Unesco Red Book On Endangered Languages: Europe: South Sámi

Endangered languages in Europe: report
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UNESCO RED BOOK ON ENDANGERED LANGUAGES: EUROPE

by Tapani Salminen <tasalmin@cc.helsinki.fi> Tapani Salminen <tasalmin@cc.helsinki.fi> 1993--1999. All rights reserved. The report may be used for private study purposes, and for that use stored in electronic form. No part of the report may be printed, reproduced, or transmitted in any form without the prior consent of the author. Please read the background information and use the indexes for easier access.
South Smi
1. Variant(s): (for Smi) also spelled Sami, Saami; Lappish (derogatory) 2. Geographical location: Sweden: Idre area in Dalarna Province, Hrjedalen, Jmtland, and sele Lappmark; Norway: Trondelag Province and southern Nordland Province 3. Relationships: /Smi/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic) 4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: very few children learn the language, and probably none of them become active users (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: a few hundred speakers, many of whom prefer Scandinavian (Swedish-Norwegian), out of a much larger ethnic population (e) degree of speakers' competence: most speakers are likely to mix Scandinavian elements in their speech 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Knut Bergsland: Sydsamisk grammatikk. Kristiansand 1982. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Knut Bergsland (Oslo) 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Ume Smi
1. Variant(s): (for Smi) also spelled Sami, Saami; Lappish (derogatory) 2. Geographical location: Sweden: Lycksele Lappmark and a part of Pite Lappmark; formerly also adjacent Norway
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3. Relationships: /Smi/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic) 4. Present state of the language: NEARLY EXTINCT [in Sweden; EXTINCT in Norway] (a) children speakers: none (b) mean age of youngest speakers: approx. 60 (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: less than 20 speakers (e) degree of speakers' competence: possibly not fully competent 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): -(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): little published (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): C. A. Calleberg, Olavi Korhonen (Ume) 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Pite Smi
1. Variant(s): Arjeplog Smi; (for Smi) also spelled Sami, Saami; Lappish (derogatory) 2. Geographical location: Sweden: most parts of Pite Lappmark; formerly also adjacent Norway 3. Relationships: /Smi/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic) 4. Present state of the language: NEARLY EXTINCT [in Sweden; EXTINCT in Norway] (a) children speakers: none (b) mean age of youngest speakers: approx. 60 (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: less than 20 speakers (e) degree of speakers' competence: possibly not fully competent 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Juhani Lehtiranta: Arjeploginsaamen nne- ja taivutusopin ppiirteet. Helsinki 1992. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a little (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Olavi Korhonen (Ume), Juhani Lehtiranta (Helsinki) 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Lule Smi
1. Variant(s): (for Smi) also spelled Sami, Saami; Lappish (derogatory)
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2. Geographical location: Sweden: Lule Lappmark; Norway: northern Nordland Province 3. Relationships: /Smi/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic) 4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: a small number of children learn the language, but very few of them become active users (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: maximum 2,000 speakers (e) degree of speakers' competence: younger speakers may be less competent and prefer Scandinavian (Swedish-Norwegian) 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Nils Eric Spiik: Lulesamisk grammatik. Lule 1977. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a little (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Olavi Korhonen (Ume), Pekka Sammallahti (Oulu) 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
North Smi
1. Variant(s): (for Smi) also spelled Sami, Saami; Lappish (derogatory) 2. Geographical location: Sweden: Torne Lappmark; Norway: most parts of Troms and Finnmark provinces; Finland: Utsjoki and Enonteki counties, western Inari County, and Vuotso region of Sodankyl County; formerly extended to Petsamo area in Murmansk Province of the Russian Federation 3. Relationships: /Smi/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic); dialects: Torne Smi, (East and West) Finnmark Smi, Sea Smi 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED [in Sweden, Norway and Finland; EXTINCT in the Russian Federation] (a) children speakers: in the core area in central Finnmark Province most children learn the language, and are likely to become active users; in the adjacent areas of Sweden and Finland, many children also learn the language; in other areas, the chances are much worse (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: Sweden: a few thousand speakers; Norway: more than 20,000 speakers; Finland: approx. 1,600 speakers (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Hans-Hermann Bartens: Lehrbuch der
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saamischen (lappischen) Sprache. Hamburg 1989. | Klaus Peter Nickel: Samisk grammatikk. 1990. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Pekka Sammallahti (Oulu) 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Inari Smi
1. Variant(s): (for Smi) also spelled Sami, Saami; Lappish (derogatory) 2. Geographical location: Finland: central Inari County of Lapland Province 3. Relationships: /Smi/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic) 4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: very few children learn the language, and probably none of them become active users (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: approx. 300 (e) degree of speakers' competence: all idiolects are heavily influenced by Finnish 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): -(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a little (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Pekka Sammallahti (Oulu) 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Kemi Smi
1. Variant(s): (for Smi) also spelled Sami, Saami; Lappish (derogatory) 2. Geographical location: last spoken in Sodankyl and Kuolajrvi (Salla) counties of Lapland Province of Finland where became extinct in the 19th century; formerly in more southerly areas as far as Kuusamo County 3. Relationships: /Smi/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic) 4. Present state of the language: EXTINCT (a) children speakers: (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group:
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(e) degree of speakers' competence: 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): -(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): very little (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Pekka Sammallahti (Oulu) 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Skolt Smi
1. Variant(s): (in Finnish) koltta; (for Smi) also spelled Sami, Saami; Lappish (derogatory) 2. Geographical location: Finland: Sevettijrvi area in Inari County of Lapland Province, mainly by people evacuated from former Finnish territory of Petsamo; the Russian Federation: earlier westernmost Murmansk Province, now translocated in Lovozero, central Murmansk Province; formerly also easternmost Finnmark Province of Norway 3. Relationships: /Smi/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic) 4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED [in Finland; NEARLY EXTINCT in the Russian Federation; EXTINCT in Norway] (a) children speakers: Finland: very few children learn the language, and probably none of them become active users; the Russian Federation: none (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: Finland: approx. 300; the Russian Federation: approx. 20 (e) degree of speakers' competence: only elderly speakers appear fully competent 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Mikko Korhonen, Jouni Mosnikoff, Pekka Sammallahti: Koltansaamen opas. Helsinki 1973. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Leif Rantala (Rovaniemi), Pekka Sammallahti (Oulu) 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Akkala Smi
1. Variant(s): Babino Smi; (for Smi) also spelled Sami, Saami; Lappish (derogatory) 2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: earlier west-central Murmansk Province, now translocated in Lovozero, central Murmansk Province
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3. Relationships: /Smi/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic) 4. Present state of the language: NEARLY EXTINCT (a) children speakers: none (b) mean age of youngest speakers: approx. 50 (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 8 speakers; some descendants of Akkala Smi speak Kildin Smi, but most have shifted to Russian (e) degree of speakers' competence: possibly not fully competent 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): -(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): little published (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Leif Rantala (Rovaniemi), Pekka Sammallahti (Oulu) 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Kildin Smi
1. Variant(s): (for Smi) also spelled Sami, Saami; Lappish (derogatory) 2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: earlier many locations in central Murmansk Province, now concentrated in Lovozero 3. Relationships: /Smi/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic) 4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: probably none (b) mean age of youngest speakers: approx. 20 (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: approx. 800 speakers, cf. combined 797 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census for the four Smi languages, almost all of whom are Kildin speakers (e) degree of speakers' competence: at least elderly speakers are fully competent 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): G. M. Kert: Saamskij jazyk. Leningrad 1971. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Leif Rantala (Rovaniemi), Pekka Sammallahti (Oulu) 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
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Ter Smi
1. Variant(s): (for Smi) also spelled Sami, Saami; Lappish (derogatory) 2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: earlier eastern Murmansk Province, now translocated in Lovozero, central Murmansk Province 3. Relationships: /Smi/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic) 4. Present state of the language: NEARLY EXTINCT (a) children speakers: none (b) mean age of youngest speakers: approx. 50 (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 6 speakers; some descendants of Ter Smi speak Kildin Smi, but most have shifted to Russian (e) degree of speakers' competence: possibly not fully competent 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): -(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): little published (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Leif Rantala (Rovaniemi), Pekka Sammallahti (Oulu) 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Livonian
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: Latvia: along the northern coast of Curonia in the northwest, but also scattered elsewhere; formerly also in the historical province of Livonia east of the Gulf of Riga 3. Relationships: /Finnic/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic) 4. Present state of the language: NEARLY EXTINCT (a) children speakers: none (b) mean age of youngest speakers: approx. 50 (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 99 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census, but reports indicate either 15 to 20 or approx. 35 active speakers, all of whom certainly prefer Latvian (e) degree of speakers' competence: possibly not fully competent 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Tiit-Rein Viitso: Livskij jazyk. Jazyki mira: ural'skie jazyki. Moskva 1993. 76--90.
