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Marketing consumer services internationally

Localisation and standardisation revisited
Ali Kanso
Department of Communication, The University of Texas, San Antonio, Texas, USA, and

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Philip J. Kitchen
The Business School, Hull University, Hull, UK
Keywords Advertising, Market orientation, International marketing Abstract This paper investigates international advertising approaches of USA-based corporations that offer consumer services in overseas markets. Based on the empirical ndings, the data reveal that the majority of the respondent executives tend to follow a localized rather than a standardized advertising approach in marketing such services. Respondents also indicate that companies using such a localized advertising approach take cultural variables more seriously than do companies following a standardized approach. Here, however, respondents on either side of the standardized/localized debate concur. For example, there is virtual unanimity from respondents in terms of their perception that government regulations make it difcult to create and use universal campaigns, and that language diversity necessitates the use of local communication expertise in each market. Furthermore, and perhaps important in terms of the constant stress placed these days upon globalization, both groups seem unconvinced that advertisements can be universally understood, and that an advertising theme can be the same for all markets. Thus, this paper supports the notion that perceived differences in consumers lifestyles do act as major obstacles to universal advertising campaigns.

Introduction Many studies have already examined international advertising approaches used by US corporations that market consumer durable goods such as automobiles, electric products, etc. and non-durable goods such as paper towels, detergents, clothing, foodstuffs, etc. Yet, very little research has addressed international advertising creative approaches used by the US multinational corporations that sell consumer services (for example, banking, insurance, nance, accommodation, health care, etc.). This paper aims to redress this deciency. The objectives of the paper are twofold: (1) to determine if US multinational corporations that sell consumer services use standardized or localized advertising approaches in their non-domestic markets; and (2) to investigate the attitudes of international advertisers of the US multinational consumer service corporations toward cultural variables in designing the international advertising campaigns.

Marketing Intelligence & Planning Vol. 22 No. 2, 2004 pp. 201-215 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0263-4503 DOI 10.1108/02634500410525869

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This paper, though addressing a well-explored theme, may provide guidance to those interested in examining the effects of cultural differences on international advertising. This paper also identies major factors in making decisions concerning advertising message preparation (creative strategy) for non-domestic markets. Importance of the service industry Services have become an increasingly important component of the global economy. As with product manufacturers everywhere, service providers have continuously turned to foreign markets for growth (Johansson, 2003). In fact, services in 2001 constituted at least half of the worlds trade and investment and accounted for roughly 70 percent of employment and added value in the advanced industrial countries (Rugman, 2001). In the same year, US exports of business services reached $279.3 billion, resulting in a $69 billion trade surplus of business services. That surplus helped counterbalance the $427.2 billion decit in merchandise trade (US Department of Commerce Bureau of Economic Analysis, 2002). Unlike merchandise trade that requires a declaration of value when exported, most services do not need an export declaration, nor do they always pass through tariff procedures. Consequently, the potential of services in every economy is tremendous. In contrast to industrial and consumer goods, services are distinguished by unique characteristics and thus require special consideration. Products are often classied as tangible, whereas services as intangible. Computers, furniture, and cars are examples of products that have a physical presence. On the other hand, accounting, insurance, hotel accommodation, advertising, and transportation are services. They are intangible and have intrinsic value resulting from a process or performance. A service can be marketed as either an industrial (business-to-business) or a consumer service, depending on the motivations of, and use by, purchasers. For example, travel agents and airlines sell industrial or business services to business people and consumer services to tourists. Equally, nancial, legal, and insurance may be classied as either business or consumer services (Cateora and Graham, 2002). Theoretical background Culture is relevant to the study of marketing in general and advertising in particular. If we consider the scope of the marketing concept the satisfaction of consumer needs and wants at a prot it is obvious that marketers and advertisers must also be students of culture. Advertisers should consistently deal with the culture of people (the market) to avoid costly and embarrassing blunders. When advertisers design promotional messages, they are expected to use symbols that are recognizable and meaningful to a given marketplace (Cateora and Graham, 2002).

