the other side group of patterns in cope.

Figure 2.6 : Match Plate Pattern

Multipiece Pattern Sometimes, it is necessary to prepare a pattern in more than two parts in order to facilitate an easy moulding and withdrawal of pattern (Figure 2.7).
Core Print

Parting Line

Parting Line

Core Print

Figure 2.7 : Multipiece Pattern

29

Workshop Technology

This type of pattern is known as multipiece pattern. This type of pattern is used for casting having a more complicated design. For the preparation of mould this type of pattern requires generally three moulding boxes.

2.2.3 Pattern Making Allowances

Usually, the pattern is always made larger than the desired size of the casting on account of allowance which should be allowed for machining, shrinkage, distortion and rapping etc. For a pattern, the following allowances are provided : Machining Allowance The extra amount of metal provided on the surfaces of casting to be machined is called as a machining allowance. The amount of this allowance depends upon the method of casting used, metal of casting, method of machining. Size and shape of casting etc. Ferrous types of metals require more allowance comparative to non-ferrous metals. Shrinkage Allowance Metals used for casting usually shrink and contract due to solidification and cooling. It is compensated by providing adequate amount of allowance in the pattern which is called as shrinkage allowance. Distortion Allowance Casting of irregular shape and design tend to distort during cooling period. Distortion of casting will take place due to uneven metal thickness, shrinkage and rate of cooling. To eliminate this defect, distortion in opposite direction is provided in the pattern so that this effect of distortion may be neutralized. Rapping Allowance When a pattern is withdrawn from a mould, rapping is used in the pattern. As a result of this rapping, the cavity in the mould is slightly increased. Therefore, a negative allowance is to be provided in the pattern to compensate the same. Draft Allowance To facilitate easy and early withdrawl of pattern from the mould without injuring the vertical surfaces and edges of mould, patterns are given a slight taper on all vertical surfaces. This slight taper inward on the vertical surfaces of a pattern is known as the draft or draft allowance. Draft allowance may be expressed either in degrees or in terms of millimeter per metre on a side. Its amount varies from 10 mm to 25 mm per metre on external surfaces and from 40 mm to 70 mm per metre on internal surfaces.

2.2.4 Colour Coding for Patterns

Representation of different types of surfaces by means of different colours is known as colour coding. By accepted colour code on pattern, we can judge the casting surfaces either to be machined or not. Parts of pattern as a core print or seat for loose piece are also justified by it. A widely accepted colour code for common practice is given below: Black colour Red colour 30 Yellow colour Surfaces to be left unmachined Surfaces to be machined Core prints

Red strips on Yellow base No colour or Clear

Seats for loose pieces Parting surface

Pattern Making and Foundry

Black strips on Yellow base Stop offs

2.2.5 Core Print

A core print is an added projection on a pattern. It forms a seat in the mould which is used to hold and locate the core. The cores are used to produce through or blind holes and recesses in the casting. The shapes and sizes of these impression depend upon the shapes and sizes of cores. Core prints may be of the following types : Horizontal Core Print This forms seat for a horizontal core. Horizontal core print is often found on the split or two-piece pattern. Vertical Core Print It forms seat to support a vertical core in the mould. Balancing Core Print It forms seat on one side of the mould and the core is supported at one end only, i.e. the core remains partly in this formed seat and partly in the mould cavity. The print of core in the mould cavity should balance the part which rests in the core seat. Cover or Handing Core Print It is used when the whole surface of pattern is rammed in the drag and the core is suspended from top of the mould. Wing Core Print At that place, where the cavity to be cored is above or below the parting line in the mould, wing core print is referred.

2.2.6 Core Boxes

These are used for making cores. A core box is a wooden or metallic type of pattern and are made either single or in two parts. They may be classified according to the method of making the core or shape of core. The common types of core boxes are described below: Half Core Box Half core box is used when a symmetrical core is prepared in two identical halves which are later on pasted or cemented together to form a complete core (Figure 2.8).