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(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Kersti Boiko, Tiina Kukk, Seppo Suhonen, Tiit-Rein Viitso, Eduard Vri 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Votian
1. Variant(s): (in Russian) vodskij [jazyk], (in Estonian) vadja, (in Finnish) vatja 2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: a few small inland pockets south of the Gulf of Finland in Kingisepp County in westernmost St. Petersburg Province 3. Relationships: /Finnic/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic) 4. Present state of the language: NEARLY EXTINCT (a) children speakers: none (b) mean age of youngest speakers: approx. 50 (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: approx. 50 speakers at most, all of whom prefer Russian (e) degree of speakers' competence: all idiolects are heavily contaminated by Ingrian, Finnish and Russian 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Arvo Laanest: Vodskij jazyk. Jazyki mira: ural'skie jazyki. Moskva 1993. 48--55. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Paul Alvre, Jarmo Elomaa (Helsinki), Heinike Heinsoo 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Ingrian
1. Variant(s): (in Russian) izhorskij [jazyk], (in Estonian) isuri, (in Finnish) inkeroinen 2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: three small areas on the southern shore of the Gulf of Finland in St. Petersburg Province: (i) cape of (in Finnish) Hevaa in the Kovashi River area in Lomonosov County, (ii) cape of Soykin (Soikkola) in Kingisepp County, and (iii) cape of Kurkola in the lower Luga River area in the same county; a fourth area was formerly along the Oredezh River in Gatchina County 3. Relationships: /Finnic/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic)
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4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: probably none (b) mean age of youngest speakers: approx. 40 (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 302 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census; most prefer other languages (e) degree of speakers' competence: most idiolects are heavily contaminated by Finnish and Russian 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Arvo Laanest: Izhorskij jazyk. Jazyki mira: ural'skie jazyki. Moskva 1993. 55--63. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a little (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Arvo Laanest 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Karelian (proper)
1. Variant(s): (in Karelian and Finnish) Karjala 2. Geographical location: spoken in several separate areas: Finland: (i) by people evacuated from former Finnish territories north of the Ladoga Sea, mainly Kuopio Province but also scattered elsewhere in the country, and (ii) two border villages in Suomussalmi County of Oulu Province; the Russian Federation: (i) central and northern Karelian Republic, (ii) small pockets in the vicinity of Tikhvin and Novgorod, and (iii) central Tver' Province and adjacent Dyorzha and Ves'egonsk areas 3. Relationships: /Finnic/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic) 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED [in the Russian Federation; SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED in Finland] (a) children speakers: in Finland: none; on the Russian side, a number of children learn the language, but probably all of them become more fluent in Russian and may not become active users of Karelian (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: a few thousand speakers in Finland; the Russian Federation: possibly approx. 35,000 speakers, cf. combined 62,542 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census for Karelian, Olonetsian, and Ludian (the figure may actually be too low, because many speakers outside the Republic might not have been enumerated as such); there are more Karelian speakers in the Tver' area than in Karelian Republic (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally competent, though some speakers in the Russian Federation mix the language with Russian elements, and speakers in Finland use mostly Finnish 5. Sources:
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(i) information (about the language): V. D. Rjagoev: Karel'skij jazyk. Jazyki mira: ural'skie jazyki. Moskva 1993. 63--76. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Pertti Virtaranta, Pekka Zaikov, Jaan ispuu 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Olonetsian
1. Variant(s): (in Olonetsian) livvi, (in Russian) livvikovskij [jazyk], (in Finnish) aunus 2. Geographical location: Finland: by people evacuated from former Finnish territories north of the Ladoga Sea, mainly in Kuopio Province but also scattered elsewhere in the country; the Russian Federation: in southwestern Karelian Republic northeast of the Ladoga Sea 3. Relationships: /Finnic/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic) 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED [in the Russian Federation; SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED in Finland] (a) children speakers: in Finland: none; on the Russian side, a few children learn the language, but most if not all of them become more fluent in Russian and may not become active users of Olonetsian (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: Finland: a few thousand speakers; the Russian Federation: possibly approx. 25,000 speakers (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally competent, though some speakers in the Russian Federation mix the language with Russian elements, and speakers in Finland use mostly Finnish 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): -(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Matti Larjavaara, Anna Nazarova, Pertti Virtaranta 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Ludian
1. Variant(s): (in Ludian) lidi, (in Russian) ljudikovskij [jazyk], (in Finnish) lyydi 2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: along a narrow strip streching from north to south in southern Karelian Republic
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3. Relationships: /Finnic/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic) 4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: very few if any (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: possibly approx. 5,000 speakers (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally competent, though some speakers mix the language with Russian elements 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): -(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Pertti Virtaranta 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Vepsian
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: (i) Northern Vepsian in a small area in Prionega County, southeastern Karelian Republic, (ii) Central Vepsian in a larger area across the boundary of St. Petersburg and Vologda provinces (Podporozh'e and Boksitogorsk counties of the former, and Vytegra and Babaevo counties of the latter), and (iii) Southern Vepsian in Efimovskiy County in southeastern St. Petersburg Province 3. Relationships: /Finnic/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic) 4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: in a couple of villages, some children learn the language, but even they are not likely to become active users (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 6,355 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census (the figure may actually be slightly too low) (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally competent, though some speakers mix the language with Russian elements 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): M. I. Zajceva: Vepsskij jazyk. Jazyki mira: ural'skie jazyki. Moskva 1993. 36--48. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Irma Mullonen, M. I. Zajceva 6. Remarks:
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7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Erzya
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: mainly in eastern Mordvin Republic but also small pockets in the northwest and south; also several areas in Nizhniy-Novgorod, Samara, Saratov and Orenburg provinces, Tatarstan and Bashkortostan 3. Relationships: /Mordvin/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic) 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: quite many children learn the language, but only few of them are likely to become active users; the situation is actually better in the Eastern diaspora areas than in the Mordvin Republic (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: approx. 500,000 speakers; cf. combined 773,827 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census for the two Mordvin languages (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally competent, though some speakers mix the language with Russian elements 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): A. P. Feoktistov: Erzjanskij jazyk. Jazyki mira: ural'skie jazyki. Moskva 1993. 190--208. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): D. V. Cygankin (Saransk), G. I. Ermushkin (Moscow), Lszl Keresztes (Debrecen), Merja Salo (Helsinki) 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Moksha
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: mainly in western Mordvin Republic, extending to Ryazan' and Penza provinces; also in pockets in Tatarstan and Orenburg Province 3. Relationships: /Mordvin/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic) 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: quite many children learn the language, but only few of them are likely to become active users
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(b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: approx. 250,000 speakers; cf. Erzya (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally competent, though some speakers mix the language with Russian elements 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): A. P. Feoktistov: Mokshanskij jazyk. Jazyki mira: ural'skie jazyki. Moskva 1993. 178--189. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): A. P. Feoktistov (Saransk), Lszl Keresztes (Debrecen) 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Western Mari
1. Variant(s): (for Mari) Cheremis (derogatory) 2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: westernmost parts of Mari Republic and parts of Vyatka and Nizhniy-Novgorod provinces 3. Relationships: /Mari/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic) 4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: few (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: less than 50,000 speakers; cf. Eastern Mari (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally competent, though some speakers mix the language with Russian elements 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): E. I. Kovedjaeva: Gornomarijskij variant literaturnogo marijskogo jazyka. Jazyki mira: ural'skie jazyki. Moskva 1993. 164-173. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Alho Alhoniemi (Turku), Jurij Anduganov (Yoshkar-Ola), Gbor Bereczki (Udine), I. S. Galkin (Yoshkar-Ola), E. I. Kovedjaeva, Sirkka Saarinen (Turku) 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993 [updated 31 Dec 1995]
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Eastern Mari
