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Pollutant Formation and Control All IC engines produce undesirable emissions as a result of combustion. The emissions of concern are unburned hydrocarbons (UHC), carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen such as nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide (NOx), sulfur dioxide, and solid carbon particulates. These emissions pollute the environment and contribute to acid rain, smog odors, and respiratory and other health problems. HC emissions from gasoline-powered vehicles include a number of toxic substances such as benzene, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 1,3-butadiene and three aldehydes (formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, acrolein). Carbon dioxide is an emission that is not regulated but is the primary greenhouse gas responsible for global warming.
Emissions Control The current emission limits for HC, CO and NOx have been reduced to 4%, 4% and 10% of the uncontrolled pre-1968 values, respectively. Three basic methods used to control engine emissions: 1) Engineering of combustion process - advances in fuel injectors, oxygen sensors, and on-board computers. 2) Optimizing the choice of operating parameters - two NOx control measures that have been used in automobile engines since 1970s are spark retard and EGR. 3) After treatment devices in the exhaust system - catalytic converter
Historical Perspective During the 1940s air pollution as a problem was first recognized in the Los Angeles basin. Two causes of this were the large population density and the natural weather conditions. Smoke and other pollutants combined with fog to form smog. In 1966 HC and CO emission limits were introduced in California. All of North America usually follows Californias lead (all US in 1968). By making more fuel efficient engines and with the use of exhaust after treatment, emissions per vehicle of HC, CO, and NOx were reduced by about 95% during the 1970s and 1980s. Automobiles are more fuel efficient now (2x compared to 1970) but there are more of them and the trend is to larger SUVs, as a result fuel usage is unchanged over this period.
Ontario Drive Clean Program In Ontario every vehicle must undergo a tail pipe emission test every other year to check compliance with regulation: Nitrogen Oxide 984 ppm @ 3000 rpm Carbon Monoxide 0.48% @ 3000 rpm and 1.0% @ 800 rpm Unburned hydrocarbons 86 ppm @ 3000 rpm and 200 ppm @ 800 rpm Particulates (diesels only at present) 30% opacity Evaporative Emissions (SI only at present)
Test results between 1999 and March 2004 Light-Duty Program*: Heavy-Duty Diesel**: 14.6% failed test 4% failed test
Heavy-Duty Non-Diesel**: 27.3% failed test * 6 million vehicles (automobiles, vans, SUVs, pick-ups) in program ** 200,000 vehicles in program
Each of these seven processes allows some fraction of the fuel to escape normal combustion. However, there are a number of hurdles which the HC must pass before it can make it into the exhaust system
The formation and exhausting of HC is very complex. No rigorous models of HC emissions exist today, although many labs are working on the problem.
Piston ring
Blowdown
Exhaust Stroke
BC
TC
Figure 4 depicts HC formation versus EGR rate. High EGR causes an increase in HC emissions. The increase is gradual at first, but the curve becomes steep as the combustion degrades. In fast burn engines, the combustion degradation sets in at higher EGR rates than in slow burn engines.
SI Engine In-cylinder NO Formation Each fluid element burns to its AFT based on its initial temperature, elements that burn first near the spark plug achieve a higher temperature. Since the chemistry is not fast enough the actual NO concentration tends toward but never achieves the equilibrium value.
If NO concentration is lower than equilibrium value NO forms If NO concentration is higher than equilibrium value NO decomposes
Once the element temperature reaches 2000K the reaction rate becomes so slow that the NO concentration effectively freezes at a value greater than the equilibrium value. The total amount of NO that appears in the exhaust is calculated by summing the frozen mass fractions for all the fluid elements: x = 1 x dx
NO
NO
x=0
x=1
-15o (x = 0)
25o (x = 1)
x=0
Equilibrium concentration: based on the local temperature, pressure, equivalence ratio, residual fraction Actual NO concentration: based on kinetics
x=1
One would expect the peak NO concentrations to coincide with highest AFT. Figure 7 shows feed-gas emission of NOx versus A/F ratio. A peak occurs at about 16:1 A/F. Under rich conditions, the amount of available O2 is less than optimal for NOx formation. Under leaner conditions, the peak temperatures drop.