Core Box

Produced Half-core

Figure 2.8 : Half Core Box

Split Core Box 31

Workshop Technology

It is made in two parts like a split pattern. Both the parts are joined together by means of dowel pins to form the complete hollow cavity for making the core as shown in Figure 2.9.
Core Box

Produced Core

Figure 2.9 : Split Core Box

Dump Core Box For making the slab or rectangular shape of core, dump core box is used. In construction, it is similar to half core box. The box is made with side opening.
Core Box Produced Half-core

Figure 2.10 : Dump Core Box

Loose Piece Core Box It is used for the preparation of core with the provisions of boxes or hubs and also when the two halves of a core of which the halves are not identical in shape and size is to be prepared in the same core-box as shown in (Figure 2.11).
Loose Piece for Right Hand Core Loose Piece for Left Hand Core

Core Box

Figure 2.11 : Loose Piece Core Box

Strickle Type Core Box For the preparation of unsymmetrical or irregular shapes of cores, strickle type of core-boxes are often used as shown in (Figure 2.12). 32

Pattern Making and Foundry

Figure 2.12 : Strickle Type Core Box

Colour coding for core boxes is followed in the same manner as in case of pattern.

2.2.7 Master Pattern

A wooden pattern is usually used for preparing the mould of metal casting. When this casting is used as a pattern for moulding work of further desired casting the wooden pattern is called as a master pattern of this later casting.

SAQ 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) What is pattern? Name some of the materials of which pattern are made. What are the common allowances provided on patterns and why? How are the pattern classified? Explain the use of a gated pattern? Write short notes on the following : (i) (ii) Core prints Sweep pattern

(iii) Pattern colours (iv) Core boxes

2.3 FOUNDRY
Foundry or casting may be defined as a process of forming desired metallic products by melting the metal, pouring this molten metal into a mould and then allowing it to solidify. When this solidified shape of metal is separated from the mould it will be of same shape as the mould. The mould is a cavity or impression in the moulding sand which is produced by means of pattern. The process of producing this cavity is known as moulding. A core is pre-determined shaped mass of dry sand which is made separately or within the mould to obtain the desired recesses and cavities in the mould. The process of producing the cores is called Core Making.

2.3.1 Composition of Moulding Sand

The principal constituent of moulding sand are silica sand, binder, additives and water. These are described below : Silica Sand 33

Workshop Technology

As per composition, silica sand is the main constituent of moulding sand. It is a product of the breaking up of quarry stone or decomposition of granite. Silica sand imparts permeability, chemical resistivity and refractoriness to the moulding sand. Silica sand is specified according to the average shape and size of its grains. Binder The main function of binder is to impart the sufficient strength and cohesiveness of the moulding sand, so that it may retain its shape after ramming. The common binders may be divided as (i) (ii) organic binders, and inorganic binders.

The organic binders such as molasses, dextrin, linseed oil and resins are usually used in core making while in the inorganic group the common binders are portland cement, clay and sodium silicate. Amongst all, the clay binders are widely used. Additives Materials which are added to the moulding sand to improve its existing properties or to include certain new properties, are known as additives. As per demand coal dust, wood flour, mollases, cornflour and pitch may be used as an additive. Water When water is added to clay it furnishes the bounding action of clay. It penetrates the mass of clay and forms a microfilm. The bonding quality of clay totally depends on the maximum thickness of microfilm it can hold. In general, water quantity varies from 2 to 8 percent.