1. Variant(s): (for Mari) Cheremis (derogatory) 2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: central and eastern parts of Mari Republic and parts of Bashkortostan, Tatarstan, Udmurt Republic, and Ekaterinburg, Perm' and Orenburg provinces 3. Relationships: /Mari/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic) 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: quite many children learn the language, and some of them are likely to become active users, but only in remote rural areas; in eastern diaspora areas in Bashkortostan practically all children still learn the language (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: approx. 500,000 speakers; cf. combined 542,160 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census for the two Mari languages (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): E. I. Kovedjaeva: Marijskij jazyk. Jazyki mira: ural'skie jazyki. Moskva 1993. 148--164. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Alho Alhoniemi (Turku), Jurij Anduganov (Yoshkar-Ola), Gbor Bereczki (Udine), I. S. Galkin (Yoshkar-Ola), E. I. Kovedjaeva, Sirkka Saarinen (Turku) 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993 [updated 31 Dec 1995]
Udmurt
1. Variant(s): Votyak (derogatory) 2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: Udmurt Republic, extending to Tatarstan, Mari Republic, Bashkortostan, and Vyatka and Perm' provinces 3. Relationships: /Permian/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic) 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: quite many children learn the language, but only few of them may become active users (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 520,101 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent
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5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): V. K. Kel'makov: Udmurtskij jazyk. Jazyki mira: ural'skie jazyki. Moskva 1993. 239--255. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Sndor Cscs (Budapest), V. K. Kel'makov (Izhevsk), Pirkko Suihkonen (Helsinki), I. V. Tarakanov (Izhevsk) 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Permyak
1. Variant(s): Komi-Permyak 2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: Komi-Permyak District of Perm' Province, extending to Vyatka Province; a separate group is located in the Yaz'va Valley in northeastern Perm' Province 3. Relationships: /Komi/Permian/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic) 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: quite many children learn the language, and some of them are likely to become active users, but only in remote rural areas (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 106,531 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): R. M. Batalova: Komi-permjackij jazyk. Jazyki mira: ural'skie jazyki. Moskva 1993. 229--239. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): R. M. Batalova (Moscow) 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Komi (proper)
1. Variant(s): Zyryan (derogatory), Komi-Zyryan 2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: Komi Republic, and parts of Nenets District of Arkhangel'sk Province, Yamal Nenets District of Tyumen' Province, and Murmansk Province
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3. Relationships: /Komi/Permian/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic) 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: quite many children learn the language, but only few of them are likely to become active users (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 242,515 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): R. M. Batalova: Komi(-zyrjanskij) jazyk. Jazyki mira: ural'skie jazyki. Moskva 1993. 214--229. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): E. A. Cypanov (Syktyvkar), Anu-Reet Hausenberg (Tallinn), E. A. Igushev (Syktyvkar), Paula Kokkonen (Helsinki), Kroly Rdei (Wien) 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Polabian
1. Variant(s): Elbe Slavonic 2. Geographical location: in the Elbe River basin in northeastern Germany until extinction approx. 1750 3. Relationships: /Lechitic/West Slavonic/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: EXTINCT (a) children speakers: (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: (e) degree of speakers' competence: 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): -(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): little (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Reinhold Olesch 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
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Slovincian
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: parishes of Schmolsin and Garde in Pomerania in present-day Poland, until extinction approx. 1900 3. Relationships: /Kashubian/Lechitic/West Slavonic/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: EXTINCT (a) children speakers: (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: (e) degree of speakers' competence: 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): -(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): little (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Jadwiga Majowa 6. Remarks: Slovincian is so closely related to Kashubian that it must be regarded as its dialect, but it is conventionally treated separately 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993 [updated 18 Aug 1999]
Kashubian (proper)
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: Poland: dispersed in an area west and northwest of Gdansk (Wejherowo, Lebork, Bytowo, Pock, Kartuzy, Koscierzyna, and Chojnice districts) 3. Relationships: /Kashubian/Lechitic/West Slavonic/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: few if any (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: a few thousand speakers; reports of over 100,000 speakers are false and based on the number of ethnic Kashubians, great majority of whom speak a regional variant of Polish (e) degree of speakers' competence: not known in detail 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): -(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Jadwiga Majowa
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6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Lower Sorbian
1. Variant(s): (for Sorbian) Lusatian, Wendish 2. Geographical location: Germany: lower Lausitz area around Cottbus 3. Relationships: /Sorbian/West Slavonic/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: some children learn the language, but they are not likely to become active users (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: probably less than 10,000 speakers; cf. Upper Sorbian (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): -(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Klaus-Peter Jannasch 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Upper Sorbian
1. Variant(s): (for Sorbian) Lusatian, Wendish 2. Geographical location: Germany: upper Lausitz area around Bautzen 3. Relationships: /Sorbian/West Slavonic/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: some children learn the language, but they are not likely to become active users (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: probably less than 20,000 speakers; combined 70,000 to 110,000 reported for the two Sorbian languages, but the factual number may be approx. 20,000; about one third speak Lower Sorbian and two thirds Upper Sorbian (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent
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5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Siegfried Michalk: Deutsch und Sorbisch in der Lausitz. Germanische Linguistik 101--103, 1990, 427--444. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Jurij Kral, Frido Michalk, Heinz Schuster-^Sewc 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Rusyn
1. Variant(s): Ruthenian, Carpatho-Ruthenian 2. Geographical location: Slovakia: Preshov region; the Ukraine: Transcarpathia and northern Bukovina; possibly also in southern Bukovina of Romania 3. Relationships: /South East Slavonic/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED [in the Ukraine; SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED in Slovakia] (a) children speakers: a number of children learn the language, but they may not become active users (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: Slovakia, possibly 100,000, but nearly two-thirds are reported as culturally and linguistically assimilated to the Slovaks; the Ukraine, probably a couple of hundreds of thousands (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent, though Ukrainian or Russian influence is likely to be strong for some individuals 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Paul R. Magocsi: Carpatho-Rusyn studies: an annotated bibliography. Vol. I: 1975--1984. New York 1988. | Gunther Spiess: Zur gegenwertigen Situation des Rusinischen. Europische Sprachminderheiten im Vergleich. Hrsg. von Robert Hinderling. Stuttgart 1986. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Gunther Spiess 6. Remarks: Ethnic Rusyns in Vojvodina, Serbia, speak Slovak and not Rusyn. 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
(Old) Prussian
1. Variant(s):
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2. Geographical location: in the 13th century, coastal areas of the Baltic from Niemen to the west of Vistula; in the 16th century, only in Samland and Kurische Nehrung; became extinct in the 17th century 3. Relationships: /West Baltic/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: EXTINCT (a) children speakers: (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: (e) degree of speakers' competence: 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Wolfram Euler: Das Altpreuische als Volksprache im Kreise der indogermanischen und baltischen Sprachen. Innsbruck 1988. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Wojciech Smoczynski, Vladimir N. Toporov 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Western Frisian
1. Variant(s): (in Frisian) frysk, (in Netherlandic) fries 2. Geographical location: the Netherlands: Friesland province 3. Relationships: /Frisian/West Germanic/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: quite many children learn the language, but probably all of them become more fluent in Dutch and may not become active users of Frisian (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: reports indicate up to 700,000 speakers; the factual number may be about half of that, and even among them there are many people who choose to speak mostly or always Dutch (e) degree of speakers' competence: elderly people are likely to be fully competent 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Germen J. de Haan: Wetenschap en ideologie in de Friese taalkunde. Ljouwert/Utrecht 1988. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Germen J. de Haan, Alastair G. H. Walker
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Eastern Frisian
1. Variant(s): Saterland Frisian 2. Geographical location: Germany: towns of Strcklingen, Ramsloh, and Scharrel in Saterland area west of Oldenburg 3. Relationships: /Frisian/West Germanic/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: probably none (b) mean age of youngest speakers: approx. 20 (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: probably less than 1,000 speakers (e) degree of speakers' competence: all idiolects are likely to be heavily contaminated by German 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): -(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Alastair G. H. Walker 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Northern Frisian
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: Germany: western coast of Schleswig north of Husum and adjacent islands of Fhr, Amrum, Sylt, Helgoland, and the Halligen Islands; formerly extended to the island of Wangerooge and adjacent Denmark 3. Relationships: /Frisian/West Germanic/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED [in Germany; EXTINCT in Denmark] (a) children speakers: a small number of children learn the language, but very few of them become active users (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: approx. 10,000 speakers,