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It is remarkable, but nonetheless a startling academic fact, that marketing theorists and practitioners remain divided on the advisability of using either standardized or localized international advertising campaigns (Schultz and Kitchen, 2001). Theorists and advertisers who advocate the standardized approach argue that because of technological diffusion and globalization there is also a convergence of art, media activity, living conditions, cultural mores, and consequently, advertising can and should follow suit. They hold that even when people are different their basic physiological and psychological needs remain the same. On the other hand, advertisers who follow the localized approach assert that consumers differ from country to country and must be reached by advertising and other forms of promotion tailored to their respective country cultural needs. Thus, executives may have to consider signicant barriers in different countries. Such barriers include potential differences in culture, taste, media infrastructure, economic development, and potential consumer resentment of and resistance to corporate attempts to homogenize their differing tastes and cultures (Kanso, 1996). A famous advocate of the standardized school was Elinder (1965), who reported that savings bank promotions were used all over Scandinavia with local success. His investigations led him to predict that replication of advertising campaigns could be used successfully throughout Europe. Along these lines, Fatt (1967) suggested that a successful campaign in one country utilizing a theme that would appeal to basic wants and needs of individuals could be anticipated to produce similar results in other areas of the world if the language were translated into the local idiom. In a study of advertising transferability in Europe and the Middle East, Dunn (1966) found that US print advertisements were surprisingly transferable. Several French and Arabic versions were created by professionals and tested under controlled eld conditions in Paris and Cairo. Those literally translated advertisements with accompanying American illustrations were almost as successful as advertisements designed by creative experts in France and Egypt. Marquez (1979) examined cross-cultural research as a factor in deciding when to use standardized or non-standardized global advertising. He analyzed the cultural content of advertisements from the USA, the Philippines, and Thailand. His ndings showed that these advertisements portrayed respective aspects of culture in an almost identical manner. He concluded that if culture were the sole criterion (and it often is not) in deciding between standardized and non-standardized advertising, it would appear that the former could be deployed among the three countries studied. On the other hand, several scholars and executives have suggested that advertising approaches have to consider cultural differences and thus design specic country campaigns. Unwin (1974), for example, compared advertising

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expressions in the US and British magazines. His ndings showed that they were different in many respects. He suggested that even if all marketing factors favoured the use of the same advertising campaign across all international markets, it might prove more effective to allow each market to translate the basic idea into its own advertising idiom. Green et al. (1975) examined the reaction to the advertising of two consumer products in the USA, France, India, and Brazil. They found differences in the way customers viewed the importance of various product attributes relative to their purchase behavior. The researchers concluded that advertising messages should not use the same appeal for these different countries if the advertiser is concerned with communicating the most important attributes of his/her product in each market. Hong et al. (1987) analyzed the content of American and Japanese print advertisements. They reported that Japanese ads were evaluated as more emotional and less comparative than American ads. In contrast to an a priori notion, Japanese ads were found to contain at least as many information cues as American ads. Tansey et al. (1990) compared the Brazilian and US automobile advertisements to analyze whether advertisers of both countries employed different themes in print advertisements. They found that: . urban themes were used more frequently in Brazilian ads than in US ads; . leisure themes were used more frequently in US ads than in Brazilian ads; and . work themes appeared more frequently in Brazilian ads than in US ads (p. 30). Kanso (1992) examined the attitudes of international advertising managers of US consumer durable manufacturers toward international advertising campaigns. He found that the majority of the studied rms then used a localized approach and standardization of advertising was then on the decline. Overall, his research suggested:
. . . human wants and needs are more or less universal, but the way to address these wants and needs is not (p. 13).

He concluded that to minimize potential advertising blunders, American rms should consider each foreign business opportunity as a unique challenge and demonstrate global commitment to local vision to guarantee successful advertising campaigns. Yet, the story does not end here. With the rapid growth of American multinational corporations in overseas markets, especially in the last two decades, the transferability issue in advertising has taken on broader dimensions. A heated debate has ensued concerning the implementation of global marketing strategy rather than a multinational strategy. Levitt (1983) stoked the goals of this debate when he stated that markets were becoming globalised (or homogeneous) and this was also a necessity for a wannabe global

corporation. He asserted that the world was becoming a common marketplace, and that the worlds populace were surprisingly alike concerning love, hate, fear, and joy. Moreover, he trumpeted that the success of McDonalds, Pepsi-Cola, and Coca-Cola and similar organizations were due to the fact that:
. . . they are globally standardized products sold everywhere and welcomed by everyone (p. 93).