2.3.2 Types and Properties of Moulding Sand

Types of Moulding Sand Moulding sands are classified according to their use. These are classified and described below : Green Sand It is a mixture of silica sand with 18 to 30 percent clay, having quantity of water 6 to 8 percent. Green sand in its natural state contains enough moisture to give it sufficient bonding property. It is soft, light, porous and retains the shape easily when squeezed in the hand. Moulds prepared by this sand are known as green sand moulds which are used for small and medium castings only. Dry Sand When moisture from green sand mould is removed, it is known as dry sand mould and is used for large size of casting. By drying the mould in moulding box it becomes stronger and compact. Facing Sand 34

It is used directly next to the surface of pattern. When the mould is poured with the molten metal it comes directly in contact with the molten metal. As it is subjected to most severe conditions, it must possess high strength and refractoriness. It is made of silica sand and clay in fine powder form. Loam Sand It is a mixture of clay (about 50%), sand and water (about 18-20%) to obtain a thin plastic paste which is used to plaster on moulds with soft bricks and hardens on drying. This is particularly employed for loam moulding usually for rough and large castings. Backing Sand It is the sand obtained from mould and is used again and again. Due to its black colour which is due to burning and addition of coal dust, it is also known as black sand. Parting Sand It is fine sharp dry sand used to keep the green sand from sticking to the pattern and also to keep the moulding boxes (drag and cope) separated. Core Sand This is silica sand mixed with core oil which is composed of linseed oil, light mineral oil, resin and other binding materials. For the sake of economy, pitch or flours and water may also be used in case of large cores. Properties of Moulding Sand A good moulding sand must possess the undermentioned properties of porosity, plasticity, adhesiveness, cohesiveness and refractoriness etc. All the properties are supposed not only by the chemical composition, but by its moisture content, by the amount of clay and lastly by the size and shape of the silica sand grains. Porosity or Permeability The passage of gaseous materials, water and steam vapour through the moulding sand is related to porosity. Molten metal always contains a certain amount of dissolved gases, which are evolved during the solidification of metal. A very large volume of gas and steam is also generated when the molten metal is poured into the mould due to the heating of moistures, coal dust and similar other materials present in the sand. If these gases are not allowed to escape completely through the mould, they will form pores and gas holes in the casting. So, for a good sand it must be sufficiently porous to allow the gases or moisture present or generated into the atmosphere freely. This property of sand is called porosity. Plasticity or Flowability It refers to the condition of acquiring predetermined shape under pressure and to retain it when the pressure is removed. This property of moulding sand increases as clay and water content increase. Adhesiveness

Pattern Making and Foundry

35

Workshop Technology

The sand particles must be capable of sticking to the other bodies particularly to the moulding box of flask and it is due to only the property of adhesiveness that moulding sand mass is held in the moulding box properly. Due to this property, moulding sand can be manipulated as desired without any chance of its falling out. Cohesiveness The ability of sand particles to stick together is denoted as cohesiveness or the strength of moulding sand. Due to this property, mould retains its shape even after the molten metal is poured in the mould. In green state this property is termed as green strength or green bond while for dry state as a dry strength or dry bond. Cohesiveness property is largely effected by the clay and moisture content, and size of grains. Refractoriness It is ability of the silica sand to withstand high temperature without fusing or breaking down as due to poor refractoriness sand may burn at high temperature. This property of sand is measured by the sinter point rather than melting point of sand.

2.3.3 Sand Testing

We have already discussed the main properties of a good moulding sand. Foundry sand plays role as a chief constituents of moulding sand. Therefore, the properties of moulding sand depend upon the properties of foundry sand. To control its composition and properties, it should be tested periodically. The common types of tests are as follows : (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) Grain fineness test Moisture content test Clay content test Permeability test Strength test Mould and core hardness test

Grain Fineness Test The size of grain of a sand is designated by a number called Grain fineness number which points out the average size as well as proportion of smaller and larger grains. Size of sand grain provides a significant effect on its porosity or permeability. Grains of similar sizes increase porosity whereas those of different sizes reduce the porosity but increase the compactness. The foundry sand for its grain size is tested by sieve shaker unit shown in Figure 2.13. It consists of a set of standard sieves which are graded and numbered according to the fineness of their meshes or apertures. The coarsest sieve is placed at the top and the finest one at the bottom, rest of being placed below one another in the same order.
Sieve Cover