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but only the Ferring dialect of Fhr and Amrum is actively used; it has approx. 2,000 speakers (e) degree of speakers' competence: most idiolects are heavily contaminated by German 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): -(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Alastair G. H. Walker 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Cimbrian
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: Italy: towns of Giazza (Glietzen, Ljetzen), Roana (Rabam), and Lusern in Sette and Tredici Communi (Sieben and Dreizehn Gemeinde) south of Trent Province, possibly extending to adjacent Venetia Province 3. Relationships: /West Germanic/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: a number of children apparently learn the language, but it is not known whether they become active users (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: several thousands, but exact figures are lacking (e) degree of speakers' competence: due to the proximity of Bavarian German and Venetian Italian speakers, many speakers may be less competent in Cimbrian 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): -(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): little published (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Dietrich Strauss 6. Remarks: there is some confusion about the genetic position of Cimbrian: while usually regarded as an aberrant form of Bavarian, there have been claims of its direct affiliation to Langobardian 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Norn
1. Variant(s):
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2. Geographical location: last spoken in the Shetland Islands where became extinct in approx. 1880; known also from the Orkney Islands; formerly in larger areas of Scotland 3. Relationships: /North Germanic/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: EXTINCT (a) children speakers: (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: many Shetland and Orkney natives feel attached to a distinct ethnic group (e) degree of speakers' competence: 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): -(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): very little (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Laurits Rendboe 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Gothic
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: last spoken in Crimea, the Ukraine, where became extinct in the 18th century; earlier spoken in large areas in southern and eastern Europe 3. Relationships: /East Germanic/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: EXTINCT (a) children speakers: (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: (e) degree of speakers' competence: 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): -(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Gerhard Kbler 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Irish Gaelic
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1. Variant(s): (only) Gaelic, Irish, Erse 2. Geographical location: the Republic of Ireland: four principal areas in the west, two in Donegal County, one each in Galway and Kerry counties, plus eight small pockets, also in Mayo, Cork, and Waterford counties; formerly also in Northern Ireland 3. Relationships: /Goidelic/Celtic/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED [in the Republic of Ireland; EXTINCT in Northern Ireland] (a) children speakers: a number of children learn the language, but they may not become active users (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 29,000 people in the four principal areas, plus less than a thousand in each of the pockets (1976); perhaps less than 20,000 today (e) degree of speakers' competence: there are not many fully competent speakers among younger generations 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): -(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Desmond Fennell, Reg Hindley 6. Remarks: The official cencus figures include many English speakers who have learned Irish at school. 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Manx Gaelic
1. Variant(s): Manx 2. Geographical location: Isle of Man until the death of the last speaker in 1974 3. Relationships: /Goidelic/Celtic/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: EXTINCT (a) children speakers: (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: native Manx people, though monolingual in English, regard themselves as a separate people; cf. Remarks (e) degree of speakers' competence: 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): George Broderick: A handbook of late spoken Manx. Tbingen 1984. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
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(iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): George Broderick 6. Remarks: There are people living in the Isle of Man who have studied Manx as a foreign language, but who wish to be called speakers of Manx. 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Scottish Gaelic
1. Variant(s): (only) Gaelic 2. Geographical location: Scotland: rural areas of the Western Isles (Lewis, Harris, North Uist, South Uist, Barra) and Skye, and a few locations in the rest of the Inner Isles and the Highland mainland (mainly Sutherland, Ross-Cromarty, Inverness, and Argyll counties) 3. Relationships: /Goidelic/Celtic/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: a number of children learn the language, but they may not become active users (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 20,000 to 30,000 active users; more than 50,000 others claim knowledge of the language (e) degree of speakers' competence: regular users appear fully competent 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Gaelic and Scotland. Ed. by William Gillies. Edinburgh 1989. | journal Scottish Gaelic Studies. Aberdeen. | journal Scottish language. Aberdeen. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Derick Thomson (Glasgow) 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Welsh
1. Variant(s): (in Welsh) Cymraeg 2. Geographical location: Wales: most northern and western parts, plus a small extension to England around Oswestry; early last century almost all of Wales, and also Merseyside and larger areas of Shropshire, England 3. Relationships: /Brythonic/Celtic/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED [in Wales; SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED in England]
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(a) children speakers: many children learn the language, and recent reports indicate that the state of Welsh is slowly getting better, but it is too early to say if this will stop the gradual erosion of the language area (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: official figures range up to 550,000 but the number of regular users may be only half of that (e) degree of speakers' competence: regular users appear fully competent 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Henry Lewis: Die kymrische Sprache. Innsbruck 1989. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): C. H. Williams 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Cornish
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: Cornwall, England, until the death of the last speaker, which probably took place in 1777 3. Relationships: /Brythonic/Celtic/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: EXTINCT (a) children speakers: (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: (e) degree of speakers' competence: 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Glanville Price: The languages of Britain. London 1984. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a little (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Glanville Price 6. Remarks: reports of modern speakers of Cornish actually refer to people who have studied an artificial language based on Cornish, called 'Cornic' by Price (1984) 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Breton
1. Variant(s): (in Breton) Brezhoneg
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2. Geographical location: France: western Brittany, and scattered in eastern Brittany 3. Relationships: /Brythonic/Celtic/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: a few children learn the language, but most cease to use it throughout the school years (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: approx. 500,000 regular users; more than a million claim some knowledge of the language (e) degree of speakers' competence: regular users are mostly fully competent, though even they mix French elements in their speech 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Marianne R. Berger: Sprachkontakte in der Bretagne. Tbingen 1988. | Malachy McKenna: A handbook of modern spoken Breton. Tbingen 1988. | Ian Press: A grammar of Modern Breton. Berlin 1986. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Jean Le D, Malachy McKenna 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Asturian
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: Spain: historical province of Asturias 3. Relationships: /Ibero-Romance/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: some children learn the language, but most if not all of them become more fluent in Castilian Spanish and may not become active users of Asturian (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: not known (e) degree of speakers' competence: many speakers mix Castilian elements in their speech 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Xos Lluis Garca Arias: Asturianisch. Lexicon der Romanistische Linguistik. VI, 1. 652--693. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a little (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Xos Lluis Garca Arias (Oviedo) 6. Remarks:
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Leonese
1. Variant(s): known as Mirandese in Portugal 2. Geographical location: Spain: historical province of Len, extending to the northeastern corner of Portugal 3. Relationships: /Ibero-Romance/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: in Spain, some children may learn the language, but most if not all of them become more fluent in Castilian Spanish and may not become active users of Leonese; in Portugal, the language is more widely used (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: in Spain, not known; in Portugal, possibly approx. 10,000 speakers (e) degree of speakers' competence: many speakers mix Castilian elements in their speech 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Joachim Born: Leonesisch. Lexicon der Romanistische Linguistik. VI, 1. 693--700. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a little (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Joachim Born (Mannheim), Jess Neira Martnez 6. Remarks: Extremeo in Extremadura is sometimes regarded as a co-dialect 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993 [updated 21 Dec 1999]
Aragonese
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: Spain: historical province of Aragn, and parts of Navarra 3. Relationships: /Ibero-Romance/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: some children learn the language, but most if not all of them become more fluent in Castilian Spanish and may not become active users of Aragonese (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 30,000 regular users
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reported (1989) (e) degree of speakers' competence: many speakers mix Castilian elements in their speech 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Aragonesisch/Navarresisch. Lexicon der Romanistische Linguistik. VI, 1. 37--54. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Manuel Alvar, Francho Nagore 6. Remarks: Navarrese is a co-dialect of Aragonese 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Mozarabic