residual gas exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) moisture in the inlet air In CI engines the cylinder gas temperature is governed by the load and injection timing
IDI/NA indirect injection naturally aspirated DI/NA direct injection naturally aspirated
= 0.97
= 0.96
= 1.31 = 1.27
C8H18-air
Diesel particulates consist of solid carbon (soot) at exhaust gas temperatures below 500oC. HC compounds become absorbed on the surface. Particulate can arise if leaded fuel or overly rich fuel-air mixture are used. Burning crankcase oil will also produce smoke especially during engine warm up where the HC condense in the exhaust gas.
i.e. when the (C/O) ratio exceeds 1. Experimentally it is found that the critical C/O ratio for onset of soot formation is between 0.5 and 0.8 The CO, H2, and C(s) are subsequently oxidized in the diffusion flame to CO2 and H2O via the following second 1 stage CO + 1 O CO C ( s ) + O CO H + O H O
2
2 2 2 2 2
Particulates and CI Engines Particulates are a major emissions problem for CI engines. Exhaust smoke limits the full load overall equivalence ratio to about 0.7
= 0.7
= 0.5 = 0.3
One technique for measuring particulate involves diluting the exhaust gas with cool air to freeze the chemistry before measurements
An outstanding problem for diesel engine designers is that in order to reduce NOx one wants to reduce the AFT but this has the adverse effect of decreasing the amount of soot oxidized, or increases the amount of soot in the exhaust.
Particulates and CI Engines An example of this dilemma is changing the start of injection, e.g., increasing the advance increases the AFT
This information is continuously compared with the optimum values stored in the ECU memory. The result of that comparison is translated into signals instructing the unit injector solenoid-actuated spill valve system to deliver the fuel at the timing required by the engine.
Figure 20 General trend on emissions due to the influence of EGR in DI diesel engine.
Control of EGR
EGR systems consist of an electronically controlled, vacuum-operated poppet valve mounted mounted ont eh exhaust or the intake manifold. A current-to-vacuum transducer (CVT) controls the amount of vacuum applied to the EGR valve diaphragm, which in turn lifts the poppet off its seat. The engine ECU contains schedules (look-up tables), which relate engine speed, fueling rate, and mass air flow (MAF). The MAF sensor is located in the air intake system and provides the information to determine EGR valve position and, hence, EGR mass flow is calculated by implication.
Control of EGR
There are a number of disadvantages with this method, namely: Volumetric characteristics of the engine can drift with time due to wear and tear and the build-up of deposits The flow capacity of the EGR system can be affected by partial blocking through deposit build-up (i.e., soot, particulates, and so on and wear of the EGR valve) Blockages in the inlet air filter can seriously affect EGR mass flow Blockages in the exhaust can cause increased exhaust pressure
Catalytic Converter All catalytic converters are built in a honeycomb or pellet geometry to expose the exhaust gases to a large surface made of one or more noble metals: platinum, palladium and rhodium. Rhodium used to remove NO and platinum used to remove HC and CO.
Lead and sulfur in the exhaust gas severely inhibit the operation of a catalytic converter (poison).
Three-way Catalytic Converter A catalyst forces a reaction at a temperature lower than normally occurs. As the exhaust gases flow through the catalyst, the NO reacts with the CO, HC and H2 via a reduction reaction on the catalyst surface. e.g., NO+CON2+CO2 , NO+H2 N2+H2O, and others The remaining CO and HC are removed through an oxidation reaction forming CO2 and H2O products (air added to exhaust after exhaust valve). A three-way catalysts will function correctly only if the exhaust gas composition corresponds to nearly (1%) stoichiometric combustion. If the exhaust is too lean NO are not destroyed If the exhaust is too rich CO and HC are not destroyed A closed-loop control system with an oxygen sensor in the exhaust is used to determine the actual A/F ratio and used to adjust the fuel injector so that the A/F ratio is near stoichiometric.
Since thermal efficiency is highest for slightly lean conditions it may seem that the use of a catalytic converter is a rather severe constraint. The same high efficiency can be achieved using a near stoichiometric mixture and diluting by EGR
Effect of Temperature The temperature at which the converter becomes 50% efficient is referred to as the light-off temperature. The converter is not very effective during the warm up period of the engine
Catalytic Converter for Diesels For Diesel engines catalytic converters are used to control HC and CO, but reduction of NO emissions is poor because the engine runs lean in order to avoid excess smoke. The NO is controlled by retarding the fuel injection from 20o to 5o before TC in order to reduce the peak combustion temperature.
This has a slight negative impact, increases the fuel consumption by about 15%.