36
Tightening Rubber Strap

Pattern Making and Foundry

Figure 2.13

The sand sample to be tested is washed to remove the clay and then dried. A weighed quantity of this sand is placed in the coarsest sieve, mounted on the top of sieve shaker and the unit shaken for about 15 minutes. The test of fineness is conducted by screening sand grains by means of standard sieves. After due time, the percentage amount of sand remaining on each sieve is calculated and multiplied by a constant. The products of this multiplication are added to find out total product. By applying the given formula, fineness number may be calculated
Fineness Number = Total Product Total Percentage of sand retained on screen

Moisture Content Test For determining moisture content, a moisture teller instrument is widely used. It consists of a cast iron stand, an infra-red-heater bulb fitted in the shade and a drying pan with a handle. For test, take about 25 gms sand as a sample in pan and then arrange this pan under the shade. The bulb is switched on for about 2-3 minutes and then switched off. Remove pan and weigh the sand again. The difference in the weight of sample before and after drying indicates the amount of moisture content. It is expressed as a percentage of the total weight of sand sample. Clay Content Test The difference between original weight of a dried sand sample and the final weight of a dried sand sample after the mud has been washed away gives the mud content of the sand. It may be easily expressed as a percentage of the original weight of the sand sample. The method for determining the clay content of sand consists of stirring the sand sample in distilled water at room temperature so as to separate the clay particles from the sand which remains suspended in water. The material which fails to settle within a period of 5 minute is designated as a clay content. Permeability Test The volume of air in cubic centimeter that will pass per minute under a pressure of 1 gm per cm2 through a standard specimen of sand having 1 cm2 in cross-sectional area and 1 cm deep is defined as a permeability number. The permeability number can be calculated by using the following formula. 37

Workshop Technology

Permeability Number = where, V = volume of air in cubic cm, h = height of specimen in cm, p = air pressure in gm/cm2,

V h pat

a = cross sectional area of the specimen in cm2, and t = time in minutes taken by the air to pass. Strength Test The foundry sand should be capable to develop a maximum compressive strength in moist condition. For strength test, a well rammed sand specimen of 5.08 cm high and 5.08 diameter is pushed out of the specimen tube and then placed on the upper plate of universal testing machine with its end. A continuously increasing load at a rate of about 200 kgf/cm2 is applied on this specimen until rupture of the specimen takes place. The compression value may be read directly on the green compression scale of the testing machine. Mould and Core Hardness Test The hardness of a mould and core can be tested easily by means of a hardness tester. The tester is about the size of a pocket watch and the hardness test can be performed within few seconds. It carries a tip at its bottom which is penetrated into the testing surface. A spring loaded shaft inside the hollow body of the instrument actuates the needle of dial gauge fitted at the top. The dial of this gauge indicates direct reading of the hardness of testing surface.

2.3.4 Methods and Types of Moulding Processes

The different moulding processes may be classified as follows : According to the method used (a) (b) (c) (d) (a) (b) (c) (d) Floor Moulding Bench Moulding Pit Moulding Machine Moulding Green Sand Moulding Dry Sand Moulding Loam Sand Moulding Core Sand Moulding

According to the mould materials

Floor Moulding This method of moulding is commonly used for preparing the mould of heavy and large size of jobs which cannot be conveniently moulded through bench moulding method. In floor moulding, the floor itself acts as a drag. It is preferred for such rough type of castings where the upper surface finish has no importance. Bench Moulding 38