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: southern Spain until extinction in early Modern Ages 3. Relationships: /Ibero-Romance/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: EXTINCT (a) children speakers: (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: (e) degree of speakers' competence: 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): -(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): very little (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): -6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Gascon
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: France: historical province of Gascogne (southwestern France), though actively used in the Barn region (Pyrnes) only; Spain: the Aran Valley in the Pyrenees 3. Relationships: /Occitano-Romance/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED [in Spain; SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED in
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France] (a) children speakers: France: only few children learn the language, and probably none of them become active users; Spain: the situation is much better, but the total number of speakers is low (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: total number of speakers reported as 250,000 (1990); Spain: 4,800 speakers (1984) (e) degree of speakers' competence: at least elderly speakers both in Barn and Aran appear to be fully competent; elsewhere in France, French influence is extremely strong, and this may be so for many speakers in Barn, too; in Aran, there is notable Catalan and Spanish influence 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): see Languedocien (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Xavier Ravier (Toulouse) 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Languedocien
1. Variant(s): Lengadoucian, Occitan (obsolete) 2. Geographical location: France: most parts of the historical provinces of Guyenne and Languedoc (in an area from Bordeaux in northwest to Montpellier in southeast, from Toulouse in southwest to Rodez in northeast) 3. Relationships: /Occitan/Occitano-Romance/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: very few children learn the language, and probably none of them become active users (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 10% of the population of the region are reportedly fluent speakers; there may be quite few active users (e) degree of speakers' competence: most or all speakers mix French elements in their speech 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Okzitanisch. Lexicon der Romanistische Linguistik. VI, 2. 1--126. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Philippe Blanchet, Jacques Boisgontier 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
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Auvergnat
1. Variant(s): Auvernhas 2. Geographical location: France: historical province of Auvergne, the departments of Cantal (except Aurillac region), Haute-Loire, and Puy-de-Dme 3. Relationships: /Occitan/Occitano-Romance/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: very few children learn the language, and probably none of them become active users (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: not known, but the number of actual users is probably quite low (e) degree of speakers' competence: even the language of the most competent speakers is likely to be heavily contaminated by French 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): see Languedocien (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Jean-Claude Potte 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Limousin
1. Variant(s): Lemosin 2. Geographical location: France: mainly historical province of Limousin, the departments of Charente (partly), Creuse, Corrze, Dordogne (except sothern part) and Haute-Vienne 3. Relationships: /Occitan/Occitano-Romance/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: very few children learn the language, and probably none of them become active users (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: reportedly spoken by 10% to 20% of the population of the region; the actual number of speakers may be quite low (e) degree of speakers' competence: in the northern dialects, there are many inherent French features, but in all areas, even the most fluent speakers are likely to mix French elements in their speech
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5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): see Languedocien (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Jean-Claude Potte 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Provenal
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: France: the historical province of Provence as well as south of Dauphin and the Nimes region in Languedoc; Italy: upper valleys of Piedmont (Val Mairo, Val Varacho, Val d'Esturo, Entraigas, Limoun, Vinai, Pignerol, Sestriero) 3. Relationships: /Occitan/Occitano-Romance/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: in France, probably a number of children learn the language, but they are not likely to become active users; in Italy, the language is still widely used (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 250,000 fluent speakers reported in France (1990), but not all of them are likely to be active users; 100,000 speakers of all ages in Italy (1990) (e) degree of speakers' competence: younger speakers are likely to be less competent, and most speakers mix French or Italian elements in their speech 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Okzitanisch. Lexicon der Romanistische Linguistik. VI, 2. 1--126. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Philippe Blanchet 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1995
Walloon
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: Belgium: most of Wallonia, i.e. the provinces of Liege (cities: Liege, Verviers, Malmedy), Namur (Namur, Dinant), Brabant wallon (Louvain-la-Neuve, Nivelles), Luxembourg (Neufchteau, Bastogne) except the regions of Virton (Lorrain
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[French]) and Arlon (Letzebuergesch) and, finally, the province of Hainaut (Charleroi, La Louvire) except the area from Tournai to Mons (where Picard [French] is spoken); France: in the north of the departement des Ardennes (town of Givet); Luxembourg: formerly two or three villages (Doncols, Sonlez) 3. Relationships: /Gallo-Romance/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED [in Belgium; SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED in France; EXTINCT in Luxembourg] (a) children speakers: in Belgium, a number of children learn the language, but they are not likely to become active users; in France, there are probably no children who learn the language; in Luxembourg, the last speaker died in the 1970s (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: in Belgium, active speakers amount 10% of a population of 3,200,000, passive knowledge being still much more frequent; in Luxembourg, a figure 1,000 is reported but it refers to members of the ethnic group with no speakers; in France, a small number (e) degree of speakers' competence: younger speakers are likely to be less competent, and most speakers mix French elements in their speech 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Limes I; Les langues rgionales romanes en Wallonie, Bruxelles, 1992 | Lorint Henchel (personal communication) (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): -6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1995 [updated 20 Dec 1999]
Francoprovenal
1. Variant(s): Franco-Provenal 2. Geographical location: France: historical provinces of Savoie and Lyonnais, north of Dauphin, parts of Bourgogne and Franche-Comt; Italy: Vall d'Aosta extending to Piemonte; Switzerland: most of Suisse romande 3. Relationships: /Gallo-Romance/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: POTENTIALLY ENDANGERED [in Italy; ENDANGERED in France and Switzerland] (a) children speakers: in France, probably a number of children learn the language, but they are not likely to become active users; in Switzerland, the situation may be slightly better; in Italy, the language is still quite widely used (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: not known for France; 70,000 in Italy (1971 census); an unknown portion of the 1,235,000 Gallo-Romancespeaking people in Switzerland (1986)
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(e) degree of speakers' competence: in all countries, most speakers are likely to mix French elements in their speech 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): -(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Philippe Blanchet 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1995 [updated 22 Sept 1999 thanks to the help of Gabor Sandi]
Romansch
1. Variant(s): Rhaetian, (in German often) Bndnerromanisch 2. Geographical location: Switzerland: Graubnden (Rhaetia), mainly in Surselva, Seumeir, and Unterengadin 3. Relationships: /Rhaeto-Romance/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: many children learn the language, but most of them become more fluent in German and may not become active users of Romansch (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: perhaps little more than half of the official number of 65,000 (1986) use the language actively (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Bndnerromanisch. Lexicon der Romanistische Linguistik. III. Tbingen 1989. 764--912. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Theodor Ebneter (Zrich), Ricarda Liver (Bern) 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Ladin
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: Italy: in several valleys of the Dolomites in Bolzano Province (South Tyrol), extending to Trento and Belluno provinces
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3. Relationships: /Rhaeto-Romance/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: some children learn the language, but many of them cease to use it throughout the school years; besides, the total number of speakers is low (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: approx. 10,000; another report indicates 20,000 speakers (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Ladinisch. Lexicon der Romanistische Linguistik. III. Tbingen 1989. 646--763. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Gian Battista Pellegrini (Padova), Guntram A. Plangg (Innsbruck) 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Friulian
1. Variant(s): (in Friulian) Furlan 2. Geographical location: Italy: Udine Province, extending to Gorizia and Venezia provinces 3. Relationships: /Rhaeto-Romance/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: many children learn the language, but many of them cease to use it throughout the school years (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: possibly approx. 350,000; another figure indicates as many as 720,000 speakers (e) degree of speakers' competence: most idiolects are heavily influenced by Italian 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Friaulisch. Lexicon der Romanistische Linguistik. III. Tbingen 1989. 563--645. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Giovanni Frau (Udine), Carla Marcato (Padova) 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
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Gallurese Sardinian
