A Look at Nuclear Science and Technology

Larry Foulke

Radiation and Realism 4.5 Internal Standards Final Thoughts

Internal Exposure

External radiation limits are intended for deeplypenetrating ionizing photon and neutron radiation. Charged particles have a much shorter range and external sources of these radiation types are not a health hazard.
The layer of dead skin on the outside of our bodies provides sufficient shielding for alpha and some beta radiations.

However, if charged particle radiation sources are ingested or inhaled the high LET radiation will deposit all of its energy in the body.
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Internal Exposure Pathways

Ingesting or inhaling radioactive nuclides is referred to as radiation intake. In this phase the nuclides remain outside of the biological barrier in the GI track, lungs or sinuses. Uptake occurs when radionuclides cross the biological barrier and enter the body. Uptake rates are very dependent on the elemental properties of the nuclide. Once in the body, some elements are rapidly incorporated into tissues and organs. Radioisotopes of these elements can be very hard to flush out of the body.

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Internal Radiation
Once a radionuclide has crossed the biological boundary, it will continue to emit radiation and damage nearby tissue until it is removed from the body. Two main removal mechanisms:
Radioactive decay
Eventually all atoms of the radioisotope will decay away.

Biological removal The body can flush elements out of the body through normal excretion processes (sweat, tears, urine).

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Internal Radiation
Total radiation dose accumulated over the time that any radionuclide remains in the body is referred to as committed dose. Treatment for internal dose:
Limit uptake / promote excretion
Patients are given supplements (e.g. iodine pills) to prevent the body from absorbing the offending element. Additional supplements can bind to elements in the body, creating a more soluble form that can be flushed away. Effectiveness is highly dependent on the element(s) involved.

Monitor (internal dosimetry / bioassay)

Urine Samples Lung / Whole body count
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Internal Radiation Limits

Radionuclide Concentrations
Historical: Maximum permissible concentration [MPC] in body

New 10CFR20 Limit (January 1993)

Revised Limits New Approach Annual Limit of Intake [ALI] ALI Derived Air Concentration [DAC]= air intake per year 1 DAC for 1 y 5 rem 5-Rem Whole body limit for committed dose plus occupational dose
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Example calculation of DAC

Derived Air Concentration (DAC) calculation
From Appendix B of Title 10, Part 20 of the Code of Federal Regulations, the ALI for inhalation of Strontium-90 is 20 microcuries The standard man works 2,000 hours per year has an inhalation rate of 1.2 cubic meters of air per hour for a total of 2,400 cubic meters of air breathed per year (or 2.4x109 milliliters of air) We divide the ALI by the air intake per year to get 20 microcuries/2.4x109 ml of air =8.3x10-9 microcuries per milliliter

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Radiation Protection Philosophy

International Commission on Radiation Protection (ICRP)
1. No practice shall be adopted unless its introduction provides net benefit. (Justification) 2. All exposures shall be kept as low as reasonably achievable [ALARA], economic and social factors being taken into account. 3. The dose equivalent to individuals shall not exceed the limits recommended for the appropriate circumstances by the Commission.
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Radiation Dose Effects

Equiv Dose Sv (Rem) 0.05-0.2 (5-20) 0.2-0.5 (20-50) 0.5-1 (50-100) 1-2 (100-200) 2-3 (200-300) 3-4 (300-400) 4-6 (400-600) 6-10 (600-1000) 10-50 (1000-5000) >50 (>5000) Symptoms None No external. Temporary reduction in red blood count. Mild radiation sickness. Nausea and vomiting. Immune system depressed. Nausea and vomiting. Loss of hair, loss of white blood cells. Uncontrollable hemorrhaging. Widespread internal bleeding. Near shutdown of immune system. Complete destruction of bone marrow. Widespread damage to organs. Direct damage to central nervous system. Direct burning damage to skin. Increased severity of symptoms listed above. Lethality 0% 0% 0% LD 10/30 LD 35/30 LD 50/30 LD 60/30 LD 100/14 LD 100/7 LD 100/2
LD xx/yy gives the percentage of fatalities (xx%) within yy days, without medical attention.

No detectable response <0.25 Sv Mild radiation sickness

Human LD 50/30 4.5 Sv

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Final Thoughts Lets Get Real There is no issue with the fact that large doses of radiation are dangerous and can be fatal. But, lets get real about the risk of low doses of radiation (<10 Rem)
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Realism and reason

Is overstating risk prudent? Or may it do harm? What have we said and done? What does the real world tell us about risk? How can we return to reason?
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Lets get real

Body of scientific data on radiation effects demonstrates radiation harmless and often beneficial at low levels. True for chemicals, nutrients, bacteria, aspirin, sunshine, exercise, whiskey, wine, and virtually everything else. But advisory and regulatory bodies insist it is prudent to assume radiation is linearly harmful all the way to zero. Reports concede that there is no evidence that lowdose radiation is harmful.

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Overstating Risk is NOT necessarily Prudent; it may be Wrong 1. Converts minor emergencies into lifethreatening panic (e.g., dirty bomb). 2. Restricts needed plant safety inspection and maintenance. 3. Mass evacuation diverts attention from the few who might need protection.

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Overstating Risk is NOT necessarily Prudent; it may be Wrong 4. By overstating radiation risks, we use worse alternatives:
Other means of generating electricity cause respiratory and environmental harm and kill miners; patients refuse life-saving nuclear medical procedures; food poisoning kills people who do not get irradiated food; enormous expenditures are wasted that could have been used beneficially.

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