Bench moulding is done on a work bench of a height convenient to the moulder. It is best suited to prepare the mould of small and light items which are to be casted by non-ferrous metals. Pit Moulding Large size of jobs which cannot be accommodated in moulding boxes are frequently moulded in pits. Here, the pit acts as a drag. Generally, one box, i.e. cope is sufficient to complete the mould. Runner and riser, gates and pouring basin are cut in it. Machine Moulding Machine moulding method is preferred for mass production of identical casting as most of the moulding operations such as ramming of sand, rolling over the mould, and gate cutting etc. are performed by the moulding machine. Therefore, this method of moulding is more efficient and economical in comparison to hand moulding. Green Sand Moulding Green sand consists of silica sand, 10 to 15 percent clay and 4 to 6 percent moisture content. All these materials are thoroughly mixed and riddled. It should also be given the required condition by proper tempering. The main methods of green sand moulding are as follows : (a) (b) (c) Open sand method Bedded in method Turn over method

Pattern Making and Foundry

Open Sand Method The complete mould is prepared in the floor as already discussed in floor moulding. It is the simplest form of green sand moulding method and suitable for solid types of patterns. The moulding sand is rammed highly, just to support the weight of metal during its pouring. After proper levelling of moulding sand, the pattern is pressed down in the sand bed for making mould. This method is employed for simple types of casting, grills, railings, floor plates and gates etc. Bedded in Method This type of moulding technique is usually employed when the upper surface of casting is not flat or should be smoother than produced by open-sand method or the parting line of solid pattern is not marked clearly. In this method, the drag is filled partially and the pattern is pressed down to bed it into the moulding sand to form the mould cavity. After the finishing of mould cavity, the pattern is again pressed downward until properly rammed mould cavity is obtained. A cope is then placed over the pattern and rammed properly. The rest of the procedure followed in the usual way. Turn Over Method 39

Workshop Technology

This type of moulding method is most suitable for split patterns as well as for solid type of patterns. Most of the small and medium sized castings of non-ferrous metals are made by this method. In this method, one half of the pattern is placed on the moulding plate or board with its flat side. The drag part of the moulding box is then kept over it and rammed. Excess moulding sand from the top of drag part is parted off by means of strike off bar and the box turned over. The other half part of pattern is assembled in position with 1st half by means of dowel pins which control the proper alignment of both the parts. After that, the parting sand is sprinkled over the top surface of drag and pattern. The parting sand is used to prevent the joints between the halves of a mould from adhering to one another when the two parts of the moulding box are separated.
Pattern Drag

Moulding Board (First Step) Riser Sprue Pin

Cope

Parting Line Drag

(Second Step) Vents Weight

Riser

Pouring Basin

Runner

Moulding Board

Gate

Core (Third Step) (Completed-Mould)

Figure 2.14

The upper half pattern is followed by cope and two tapered wooden pegs are placed in proper position on the pattern which serve as 40

runner and riser. Next, the cope is filled with moulding sand and rammed. Excess sand is then cut off. Wooden pegs are taken out and the pouring basin is made as shown in Figure 2.14. Venting process is also applied to provide the vents. The cope is then rolled over, the pattern pieces are taken out from both the moulding boxes and gates are cut in the drag from the pattern to runner side. The dry sand core, if any, is also located in position and the mould is closed for pouring of molten metal. The metal is poured into the mould through the runner. Dry Sand Moulding This process of moulding is just similar to green sand moulding except the composition of constituents in mixture. Here, in the preparation of mixture for dry sand moulding, special binding materials such as resin, molasses, flour, or clay are mixed to give strong bond to the sand. All parts of mould are completely dried before casting. Dry sand moulding is widely used for large size of work such as parts of engine, large size of fly wheel and rolls for rolling mill. This process is costlier than green sand moulding but much superior in quality. Loam Sand Moulding This process is used for extremely large size of casting which are to be made in very small numbers. Loam sand moulds are prepared with coarse grained silica sand, clay, coke, horse manure and water. This process of moulding is performed in different way. First, a rough structure of desired shape is made by hand by using bricks and loam sand. This structure is then finished by means of strickle and sweep. The surfaces of structure are blackened and dried before being casted. Core Sand Moulding For core sand moulding, mixture is prepared with silica sand, olivine, carbon and chamotte sands. Sand that contains more than 5% clay may not be used as a core sand. For core making by hand, the core sand is filled and rammed in the core box properly. The whole operation takes a short time after that the core box is withdrawn and the core removed.

