CHAPTER IV

METHODOLOGY

4.1

Introduction

This chapter presents methodology adopted for quantitative and qualitative assessment of groundwater resources. Procedure followed for preparation and delineating zones of groundwater potential, quantification of groundwater using VES data and depth porosity relationship and proposal of groundwater augmenting structures are explained. This chapter also deals with procedure followed for estimation of physico-chemical parameters, evaluation of Ground Water Quality Index and generation of Spatial distribution map of GWQI.

4.2

Quantitative Evaluation of Groundwater

Severe water scarcity and environmental degradation are due to haphazard exploitation of surface and sub-surface water. The problem further provoked by spatialtemporal variation in rainfall. Rapid industrialization, urbanization and increase in agricultural production have led to fresh water shortage in many parts of the world. Planned, developed and managed water resources in an efficient way are essential to meet the challenges of scarcity, rising demand and depletion of groundwater levels. Groundwater is the major reliable source for various purposes especially in urban areas specifically where rapid urbanization is taking place. Depletion of resources leads to declaration of some areas as dark blocks, where depth of water table is greater than 300 m. It has therefore, alarming to quantify and mange the ground water resources in a best possible way. For sustainable development of water resources, it is essential to make quantitative estimation of the available water resources along with its quality.

4.2.1 Procedure for Preparation of Groundwater Potential Zones Map

Integrated GIS based approach and Remote Sensing technology is a proven to be a powerful tool for delineating groundwater potential zones to predict suitable sites for

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withdrawal of groundwater. Panoptic methodology adopted for groundwater potential zones map preparation in the study area is presented in the following steps: Various thematic maps such as land use/land cover, drainage, geology, slope, soil, hydrogeomorphology and runoff overlays shall be prepared from Survey of India toposheets and Remote Sensing satellite images based on the visual interpretation, Remote Sensing and GIS techniques. For checking the interpretation (Ground truth) and for collecting the additional information optimum field visits shall be carried out. Thematic maps shall be prepared using ArcGIS Software. Various thematic maps shall be incorporated with observed field data. Runoff thematic map has been derived using rainfall data, soils map and landuse of the study area by using curve number extension available in ArcGIS software. By assessing the importance of it in groundwater occurrence, Multi-Criterion Evaluation technique shall be used for assigning weightages, ranks and scores to various themes and feature classes in the study area. After assigning the weightages, ranks and scores to the themes and features, all the themes shall be converted to raster format using Spatial Analyst, extension of ArcGIS software. While converting to raster, the scores assigned to the individual features shall be taken in the value field. The Raster Calculator option of Spatial Analyst extension shall be used to prepare integrated groundwater potential zones map by adopting suitable map algebra. This map indicates the potentiality of groundwater occurrence in the study area.

4.2.2 Procedure for Demarcation of Groundwater Potential Zones

Integrated groundwater potential zones map shall have wide range of scores. This map shall be reclassified in the GIS environment using ArcGIS software to demarcate various groundwater potential zones in the study area based on certain decision rules. The generated output shall consist of various classes of groundwater potential zones namely Good, Moderate and Poor zones from groundwater potential point of view. Groundwater potential zones map generated through GIS shall be verified with the groundwater yield data of the study area to ascertain the validity of the model developed. 54

4.2.3 Procedure for Quantifying Groundwater

4.2.3.1 Geophysical survey for locating groundwater sites Geophysical surveys are being used broadly for locating available groundwater sites. Electrical resistivity surveys are the most commonly employed for groundwater exploration because it is less tedious and economical. Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) surveys are applied in many hydrogeological problems such as determination of sub-surface structure, tracing of tectonically disturbed zones affecting the groundwater movement and distribution, identification of suitable sites for groundwater development and artificial groundwater recharge structures, mapping of depth to the basement in hard rock areas etc. In this method, the anisotropism in vertical direction of the formation is detected.

In the present investigation, VES using Schlumberger electrode configuration shall be employed for identification of suitable location for groundwater development and recharge structures because field setup is flexible, recording of data is easy and the data analysis is less tedious and economical.

4.2.3.2 Three Dimensional modeling for volumetric analysis

Three Dimensional (3-D) terrain modeling combining with Geophysical data and analyzing in GIS will give aquifer volume. 3-D modeling is the process of developing a mathematical, wireframe representation of any three-dimensional object via specialized software used in a computer simulation of physical phenomena. Adequate elevation and planimetric measurements compatible in number and distribution with the terrain being modeled should contain in a digital model used to represent a topographic surface to interpolate the elevation of any location accurately. Surface and subsurface layers 3-D models should be created and processed in a GIS environment for estimating the aquifer volume. 3-D models represent any object having three dimensions, using a collection of points in 3-D space, connected by various geometric entities such as triangles, lines, curved surfaces, etc. There are three data structures commonly used to store elevation surfaces; Triangulated Irregular Networks (TIN), sampling at regularly spaced grids

(DEM/DTM/DSM) and lines of equal elevation (contours).