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Levitt went much further than early proponents of standardized marketing and advertising to contend that the worlds desires and needs had become irrevocably homogenized. He claimed that only the companies that applied the tenets of globalization to all aspects of their operations would be able to compete and achieve long-term success, and that nothing could stop the development of the global market. Remarkably, he indicated that the growing force of globalization could not be stopped even by cultural, religious, or political factors. He was right about unstoppability, as now in hindsight we look back on an increasingly homogenized world. But, his thesis in support of standardization particularly in the communications arena was hopelessly misguided and muddled, as many organizations found to their cost. Nonetheless, at that time, Levitts theory on the globalization of markets had signicant repercussions and resonances for the marketing and advertising business. For instance, Kotler (1986) counter-argued that the success of McDonalds, Pepsi-Cola, and Coca Cola was not based on standardization, but on variation in product quality, sales promotion, and advertising messages, dependent on factors such as consumer wealth and life style. John Quelch, Levitts colleague at Harvard Business School, pointed out that the global marketer must think in degrees rather than absolutes, and asserted that the appropriate level of globalization would vary from one product to another. He further indicated that, even if a product meets all criteria for globalization, it does not naturally follow that the product will be advertised precisely in the same way all around the world; the degree of standardization in advertising will have to be determined in each marketplace. Thus, we set the scene for what is a continuous and contentious debate. Many scholars had attacked globalization even before Levitt developed his witty and prescient (albeit wrongheaded) thesis. Many scholars have criticized global marketers, not only for their inherent belief that the world will ultimately present a single culture, but also their attempts to promote an over-simplied and simplistic marketing agenda which if taken as a prescription rather than description has usually proved a mistake for international and multinational marketers. Schiller (1976), one of the strongest opponents, has even accused global corporations of energizing and organizing the world system. The recent rash of boycotting global brands, the sight of young people rebombing McDonalds and other icons of globalisation, and the attempt by political leaders to keep protesters away from their meetings, are all indicative of a marketing storm that has not yet lost any of its apparent energy. Let us keep these factors in mind as we turn to the current research approach for which the conceptual literature forms a useful backdrop.

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Research questions and hypotheses Many studies have already illuminated the attitudes and actions of advertising executives at corporate headquarters of consumer durable and non-durable goods. Very little research has focused on consumer service organisations. Therefore, this paper will address the following research question and hypotheses. RQ. Do US headquarters of multinational companies that sell consumer services tend to use standardized or localized advertising approaches in their international campaigns? H1. International advertising managers attitudes toward cultural variables are signicantly related to the type of advertising approach (i.e. standardized or localized) used by their rms. H2. International advertising managers attitudes toward the use of illustration/color, symbol, theme, layout, content, and appeal are signicantly related to the advertising approach followed by their rms. Research method sampling process This research deals with 157 US multinational companies that market consumer services. The choice of consumer services was made for two main reasons: (1) consumer services are marketed in many countries; and (2) they are usually involved with heavy advertising. Every attempt was made to obtain an accurate list of respondent companies. First, we identied the US companies that market consumer services. From the Fortune (2001a, b) directories, 183 business rms were selected, and 142 business rms from Compact Disclosure (2001). The latter is an information database that categorizes the US companies by means of company prole. Second, we sought to ensure that these companies have operations in overseas markets. This conrmatory attempt involved long-distance telephone calls to 325 rms selected from the directories and electronic information database. It resulted in the dropping of 98 companies from the two Fortune directories and 70 companies from Compact Disclosure. This would suggest that the information provided by the Fortune directories and Compact Disclosure was only 48.3 percent accurate. Such inaccuracy might be attributed partly to uctuation of American business operations in overseas markets in a way that cannot be seasonally or even annually updated. It might also be related to differences in dening or listing foreign operations. The overseas sales volume of each of the 157 selected rms ranged from less than $5 million to more than $400 million a year. Their length of business varied from ve years to more than 35 years.