Pattern Making and Foundry

2.3.5 Definition of Gating System

All the channels or passages through which the molten metal is delivered to mould cavity is termed as gating system. Gating system includes the runner, riser, pouring basin and gate etc.

2.3.6 Function of an Ideal Gating System

The main functions of an ideal gating system are to (a) (b) (c) distribute the molten metal with the least disturbance in order to reduce erosion of the mould material. facilitate complete filling of the mould cavity. fill the mould cavity with molten metal at the earliest possible time to avoid temperature gradient.

41

Workshop Technology

(d)

(e) (f)

develop such temperature gradient in molten metal and the mould which will lead to the directional solidification of the casting towards riser. prevent the formation of oxide and dross in the molten metal while flowing through it. prevent the entry of slag, sand and the other particles from the mould.

2.3.7 Types of Gate

A gate is a passage or channel through which the molten metal flows from the runner to the mould cavity. However, it should be located where it can be easily removed without any loss to the casting. As per their position in the mould cavity, gates may be classified as follows : Parting Line Gate It is the simplest type of gate and the molten metal enters the mould cavity at the parting line. Such type of gate is cut by hand when the cope and drag are separated or it can be formed by an attached gate to the pattern. Top Gate In this type of gate, the molten metal from the top flows down directly into the mould. As all the molten metal enters the casting at the top therefore, the hottest metal comes to rest at the top of casting. With the result, proper temperature gradient is formed to enable directional solidification of casting from the bottom side towards the riser. The gates themselves may be cut to serve as the risers. Main drawback of this type of gating is the erosion of the mould, which takes place by the falling metal. The cavity of mould, therefore, should be much hard and strong to resist this impact.
Strainer Core Pouring Basin

Casting

Figure 2.15

Bottom Gate In this type of gate, the molten metal from the pouring basin flows down and enters to the mould cavity at or near its bottom. Bottom type of gate facilitates the mould to be prepared in two moulding boxes. During pouring of molten metal, bottom types of gate enable to reduce the erosion of mould and core and minimize the turbulence of metal (Figure 2.16).

Mould Cavity

Horn Sprue

Choke

Figure 2.16

42

2.3.8 Factors of Directional Solidification

As the molten metal cools and solidifies in the mould, shrinkage of metal will take place which creates voids inside. Solidification of metal free of internal voids and shrinkage is called as a directional solidification. The factors which are used to control this directional solidification are (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Riser It is a passage of sand made in the cope part of moulding box through which the molten metal rises after the mould is filled up completely. The main functions of a riser are given below : (a) (b) (c) (d) Riser acts as a reservoir and feeds the molten metal to the casting to compensate the shrinkage during solidification. It permits the escape of gas, air and steam as the mould cavity is being filled up with the molten metal. It controls the solidification time, which should be greater in it than that in the mould cavity. It helps to ensure that the mould cavity has been completely filled up with molten metal. proper design and positioning of risers, proper design and positioning of gating systems, use of padding, use of metal chills, and use of exothermic materials.

Pattern Making and Foundry

Use of Padding Padding means adding of some extra metal to the original section of casting in varying thickness to attain the required directional solidification. Use of Chills Chills in shape of extra metal are also used in achieving directional solidification. If a casting consists of sections of uneven thickness, rate of cooling will be different as per thickness of section. The thin sections tend to solidify earlier than the thick ones, resulting in uneven shrinkage and severe distortion. To accelerate the cooling rates of thick sections, chills are inserted in these sections and thus, obtain the desired directional solidification. Use of Exothermic Materials The proper directional solidification of casting can be further controlled by the use of exothermic materials. These materials produce large amount of heat when come in contact with the molten metal. These are added to the surface of molten metal through riser side. The materials used as exothermic materials are the oxides of iron, copper and nickel etc. mixed with suitable amount of aluminium.