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: Italy: northeastern Sardinia 3. Relationships: /Sardinian/Romance/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: many children learn the language, but some of them cease to use it throughout the school years (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: possibly approx. 100,000; cf. Logudorese Sardinian (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent 5. Sources: see Logudorese Sardinian 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Logudorese Sardinian
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: Italy: central Sardinia 3. Relationships: /Sardinian/Romance/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: many children learn the language, but some of them cease to use it throughout the school years (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: possibly approx. 500,000; the total number of Sardinian speakers is over one million (one figure gives as many as 1,530,000 speakers), thought many of them use Italian more often (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Eduardo Blasco Ferrer: Storia linguistica della Sardegna. Tbingen 1984. | Eduardo Blasco Ferrer: La lingua sarda contemporanea. Cagliari 1986. | Rosita Rindler Schjerve: Sprachkontakt auf Sardinien. Tbingen 1987. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Maria T. Atzori, Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, Rosita Rindler Schjerve
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Campidanese Sardinian
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: Italy: southern Sardinia 3. Relationships: /Sardinian/Romance/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: many children learn the language, but some of them cease to use it throughout the school years (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: possibly approx. 500,000; cf. Logudorese Sardinian (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent 5. Sources: see Logudorese Sardinian 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Sassarese Sardinian
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: Italy: northwestern Sardinia 3. Relationships: /Sardinian/Romance/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: many children learn the language, but some of them cease to use it throughout the school years (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: possibly approx. 100,000; cf. Logudorese Sardinian (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent 5. Sources: see Logudorese Sardinian 6. Remarks:
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Istriot
1. Variant(s): Istro-Romance 2. Geographical location: Croatia: western coast of the Istrian Peninsula, now only in towns of Rovinj (Rovigno) and Vodnjan (Dignano) 3. Relationships: /Romance/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: probably none (b) mean age of youngest speakers: not known (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: probably less than 1,000 (e) degree of speakers' competence: all idiolects are likely to be heavily contaminated by Italian 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Flavia Ursini: Istro-Romanisch. Lexicon der Romanistische Linguistik. III. Tbingen 1989. 537--548. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): little published (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Flavia Ursini (Padova) 6. Remarks: the genetic classification of Istriot is not settled: it is often regarded as an early, i.e. pre-Venetian, off-shot from Italy, but others held that it is a separate branch of Romance or see connections with Friulian or Dalmatian 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Dalmatian
1. Variant(s): Ragusan 2. Geographical location: Croatia: along the coast of Dalmatia, last spoken in Krk (Veglia) where became extinct in 1898, formerly also in Zarar (Zada) and Dubrovnik (Ragusa) 3. Relationships: /Romance/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: EXTINCT (a) children speakers: (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: (e) degree of speakers' competence: 5. Sources:
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(i) information (about the language): Mario Doria: Dalmatisch. Lexicon der Romanistische Linguistik. III. Tbingen 1989. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite little (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Mario Doria (Trieste) 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Istro-Romanian
1. Variant(s): Istrio-Romanian 2. Geographical location: Croatia: one village, ^Zejane, in the northeast of the Istrian Peninsula, and a few villages south of it 3. Relationships: /Eastern/Romance/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: probably few (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: one report gives 1,250 to 1,500 speakers (450 to 500 in ^Zejane, 800 to 1,000 in the southern villages), another only 555 (e) degree of speakers' competence: not known, but all speakers are bilingual in Croatian, which certainly has a strong influence on the language 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Wolfgang Dahmen: Istrorumnisch. Lexicon der Romanistische Linguistik. III. Tbingen 1989. 448--460. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite little (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Wolfgang Dahmen, Pavao Tekav^cic 6. Remarks: The high number of speakers assigned to Istro-Romanian in the Ethnologue and, consequently, International Encyclopedia of Linguistics actually refers to Italian (Venetian) speakers in former Yugoslavia. The third Romance idiom on the Istrian Peninsula, Istriot, is also often confused with Istro-Romanian. 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Aromunian
1. Variant(s): Macedo-Romanian, Arumanian, Aromanian 2. Geographical location: two larger areas, one in central Thessaly, Greece, another in central Albania, and several small pockets in Greek Macedonia, Republic of Macedonia, and southwestern Bulgaria
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3. Relationships: /Eastern/Romance/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: some children learn the language, but many of them cease to use it throughout the school years (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: reports indicate approx. 50,000 speakers in Greece, 10,000 in Albania, 50,000 in the Republic of Macedonia, 40,000 in Bulgaria; the present situation is, however, poorly known: many of the alleged speakers may actually use other languages (e) degree of speakers' competence: not known in detail, but the language of all speakers is fundamentally influenced by Greek 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Achille G. Lazarou: L'aroumain et ses rapports avec le grec. Thessaloniki 1986. | Johannes Kramer: Aromunisch. Lexicon der Romanistische Linguistik. III. Tbingen 1989. 423--435. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Andrei Avram, Johannes Kramer 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Meglenitic
1. Variant(s): Megleno-Romanian 2. Geographical location: Greece and (the Republic of) Macedonia, a few villages on both sides of the border in the Meglena River valley north of Thessaloniki 3. Relationships: /Eastern/Romance/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: probably few (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: according to a detailed count by Atanasov (1989), there were 5,213 speakers, only 70% of whom, however, remained in the area (e) degree of speakers' competence: not known 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Wolfgang Dahmen: Meglenorumnisch. Lexicon der Romanistische Linguistik. III. Tbingen 1989. 436--447. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a little (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Petar Atanasov, Wolfgang Dahmen 6. Remarks:
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Tsakonian
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: Greece: around Kastanitas, Sitena, Leonidi, and Prastos in eastern Peloponnesus 3. Relationships: /Greek/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: a few children learn the language, but most cease to use it throughout the school years (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: perhaps no more than 300 speakers (e) degree of speakers' competence: not known 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): E. Bourgnet: Le dialect laconien. Paris 1927. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): -6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Chuvash
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: Chuvash Republic, extending to Tatarstan, Bashkortostan, and Samara, Simbirsk, and Saratov provinces 3. Relationships: /Turkic 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: some children learn the language, but only few of them are likely to become active users (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 1,408,218 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent 5. Sources:
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(i) information (about the language): John R. Krueger: Chuvash Manual. Bloomington & The Hague 1961. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): L. P. Sergeev 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Karaim
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: originally Crimea, the Ukraine, where small communities may remain near Evpatoriya; since early times translocated in Trakai (Troki) and a few other places in Lithuania; also around the west Ukrainian cities of Luck and Galich. 3. Relationships: /Kipchak/Common Turkic 4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: probably none (b) mean age of youngest speakers: not known (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 503 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census (e) degree of speakers' competence: possibly not fully competent 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): T. Kowalski: Karaimische Texte im Dialekt von Troki. Cracow 1929. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Tapani Harviainen (Helsinki) 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Bashkir
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: Bashkortostan, extending to Chelyabinsk, Kurgan, Orenburg, Samara and Saratov provinces, and Tatarstan 3. Relationships: /Kipchak/Common Turkic 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: many children learn the language, but most of them become more fluent in Tatar or Russian and may not become active users of Bashkir
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(b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 1,047,723 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census (e) degree of speakers' competence: Tatar influence is universally strong 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Grammatika sovremennogo bashkirskogo literaturnogo jazyka. Moskva 1981. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Zinnar G. Uraksin 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Crimean Tatar
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: the Ukraine: Crimea, though most speakers were deported to various places, mainly to Central Asia, after the Second World War: only a small number has remained in Crimea or has returned there; Bulgaria: southern Dobruja area, extending to Romania 3. Relationships: /Kipchak/Common Turkic 4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: a small number of children learn the language, but few if any of them become active users (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 251,537 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census; 6,000 speakers in Bulgaria (1990); see also Nogai (e) degree of speakers' competence: probably all speakers exhibit strong influence of related Turkic languages, or Russian or Bulgarian; among younger people, many individuals may be less competent in Crimean Tatar 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Gerhard Doerfer: Das Krimtatarische. Philologiae Turcicae Fundamenta. Wiesbaden 1959. I. 369--390. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Gerhard Doerfer 6. Remarks: five Turkic languages are known to have been spoken in Crimea, viz Crimean Tatar, Krimchak, Karaim, Nogai, and Turkish; two of them, Crimean Tatar and Nogai, are also spoken in Dobruja; a lot of confusion exists in general literature 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