Identication of managers In an area as wide and complex as international advertising, it is difcult to identify appropriate executives. The job title of the person assigned to be responsible for international advertising varies from rm to rm. To circumvent this problem, headquarters of the selected rms were contacted by telephone to name the manager who most closely matched described job characteristics. In each, the company was assured that the purpose was to contact the international advertising managers and not to publish the managers names. The executives who were in charge of international advertising decisions and participated in the mail survey were either directors of advertising, marketing, communication, or vice presidents of advertising, marketing, public relations, communication, or human relations directors.

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Data collection The data were collected via a mail survey. Headquarters of selected rms were located in 35 states of the Union. Data collection took place from May to July 2001. In that period three waves of the same questionnaire, along with cover letters and self-addressed stamped return envelopes, were mailed to the international advertising managers in the chosen rms. In each of the rst two waves, recipients were given two weeks to reply. Before the third wave went out, managers were contacted by telephone to determine if they received the questionnaire and they were encouraged to respond. Univariate F-tests were performed to determine if a signicant relationship existed: (1) between managers attitudes toward each controversial cultural issue and their use of advertising approaches; and (2) between managers attitudes toward each element of creative strategy and their use of advertising approaches. Wilks lambda was employed to test signicance in multivariate analysis of variance.

Operational denitions The study included the following operational denitions. Types of advertising approaches. Two different types of approaches were examined in this research: standardized and localized advertising approaches. Standardized advertising approaches follow the use of the same advertising message in almost every country regardless of cultural differences. On the other hand, localized advertising approach customizes advertising messages to suit local conditions in each country. The percentage of standardized messages was presented in seven categories as:

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never use : 1 19 percent; 20 39 percent; 40 59 percent; 60 79 percent; 80 99 percent; and always use

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A rm that made no use of standardized messages, or made use of standardized messages less than 40 percent of the time, was dened as using predominantly a localized approach. A rm that made use of standardized messages 40 percent of the time or more was categorized under the standardized approach. Controversial issues in international advertising. Controversial issues were those of culturally related considerations that advertisers might face in implementing advertising campaigns for non-domestic markets. The most frequently mentioned controversial cultural issues in the literature and that have some bearing on blunders committed by international advertisers are language diversity, unique traditions, values and beliefs in each market, worldwide expansion of satellite TV broadcasting, and government regulations (Kanso, 1996; Kanso and Nelson, 2002). In order to examine these controversial issues, the authors asked the advertising managers of the US multinational companies that market consumer services to express their attitudes on seven statements that represent controversial issues. The attitudes were measured on a six-point forced-choice scale ranging from strongly agree (+6) to strongly disagree (+1). Elements of creative strategy. These elements consisted of illustration/color, message content, symbol, appeal, layout, and theme. Managers attitudes toward such elements were measured on a six-point forced-choice scale ranging from strongly agree (+6) to strongly disagree (+1). Research ndings Of the 157 advertising managers who represented consumer service companies, 89 completed and returned the questionnaire, 33 percent after the rst wave, 47.2 percent after the second wave and 56.7 percent after the third wave. The main tactic to obtain this response rate was the use of follow-up. However, several other factors may have contributed to this response rate. These included: . participants were assured in the cover letters that the study was conducted for a scholarly purpose; . participants were promised that their answers would be condential and used only in combination with other replies for analysis; . participants had an opportunity to request a summary of the study which may prove advantageous; . self-addressed, reply-paid envelopes were provided; . telephone follow-up was deployed after the rst two waves.