2.3.9 Types of Core

A core is made by core sand and prepared separately in a core box. It is used to form a desired recess and cavity in casting. Different types of cores are used in 43

Workshop Technology

foundry work and are employed according to their shape and their position in the mould. The main types of cores are described below : Horizontal Core It is the simplest type of core which is placed horizontally at the parting line of the mould. As per cross section, it may be of any shape but cylindrical shaped core is mostly used as shown in Figure 2.17.
Sand Mould Parting Line Core

Figure 2.17

Vertical Core It is similar to horizontal core, only differs in its position. Vertical core is placed in the mould with its axis vertical. Normally, top and bottom ends of the core are provided with a toper as shown in (Figure 2.18).
Cope Mould Cavity Drag

Core

Figure 2.18

Balanced Core It is suitable to produce a blind hole along a horizontal axis in casting. The overhanging length of the core is supported by means of chaplets as shown in Figure 2.19.
Cope Mould Core

Drag

Figure 2.19

Hanging or Cover Core The core which has no support at the bottom and hangs vertically from the cope (Figure 2.20) is known as hanging core. In this case, the entire mould cavity is prepared in the drag only. 44

Cope

Pattern Making and Foundry

Core Drag Mould

Figure 2.20

2.3.10

Metal Melting Furnaces

A large number of melting furnaces have been developed and the choice of a particular type of furnace depends upon the quantity of metal to be melted at a time and the nature of metal to be melted. The main types of melting furnaces used in foundry work are described below : Crucible Furnace It is the simplest type of furnace and widely used at that place where the melting is not continuous and different types of metal are to be melted in small quantities. A crucible furnace comprises a crucible which is made of clay and graphite. The whole process of melting of metal takes place inside the crucible. Generally, two types of crucible furnaces are used in practice such as Pit-type and Tilting type. Pit Type Crucible Furnace As the name signifies, this type of furnace is prepared in the form of a pit. These are used for melting small quantities of ferrous and non-ferrous metals. Usually, pit furnace is fired with coke. They are provided with the fire bricks lining inside and a chimney for natural draught as shown in Figure 2.21.
Fire Bricks Lining Steel Shell Pit Cover Chimney Concrete Lining

Sliding Door Crucible Gate Natural Draght

Figure 2.21 : Pit Type Crucible Furnace

Tilting Type Crucible Furnace This type of furnace is mounted on two pedestals, raised above ground level and rotated with the help of geared hand wheel. Such types of furnaces are employed with the provision of forced draught and usually fired by coke, oil or gas (Figure 2.22). For oil and gas fired furnaces, the crucible is supported with a block of refractory material while for coal or coke type, rests on the fuel bed.
To Atmosphere Cover Refractory

45

Workshop Technology

Figure 2.22 : Tilting Type Crucible Furnace

Cupola Cupola is used for melting and refining of pig iron along with scrap. It is basically a hollow vertical shell or cylinder made of mild steel and linked with fire bricks. The cylinder or shell is mounted either on steel column or on a brick work foundation. The bottom of the shell is provided with drop
Spark Arrester

Refractory Lining

Stack Shell

Charging Door Charging Platform

Metal Charges Coke Charges Coke Bed Blast Pipe Wind Belt Tuyeres Slag Spout Tap Hole