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A Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) is a digital terrain model that is based on an irregular array of points which form a sheet of non-overlapping contiguous triangle facets. It is a vector model that supports the incorporation of point, line and area based features to capture and represent the surface morphology. An accurate, well-designed TIN maintains consistency with the degree of variation in surface heights found in the terrain. As the terrain becomes more complex the resolution of the TIN should increase accordingly. This occurs because more points are sampled and included in the TIN model in areas of high complexity. In computations, such as spot height estimation, elevation values are to be interpolated for a given location based on the triangle in which it falls. Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) survey has to be carried out in the study area, along with the contours extracted from SOI toposheet, to construct TIN for the topographic surface, using ArcGIS 3D Analyst module. TIN Difference utility in ArcGIS - 3D Analyst module will give the volume bounded between two TIN surfaces. Type of subsurface and its surface porosity is to be estimated by collecting samples in the study area and conducting soil tests in the laboratory. Subsurface porosity is to be estimated by using Athys law of porosity as shown below:

Where

= porosity at a depth Z,

= surface porosity, k Athys law constant for

lime stone 0.52 Km-1 and Z depth of the subsurface where porosity is to be calculated. Ground water availability of the subsurface is to be calculated as following:
Volume between two TIN surfaces x subsurface porosity bounded between two TIN surfaces

4.2.4 Procedure for Proposal of Groundwater Augmenting Structures using VES Data

Based on the subsurface information derived from electrical resistivity data coupled with the thematic information derived from the Remote Sensing data, groundwater augmenting structures like Check dams, Percolation tanks and Subsurface dykes shall be suggested to facilitate additional groundwater recharge for sustainable management. Criteria for selecting the suitable site for various recharge structures are as follows:

Check Dams

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Check dams are structures executed in the stream courses, which intercept water from local catchment and store it for optimum utilization. Incidentally these structures not only reduce the erosive velocity of the runoff but also prevent gullies from further enlargement. Retained water behind the structure can be used for lift irrigation/gravity irrigation and for drinking water for the human, cattle and wild animals. It also contributes to downstream wells as groundwater recharge.

Essentially check dams consist of two components viz., earthen embankment and masonry spillway. Length of the check dam shall vary as per the width of the stream and has to be designed based upon the existing site conditions, to match with the bed width of stream and side slopes. In most cases, the check dams are suitable in uneven topography with ephemeral streams and generally constructed across 1st and 2nd order streams. Slope should be less than 15% and the type of soil should be sandy clay loam. Land use/land cover may be barren, shrub land and river bed. Infiltration rate of the soil should be less. Subsurface formation must be receptive to the enhanced groundwater recharge (recharge areas) and should have available good agricultural lands on the banks as well as irrigation wells. Location of check dams has to be evaluated based on the slope, drainage, soil, geomorphology and groundwater irrigated area information.

Percolation Tanks

Percolation tank is a small tank, which stores available runoff during monsoon and allows it to percolate gradually to recharge the surrounding groundwater body. These are considered to be very useful means of water conservation and are constructed for impounding surface runoff to create small storage for inducing recharge to groundwater through percolation. These are generally constructed across 1st to 3rd order streams. Slope should be less than 10% and the type of soil should be silt loam. Land use / land cover may be barren or shrub land. Infiltration rate of the soil should be moderately high. Construction of percolation tanks requires detailed information of geological, hydrological and morphological information of the area. Radius of influence and rate of infiltration vary depending upon the subsurface strata, water spread, topography etc. Suitability of percolation tanks has to be evaluated based on the hydrological, morphological, slope and groundwater irrigated area information.

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Subsurface Dykes

Surface storage structures have certain disadvantages like sedimentation, high rate of evaporation etc. These limitations can be overcome by adopting subsurface dykes. These are best suitable in alluvial deposits as they form excellent infiltration media. Infiltration rate of the soil should be high. Usually the effect of subsurface dyke is seen on the upstream side of it. Subsurface dyke can be constructed either by R.C.C or brick wall with polythene film or by consolidation of black cotton soil at frequent intervals. The topography, slope of groundwater table and water bearing capacity of the aquifer and subsurface layered information determine the suitability.