Use of standardized creative approach To determine the extent of standardized advertising messages used by the US rms that market consumer services for foreign markets, managers were asked to estimate the percentage of such use. Based on the ndings in Table I, the majority of the responding rms (74.2 percent) did make some use of standardized advertising messages. However, the intensity of such use did not justify the inclusion of all these rms in the standardized category. In fact, only 7.9 percent of the responding advertising managers reported that they always use standardized advertising messages. A rm may use standardized advertising messages sometimes, but its predominant advertising approach can still be localized. Therefore, the classication should be based on the extent of standardization rather than on the use or non-use of it. To answer the research question as to whether international advertising messages tended to follow the standardized or the localized approach, our study applied two criteria. They were: (1) rms that make use of standardized messages for less than 40 percent of the time were classied as localized; and (2) rms that use standardized messages for at least 40 percent of the time were categorized as standardized. The reason for deciding 40 percent as the cut-off point was the researchers belief that respondents might, for social desirability reasons, inate the localized approach. As a result, the study found that 48 rms (i.e. 54 percent of the respondents) followed the localized approach and 41 rms (i.e. 46 percent of the respondents) followed the standardized approach. These ndings suggest that slightly more US multinational consumer service companies tend to use a localized approach than the standardized. Controversial issues and advertising approaches H1 predicted that a signicant relationship may exist between the managers attitudes toward controversial cultural issues and advertising approaches used by their rms. To examine such a relationship, managers attitudes toward seven statements were measured in relation to their use of either a standardized

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Percentage of messages used Never used 1-19 20-39 40-59 60-79 80-99 Always used Total

Number of rms 23 13 12 10 13 11 7 89

Percentage of total 25.8 14.6 13.5 11.2 14.6 12.4 7.9 100.0

Cumulative percentage 25.8 40.4 53.9 65.1 79.7 92.1 100.0

Table I. Extent of standardized messages used by the US headquarters

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or localized approach. The attitudes were assigned scores ranging from +1 to +6. In conducting the multivariate Wilks lambda test, the results showed that the relationship was signicant beyond the 0.01 level. Thus, the hypothesis was supported. Also, univariate F-tests provided an analysis about each variable involved (Table II). Managers who follow the standardized approach tended to agree, more than managers who followed the localized approach, that: . worldwide expansion of satellite TV broadcasting creates greater demand for standardized global advertising (F 11:72; p , 0:001); and . government softening of broadcast media regulations in foreign markets would encourage advertisers to place greater emphasis on standardized campaigns (F 6:38; p , 0:01). On the other hand, managers who followed the localized approach tended to agree, more than did managers who follow the standardized approach, that: . advertisers should design messages that t unique traditions, values, and beliefs in each country (F 6:74; p , 0:01); and

Statement

Mean ratings Standardized Localized (n 41) (n 48)

To guarantee effective advertising, an advertiser should design messages that t the unique traditions, values and beliefs in each country Although need satisfaction is based on cultural consideration, advertising campaigns can be standardized in all markets Consumer differences in various countries are diminishing, but the time to devise a universal campaign has not come yet The worldwide expansion of satellite TV broadcasting creates greater demand for standardized global advertising The maze of government regulations in various countries makes it difcult to create a universal advertising campaign Government softening of broadcast media regulations in foreign markets would encourage advertisers to place greater emphasis on standardized campaigns The language diversity in world markets Table II. Executives responses to necessitates the use of local communication expertise in each market controversial issues based on approaches to Notes: Wilks lambda = 0.72, d.f. = 7.81; p = 0.01; the advertising campaigns F = 1,87

4.39 3.98 3.70 4.37 4.12

5.30 3.40 4.45 3.38 3.95

6.74 3.18 4.61 11.72 0.26

, 0.01 NSD , 0.04 , 0.001 NSD

4.30 4.72

3.32 4.90

6.38 0.28

, 0.01 NSD

degree of freedom for each univariate

consumer differences in various countries are diminishing, but the time to devise universal campaigns has not arrived yet (F 4:61; p , 0:04).