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Nogai
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: large areas across the boundary of southern Russia and northern Caucasia; the Ukraine: Crimea, though most speakers were deported to various places, mainly to Central Asia, after the Second World War; Romania, Dobruja area 3. Relationships: /Kipchak/Common Turkic 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: some children learn the language, but only few of them are likely to become active users (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 67,591 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census; estimated 25,000 speakers in Romania (1982) including a few speakers of Crimean Tatar (e) degree of speakers' competence: in the Russian Federation, generally fully competent; perhaps less so elsewhere 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): N. A. Baskakov: Nogajskij jazyk i ego dialekty. Moskva & Leningrad 1940. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): D. M. Shikhmurzaev 6. Remarks: cf. Crimean Tatar 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Gagauz
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: (i) a relatively compact area in southern Moldova (Bessarabia), extending to the Ukraine; (ii) Maritime Gagauz: the coastal region around Varna in Bulgaria, extending to Romania; (iii) Macedonian Gagauz: in southeastern Macedonia (probably referring to the Republic of Macedonia); (iv) Surguch: in the region of Edirne (Adrianople), Turkey; (v) Gajal: in the region of Deli Orman, Bulgaria; (iii)--(v) are collectively known as Balkan Gagauz (or subsumed under 'Balkan Turkic') 3. Relationships: /Oguz/Common Turkic 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: some children learn the language, but not many of them are likely to become active users; there are probably no children speaking Balkan Gagauz (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
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(c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 172,957 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census; 12,000 Maritime Gagauz in Bulgaria (1990); Balkan Gagauz has probably few speakers now: early in this century, there were approx. 4,000 Macedonian Gagauz, approx. 7,000 Surguch, and an unknown number of Gajal (e) degree of speakers' competence: many speakers, especially outside Moldova, have been strongly influenced by neighbouring languages, both by closely related Turkish and non-related languages like Bulgarian and Greek 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): N. A. Baskakov: Tjurkskie jazyki. Moskva 1960. 131--136. | L. A. Pokrovskaya: Grammatika gagauzskogo jazyka. Moskva 1964. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Alfred F. Majewicz 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Kalmyk
1. Variant(s): Kalmuck 2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: Kalmyk Republic, with extentions to Astrakhan, Rostov, and Volgograd provinces and Stavropol' Region; related dialects under the label 'Oirat' are spoken in Central Asia and Mongolia 3. Relationships: /Mongol 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: a few children learn the language, but most of them are not likely to become active users (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 156,386 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): -(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Arash Bormanshinov, D. A. Pavlov 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Cypriot Arabic
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1. Variant(s): Cypriot Maronite Arabic 2. Geographical location: Cyprus: a few villages in the north 3. Relationships: /Arabic/Semitic 4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: a few children may learn the language, but even they become more active in Greek (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 2,000 speakers out of many thousands Maronites (e) degree of speakers' competence: Greek influence has been strong for a long time to make Cypriot Arabic a hybrid language, and the influence is even stronger today 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): -(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a little (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): -6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Basque
1. Variant(s): (in Basque) Euskara 2. Geographical location: Spain: Basque Country including Navarra; France: department of Pyrnes Atlantiques 3. Relationships: isolate 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: on the Spanish side, many children learn the language, but most of them become more fluent in Spanish and may not become active users of Basque; on the French side, very few children learn the language, and probably none of them have chance to become active users (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: Spain: according to a recent figure, 890,000 speakers; France: 80,000 mostly elderly speakers (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Mario Saltarelli: Basque. London 1989. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Howard Giles
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Romani
1. Variant(s): Rom; Gypsy (obsolete) 2. Geographical location: dispersed in many European countries, most densely in east central and eastern Europe and in the Balkans; seven Romani idioms are still spoken: (1) Vlach in Albania, Bosnia and Hercegovina, Hungary, Moldova, Romania, the Ukraine, Yugoslavia, and neighbouring countries; (2) Balkan Romani in Bulgaria, Greece, Moldova, Macedonia, Romania, Turkey, the Ukraine, and Yugoslavia; (3) Welsh Romani in Wales; (4) Finnish Romani in Finland; (5) Sinte in Austria, Croatia, Czechia, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, Slovenia, Switzerland, and Yugoslavia; (6) Carpathian Romani in Czechia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, and the Ukraine; (7) Baltic Romani in Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, and the Ukraine; cf. Remarks 3. Relationships: /Central Indo-Aryan/Indo-Iranian/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: there are still many children who learn the language, and they would have all possibilities to become active users, were it not that practically all national governments are hostile to the Romani language and culture; in many countries, such discriminatory policies have already led to a situation where children no more learn the language (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: a few millions total, but lack of reliable statistics makes estimates untrustworthy; cf. 202,810 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census; Welsh and Finnish Romani have few speakers left; the situation of Sinte may actually be similar; other idioms still have large numbers; cf. Remarks (e) degree of speakers' competence: varies extremely 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): -(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Marcel Courthiade, Ian Hancock 6. Remarks: A group of widely divergent idioms, whose speakers live in small, often nomadic communities scattered amongst larger groups. Many speakers were murdered by Germans during the Second World War. Scandinavian, English, Iberian, and Greek variants of Romani appear to be extinct but their lexical resources serve to form special idioms based on local languages, i.e. Rotwelsch (Scandinavian Traveller languages), Angloromani, Hispanoromani, Hellenoromani. There are also secret or in-group languages of nomadic groups like Polari and Shelta (Cant) in the British Isles, Quinqui in Spain, and Yeniche in central Europe. 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
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Yiddish
1. Variant(s): Judeo-German 2. Geographical location: many areas of eastern and east central Europe, earlier also central Europe, now more compactly only a few places in Belarus and the Ukraine, and in Jewish Autonomous Province (capital Birobidzhan) in eastern Siberia in the Russian Federation; most speakers now live in North America and Israel 3. Relationships: a Jewish Germanic language 4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: a small number of children learn the language, but very few of them become active users (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: more that 1,000,000 people in North America have knowledge of the language; approx. 200,000 speakers in Israel; 153,385 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census; the actual users are everywhere quite few (e) degree of speakers' competence: varies extremely; fully competent speakers are probably all very old 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Studies in Yiddish linguistics. Ed. by Paul Wexler. Tnimgen 1990. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Erika Timm 6. Remarks: the traditional language of Ashkenazi Jews; many speakers were murdered by Germans during the Second World War 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Ladino
1. Variant(s): Judeo-Spanish, Judezmo, Dzhudezmo, Haketa 2. Geographical location: since the Middle Ages, in dispersed communities mainly in Greece and Turkey (mainly Macedonia and Thrace), but also elsewhere in the Balkans, and in Morocco; now spoken in a few locations in Turkey, and in Israel 3. Relationships: a Jewish Ibero-Romance language 4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: probably few if any (b) mean age of youngest speakers: not known (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 8,000 speakers estimated
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in Turkey (1980); very few if any in Greece or elsewhere in the Balkans or in Morocco; perhaps as many as 100,000 in Israel, but Ladino is not the dominant language for most speakers; speakers are generally over 40 years old (e) degree of speakers' competence: probably quite few fully competent speakers 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Actes de la journe d'tudes judo-espagnoles du 22 janvier 1990. Clichy 1990. | Ham V. Sphiha: Le judo-espagnol. Paris 1986. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Ham V. Sphiha 6. Remarks: the traditional language of Sephardic Jews 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Shuadit
1. Variant(s): Judeo-Provenal 2. Geographical location: originally scattered among Provenal speakers 3. Relationships: a Jewish Occitano-Romance language 4. Present state of the language: EXTINCT (a) children speakers: (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: (e) degree of speakers' competence: 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): see Italkian (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): little (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Paul Wexler 6. Remarks: many speakers were murdered by Germans during the Second World War 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Zarphatic
1. Variant(s): Judeo-French 2. Geographical location: originally scattered among French speakers 3. Relationships: a Jewish Gallo-Romance language 4. Present state of the language: EXTINCT (a) children speakers:
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(b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: (e) degree of speakers' competence: 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): see Italkian (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): little (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Paul Wexler 6. Remarks: many speakers were murdered by Germans during the Second World War 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Italkian
1. Variant(s): Judeo-Italian 2. Geographical location: Italy, mainly in urban areas in Rome and in central and northern Italy; also in Corfu, Greece 3. Relationships: a Jewish Italo-Romance language 4. Present state of the language: NEARLY EXTINCT (a) children speakers: none (b) mean age of youngest speakers: not known (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: not known exactly, but certainly very few (e) degree of speakers' competence: very few fluent speakers left (in Rome, possibly in Corfu) 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Seth Jerchower: Judeo-Italian, article to appear in 1998 in the Encyclopedia of the Renaissance, Charles Scribner's Sons | Giovanna Massariello Merzagora: Giudeo-italiano: dialetti italiani parlati dagli Ebrei d'Italia. Profilo dei dialetti italiani 23, Centro di studio per la dialettologia italiana 5; Pisa: Pacini, 1977. 92 p. | Paul Wexler: Judeo-Romance linguistics: A bibliography (Latin, Italo-, Gallo-, Ibero-, and Rhaeto-Romance except Castilian). New York 1989. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): some, mostly fragmentary (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Jana De Benedetti, Luisa Cuomo, Seth Jerchower, Giovanna Massariello Merzagora 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993 [updated 18 Aug 1999 thanks to the help of Seth Jerchower]
Yevanic
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1. Variant(s): Judeo-Greek 2. Geographical location: originally scattered among Greek speakers; most of the remaining speakers in Israel 3. Relationships: a Jewish Hellenic language 4. Present state of the language: NEARLY EXTINCT (a) children speakers: none (b) mean age of youngest speakers: not known (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: according to a report from 1971, possibly 35 in Israel, and 15 in the United States; apparently very few if any speakers left (e) degree of speakers' competence: possibly not fully competent 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): -(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): little (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Paul Wexler 6. Remarks: many speakers were murdered by Germans during the Second World War 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Krimchak
1. Variant(s): Judeo-Crimean Tatar 2. Geographical location: originally among Crimean Tatar (q.v.) speakers, but now scattered in various places of deportation, mainly in Central Asia 3. Relationships: a Jewish Turkic language 4. Present state of the language: NEARLY EXTINCT (a) children speakers: none (b) mean age of youngest speakers: not known (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: not known exactly, but only individual speakers left (e) degree of speakers' competence: possibly not fully competent 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): -(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): little (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Paul Wexler 6. Remarks: 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
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Burgenland Croatian
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: Austria: Burgenland 3. Relationships: a diaspora dialect of Croatian/South Slavonic/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: probably a number of children learn the language, but they are not likely to become active users (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: in the 1970s, approx. 28,000 speakers, now probably much less (e) degree of speakers' competence: not known exactly, but varies among areas, and, presumably, among age groups 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): -(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a little (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): -6. Remarks: Burgenland Croatian is said to differ extensively from Croatian proper, intelligibility being difficult 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Molise Croatian
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: Italy: villages of Montemitro, San Felice del Molise, and Acquaviva-Collecroce in southern Molise, and possibly elsewhere in southern Italy 3. Relationships: a diaspora dialect of Croatian/South Slavonic/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: few if any (b) mean age of youngest speakers: not known (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 3,500 speakers according to N. Vincent in Comrie 1987; ethnic Croatians number at least 25,000 (e) degree of speakers' competence: not known 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): -(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): little
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(iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): -6. Remarks: derives from the language of 15th and 16th century refugees 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Algherese Catalan
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: Italy: town of Alghero in northwest Sardinia 3. Relationships: a diaspora dialect of Catalan/Occitano-Romance/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: some children learn the language, but they may not become active users (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: a reported figure is 21,629 (1987); another figure indicates 30,000 speakers (e) degree of speakers' competence: most speakers are fully competent, but for many, the influence of Italian or Logudorese Sardinian is strong 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): -(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a little (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): -6. Remarks: an old immigrant community 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Channel Island French

1. Variant(s): Channel Island Norman French 2. Geographical location: Jersey; Guernsey and Dependencies 3. Relationships: a distinct, archaic dialect of French/Gallo-Romance/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: probably none (b) mean age of youngest speakers: approx. 30 (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: one source gives 6,000 speakers of Jersey Norman French; perhaps 16,000 have knowledge of the language (e) degree of speakers' competence: rapidly decreasing
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5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): Glanville Price: The languages of Britain. London 1984. (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a little (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Glanville Price 6. Remarks: isolated from mainland Norman French 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Arvanitika Albanian
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: Greece: in rural areas mainly in Attica 3. Relationships: a diaspora dialect of Tosk Albanian/Albanian/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: very few children learn the language, and probably none of them become active users (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: reports indicate 50,000 to 140,000 speakers, but regular use is probably confined to a much smaller number of people (e) degree of speakers' competence: all idiolects are heavily influenced by Greek 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): -(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): little (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): -6. Remarks: old immigrant communities surrounded by Greek speaking areas 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Arbresh Albanian
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: Italy: several pockets in Avellino, Potenza, Taranto, Cosenza, Catanzaro, and Palermo provinces 3. Relationships: a diaspora dialect of Tosk Albanian/Albanian/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: in some places, there are children learning the language, but
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most of them cease to use it throughout the school years (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: reports indicate 80,000 to 100,000 speakers out of an ethnic population of 260,000; another report indicates 120,000 speakers (e) degree of speakers' competence: likely to vary greatly 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): -(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a little (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): -6. Remarks: derives from the language of 15th and 16th century refugees 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Italiot Greek
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: Italy: two pockets in Taranto Province, possibly also in Reggio di Calabria 3. Relationships: a diaspora dialect of Attic Greek/Greek/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: probably few if any (b) mean age of youngest speakers: not known (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: approx. 20,000 mainly older speakers; other reports indicate 30,000 to 40,000 speakers (e) degree of speakers' competence: Italian influence has been strong for a long time to make the language a hybrid one, and the influence is even stronger today 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): -(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a little (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): -6. Remarks: spoken in ancient Greek colonies 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Pontic Greek
1. Variant(s): 2. Geographical location: originally Turkey: along the Black Sea coast; most have emigrated
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to Greece since the First World War 3. Relationships: a diaspora dialect of Attic Greek/Greek/Indo-European 4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: probably few if any (b) mean age of youngest speakers: not known (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: not known (e) degree of speakers' competence: not known 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): -(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): little (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): -6. Remarks: originally spoken in ancient Greek colonies 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993
Trukhmen
1. Variant(s): Caucasian Turkmen 2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: Stavropol' Region and Astrakhan Province 3. Relationships: a diaspora dialect of Turkmen 4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED (a) children speakers: a few children probably learn the language, but the situation is poorly known (b) mean age of youngest speakers: (c) distribution by sex: (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 18,000 speakers reported (e) degree of speakers' competence: not known 5. Sources: (i) information (about the language): -(ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): little (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): -6. Remarks: more information about Trukhmen forthcoming 7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 23 Feb. 1996
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Unesco Red Book On Endangered Languages: Europe: South Sámi

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Unesco Red Book On Endangered Languages: Europe: South Sámi

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Endangered languages in Europe: report