4.3

Qualitative Evaluation of Groundwater

Adequate supply of fresh and clean drinking water is a basic need for all the human beings on the earth. Yet potable drinking water is a scarce resource on the earth. Rising demand of water for irrigation, agriculture, domestic consumption and industry is forcing stiff competition over the allocation of scarce water resources. During past several decades groundwater quality has emerged as one of the important and confronting environmental issues. Attention on water contamination and its management has become a need of the hour because of far reaching impact on human health. To meet the increasing water demands, reliance on groundwater has been rapidly increasing, especially in the arid and semiarid regions. Overexploitation of groundwater leads to deterioration of groundwater quality. Hence, its monitoring and assessment is imperative for devising preventive measures against health hazards.

4.3.1 Estimation of Physico - Chemical Parameters

Groundwater samples shall be collected from the bore wells / open wells at different locations of the study area. Various physico-chemical parameters such as pH, Electrical Conductivity, Total Dissolved Solids, Total Alkalinity, Total Hardness, Fluoride, Chloride, Nitrate, Sulphate, Calcium and Magnesium should be determined with standard procedures prescribed by APHA, 1995. With which Groundwater Quality Index is to be calculated.

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4.3.2 Evaluation of Groundwater Quality Index (GWQI)

To determine suitability of groundwater for drinking purposes, Groundwater Quality Index (GWQI) shall be computed. Water Quality Index is a rating reflecting composite influence of different water quality parameters on the overall quality of water. WQI, indicating the water quality in terms of a number, offers a useful representation of overall quality of water for public or for any intended use as well as in the pollution abatement programs and in water quality management.

Estimation of Water Quality Index (WQI):

A widely used method of computing WQI, developed by Brown et al. (1972) and supported by the National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) is used in the present study to compute WQI. Each of the 11 parameters has been assigned a weight (wi) based on its influence on health hazards. A maximum weight of 5 has been assigned to parameters like chloride, magnesium and electrical conductivity. A minimum weight of 1 is given to calcium. Other parameters were assigned a weight between 1 and 5.

Relative weight (Wi) of each parameter is computed using Eq. (1): Wi = wi / ( wi ) where wi = weightage of individual parameter, wi = sum of all the weightages. Then quality rating is computed using Eq.(2) qi= ( ci / si ) *100

(1)

(2)

where, qi = the quality rating, ci = concentration of each chemical parameter in each water sample in mg/l and si = allowable water quality standard for each chemical parameter in mg/l (Table. 4.1).

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Table. 4.1. The weight, the calculated related weight values and water quality standards as per BIS & WHO Sl. No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 BIS & WHO Standards max. limit (Si) pH 8.50 Total Dissolved solids (mg/l) 2000.00 Alkalinity (mg/l) 600.00 Chlorides (mg/l) 1000.00 Flouride (mg/l) 1.50 Nitrate (mg/l) 45.00 Sulphate (mg/l) 400.00 Calcium (mg/l) 200.00 Magnesium (mg/l) 30.00 Total Hardness (mg/l) 600.00 Electrical conductivity (S/cm) 3000.00 wi Chemical Parameters Weight (wi) 2 3 4 5 2 5 4 1 5 2 5 38 Relative Weight (Wi) 0.0526 0.0789 0.1053 0.1316 0.0526 0.1316 0.1053 0.0263 0.1316 0.0526 0.1316

Weighted quality rating, Sii, is then determined for each parameter using Eq. (3). Sii = Wi * qi qi = rating based on concentration of ith parameter. (3)

Groundwater Quality Index (WQI) is then arrived at using Eq. (4): GWQI = Sii 1 n = number of parameters.
n

(4)

Computed WQI values are then classified into five categories as excellent, good, poor, very poor and unfit for drinking as shown in Table. 4.2.

Table. 4.2. Classification of groundwater based on GWQI GWQI Range < 50 50-100 100-200 200-300 > 300 Type of water Excellent water (EXW) Good water (GOW) Poor water (POW) Very poor water (VPW) Unfit for drinking (UFD)

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4.3.3 Generation of spatial distribution maps of water quality parameters and GWQI

Spatial distribution map of each water quality parameter is to be developed using interpolation options in ArcGIS using the spatial data on location of different wells from which samples are collected. These maps are to be used as thematic maps for preparing GWQI map of the study area using overlay and index method. The GWQI map shows the demarcation of sites having suitable groundwater quality for drinking purpose.

4.4

Generation of Qualitative Groundwater Potential Map

Overlaying spatial distribution map of GWQI and ground water potential zones map of the study area in ArcGIS using overlay and index method, qualitative groundwater potential map can be prepared.

4.5

Concluding Remarks

Methodology adopted for quantitative and qualitative evaluation of groundwater resources is presented. Procedure for preparation and demarcation of groundwater potential zones, quantification of ground water availability and proposal of groundwater augmenting structures using VES data is explained. Procedure for estimation of physico-chemical parameters, evaluation of Groundwater Quality Index, preparation of spatial distribution of physcio-chemical parameters along with GWQI map and generation of qualitative groundwater potential map are also presented.

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