Preheating Zone

Melting Zone Reducing Zone Combustion Zone

Well

Tapperd Sand Bottom Prop

Spout Leg

Figure 2.23

46

bottom door. When the cupola is in operation, the bottom door is supported by a prop. At the end of operation, the charge feeding is stopped, air supply cut off and the prop removed. As soon as the prop is removed, the bottom door drops down providing a passage for the residue of molten metal with slag to fall down. The amount of air required is forced into the wind belt by blower which enters the furnace, through tuyeres. Charging door is provided above the charging platform. Through charging door, the charge is fed into the furnace. The shell is continued above the charging door to form a chimney. At the top of furnace a conical construction called the spark arrester is attached to prevent the spark from emerging to the outside as shown in Figure 2.23. Zones in a Cupola A number of combustion reactions take place in the cupola. Therefore, the entire shell of cupola may be divided in zones which are as under : Well Zone The metal after melting is collected here and then tapped out. Well zone is the space between top of sand bed and the bottom of tuyeres. Combustion Zone It is located about 15 cms to 30 cms above the top of tuyeres and also may be called as oxidizing zone. As the actual combustion takes place in this zone, a lot of heat is produced which is supplied from here to other zones. A temperature of about 1550oC to 1850oC is produced in this zone. Reducing Zone Reducing zone is located from the top of combustion zone to the top of the coke bed. In this zone, the temperature falls to about 1200oC at the coke bed on account of reducing atmospheres. This zone protects the charge against oxidation. Melting Zone The 1st layer of metal charge above the coke bed and extend upto a height of about 90 cm. Being temperature around 1600oC, the complete combustion of coke and iron takes place in this zone. Preheating Zone It extends from above the melting zone to the bottom of charging door and contains the cupola charge (alternate layers of coke, flux and metal). In this zone, the charge is preheated at a temperature of about 1100oC before coming to the melting zone. Stack Zone It is the empty portion of cupola above the preheating zone to the top of the cupola which carries the gases generated within the furnace to the atmosphere. Preparation and Charging of Cupola First of all the waste material and slag etc. are removed from the cupola which are dumped under the furnace after the previous melting. The bottom door is brought and secured in position by means of prop, and then a sand bed is laid at the bottom. The surface of the sand bed is sloped towards the

Pattern Making and Foundry

47

Workshop Technology

tapping hole so that the molten metal may be drained from the cupola at any time. As a bed charge, soft and dry wood is placed over the sand bed followed by a bed of coke. The wood is ignited through the tap hole. As soon as the coke bed is built up to the correct height and ignited uniformly throughout, an alternate layers of pig iron, coke and limestone are charged from the charging door until the cupola is full to the charging door. Usually, in practice, the charge ratio between metal and coke is kept 8 : 1 to 10 : 1. Amount of limestone in charge depends upon the amount of metal which is about 40 to 50 kg per metric ton of metal charge.

SAQ 2
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) What is moulding? What are the main characteristics, which a good moulding sand should possess? Why testing of foundry sand is necessary? What are the common tests performed on foundry sands? How do you classify the various moulding sand processes? Distinguish between green sand moulding and dry sand moulding. What do you understand from the term Gating system? What are the main requirements expected of an ideal gating system? What is a core? How many types of core are there? Write short notes on the following : (i) (ii) Pit moulding Exothermic materials

(iii) Crucible (iv) Cupola.

2.4 SUMMARY
Pattern is the model of the desired casting, which is used for forming an impression, called mould in the damp sand or other suitable moulding materials. They are made of timber, metal, plaster of paris or plastic. As per nature of work, different types of pattern are used in practice. Number of casting, appearance and surface finish of casting are the important consideration which a pattern maker is to make in order to plan the pattern successfully. A mould is the cavity or impression which is prepared in moulding sand by means of pattern. It will produce a casting when filled with molten metal. The process of producing this cavity is known as moulding. According to use, moulding sands are classified into a number of varieties. A good moulding sand must possess the properties of porosity, adhesiveness, cohesiveness and refractoriness etc. 48

Cores are separate shapes of sand that are generally required to form the hollow interior of the casting or a hole through the casting. A sand casting is produced by pouring the molten metal into the mould through a passage called gate. As per situation, gates may be classified as top gates, parting line gates and bottom gates. Crucible and cupola furnaces are commonly used in foundries for melting of various varieties of ferrous and non-ferrous metals and alloys.

Pattern Making and Foundry

2.5 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Refer the relevant preceding text in the unit or other useful books on the topic listed in section Further Reading to get the answer of the SAQs.

49