In general, both groups of managers seemed to agree that: . although need satisfaction is based on cultural consideration, advertising campaigns can be standardized; . government regulations make it difcult to create universal campaigns; and . language diversity in world markets necessitates the use of local communication expertise in each market. Managers attitudes and creative strategy H2 speculated that advertising managers attitudes toward elements of creative strategy are signicantly related to the advertising approaches used by their rms. To test this hypothesis, managers attitudes toward six statements were measured in relation to their use of either a standardized or localized approach. The attitudes were assigned scores ranging from +1 to +6. This hypothesis was not supported. In running the multivariate Wilks lambda test, these ndings revealed that such a relationship was not signicant. Univariate F-tests were also administered to provide an analysis about each variable involved (Table III).
Mean ratings Standardized Localized (n 41) (n 48)

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Statement

In designing advertising messages for various countries, the choice of illustrations and colors must be related to the consumers aesthetic sense Advertising for different countries should be identical in content No matter how we perceive cultural differences, layout of advertisements can be universally understood An advertiser must use symbols that are uniquely recognizable and meaningful to each market In presenting advertisements for foreign use, an advertiser must make sure that appeals are entirely compatible with consumers lifestyles Despite cultural differences, consumers perceptions of an advertising theme will be the same for all markets Notes: Wilks lambda = 0.88, d.f. = 6, 82; p = 0.20; the F = 1,87

4.41 3.59 3.54 3.82 4.30

4.54 2.64 3.41 4.18 4.48

0.18 6.21 0.24 1.26 0.65

NSD , 0.01 NSD NSD NSD

2.80 2.75 0.03 NSD degree of freedom for each univariate

Table III. Executives responses to elements of creative strategy based on approaches to advertising campaigns

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Both groups of managers tended to almost equally agree that: (1) choice of illustration and colors must be related to the consumers aesthetic senses; (2) advertisers must use symbols that are uniquely recognizable and meaningful within each market; and (3) advertising appeals must be entirely compatible with consumers lifestyles. But, both groups seemed unconvinced that: (4) layouts of advertisements can be universally understood; and (5) advertising themes will be the same for all markets. On the other hand, managers who follow the standardized approach tended to agree, more than did managers who follow the localized approach, that advertising for different countries should be identical in content (F 6:21; p , 0:01). This nding suggests that managers who follow the standardized approach, more than managers who follow localized approach, consider consistency in advertising messages. Discussion and conclusion This paper has investigated the impact of cultural differences in international advertising as seen by the advertising managers of the US multinational companies that market consumer services. The paper was predicated on an observation that consumer services are heavily advertised in both domestic and non-domestic markets. The research focused on international advertising approaches and cultural issues that concern advertising practitioners and academicians alike. The authors thought that an analysis of advertising managers attitudes toward controversial issues of international advertising and elements of creative strategy would shed more light on the applicability of standardized and localized advertising campaigns in an under-researched segment of the market. As shown in the research ndings, although some advertising campaigns for services may be standardized, the relationship between culture and communication is still critical to the use of effective advertising. International advertising researchers tend to have overlooked the signicance of the service industry in non-domestic markets. The empirical evidence given here indicates that the majority of the service rms who responded to our survey tend to use localized rather than standardized approaches in their international advertising. Thus, there may be signicant mileage in researching marketing communications in general and advertising in particular in international service companies (Kitchen et al., 2004). We would tend to agree with Cateora and Graham (2002) that culture appears to play a greater role in services than in merchandise trade because service promotion involves more frequent people-to-people contacts.

Furthermore, consumers tend to see the service choice through their own cultural lenses. Thus, what is acceptable in say Italy, may encounter resistance perhaps not even overtly stated in France, the UK etc. Decoding and response depend uniquely on the experience and perceptions of each group. Following lemming-like after the edicts of Levitt and others is not an appropriate tactical choice. Service rms operating in international markets need to consider cultural differences. Understanding cultural diversity of each country is necessary for service organizations to avoid marketing blunders. Undoubtedly, and despite assertions to the contrary, market heterogeneity is still evident not only between countries, but also within countries. Even in the USA or UK marketers recognize cultural and ethnic diversity. Few marketers in either country would not only use demographic criteria, but also ethnographics and psychographics. Many rms would gear their advertising and promotional efforts toward clearly targeted market segments (Kitchen et al., 2004). If that is the case within these massive markets, then surely any attempt to market or promote overseas must include careful analysis of the dynamics of the served (or to be served) markets?

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Overall recommendations This paper has provided some answers to advertising practice in marketing services internationally. As always, however, more research is needed to develop a broader understanding of the impact of cultural variables on international advertising practice. The following are the recommendations for future research: . Much larger samples are needed to examine the executives attitudes toward cultural variables and decisions of advertising approaches. . In-depth interviews with those responsible for international advertising are recommended. This may shed further light on how international advertising campaigns are developed, implemented, and evaluated. . Research should be conducted with subsidiary executives to examine how they coordinate their efforts with headquarters. . Content analysis of advertisements for selected consumer services should be conducted to determine if the views of managers based at headquarters square with reality. . Research is needed to determine if a relationship exists between the advertising approach used by multinational service companies and their length of time spent in business in host countries. . Experiments should be conducted to determine consumers reactions to localized and standardized messages of services.

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References Cateora, P. and Graham, R. (2002), International Marketing, 11th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. Compact Disclosure (2001), Compact Disclosure Inc., Bethesda, MD. Dunn, S.W. (1966), The case study approach in cross-cultural research, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 3 No. 1, pp. 26-31. Elinder, E. (1965), How international can European advertising be?, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 29 No. 2, pp. 7-11. Fatt, A.C. (1967), The danger of local international advertising, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 31 No. 1, pp. 60-2. Fortune (2001a), Fortune 500 largest US corporations, 16 April, pp. F1-F19. Fortune (2001b), Fortune 1000 ranked within industries, 16 April, pp. F45-F69. Green, R., Cunningham, W. and Cunningham, I. (1975), The effectiveness of standardized global advertising, Journal of Advertising, Vol. 4 No. 3, pp. 25-30. Hong, J., Muderrisoglu, A. and Zinkhan, G. (1987), Cultural differences in advertising expression: a comparative content analysis of Japanese and US magazine advertising, Journal of Advertising, Vol. 16 No. 1, pp. 55-62. Johansson, J. (2003), Global Marketing: Foreign Entry, Local Marketing, and Global Management, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. Kanso, A. (1992), International advertising strategies: global commitment to local vision, Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 32 No. 1, pp. 10-14. Kanso, A. (1996), Advertising managers attitudes toward standardization: empirical evidence from Northern Europe, paper presented at the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication Convention, Anaheim, CA. Kanso, A. and Nelson, R. (2002), Advertising localization overshadows standardization, Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 42 No. 1, pp. 79-89. Kitchen, P.J., Brignell, J., Li, T. and Spickett-Jones, J.G. (2004), The emergence of IMC: a literature review and critical commentary, Journal of Advertising Research (in press). Kotler, P. (1986), Global standardization courting danger, The Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 3 No. 2, pp. 13-15. Levitt, T. (1983), The globalization of markets, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 61 No. 3, pp. 92-102. Marquez, F.T. (1979), Cross-cultural research: a decision factor in standardized versus non-standardized global advertising, Gazette, Vol. 25 No. 3, pp. 150-62. Rugman, A. (2001), The End of Globalization, AMACOM, New York, NY. Schiller, H.I. (1976), Communication and Cultural Domination, International Arts and Sciences Press, New York, NY. Schultz, D.E. and Kitchen, P.J. (2000), Communicating Globally: An Integrated Marketing Approach, Palgrave-Macmillan, London. Tansey, R., Hyman, M. and Zinkhan, G. (1990), Cultural themes in Brazilian and US auto ads: a cross-cultural comparison, Journal of Advertising, Vol. 19 No. 2, pp. 30-9. Unwin, S. (1974), How culture affects advertising expression and communication style, Journal of Advertising, Vol. 3 No. 2, pp. 24-7.

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US Department of Commerce Bureau of Economic Analysis (2002), US International Trade in Goods and Services, 20 June, available at: www.ita.doc.gov/td/industry/otea/usfth/ aggregate/H01to01.html Further reading Advertising Age (1984), Colleague says Levitt wrong, Advertising Age, 25 June, p. 50. Hill, J.S. and James, W.L. (1992), Effects of selected environmental and structural factors on international advertising strategy: an exploratory study, Current Issues & Research in Advertising, Vol. 21 No. 2, pp. 135-53. Levitt, T. (1960), Marketing myopia, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 38 No. 4, pp. 24-47.

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