SLAVERYINNORTHAFRICATHEFAMOUS STORYOFCAPTAINJAMESRILEY

WhenCaptainJamesRileypublishedin1817theaccountofhisandhiscrews captureandenslavementatthehandsofagroupofNorthAfricantribesmenit becameanimmediatehit,readersbeingenthralledbythisstarkreversaloftheusual masterslavenarrativetheywereallsousedto.RobertC.Davis,authorofChristian Slaves,MuslimMasters,looksatthestoryinthecontextofothersimilartalesof EuropeansbeingtakenasslavesontheNorthAfricancoast.

In1817,theAmericanseacaptain,JamesRiley,publishedAnAuthenticNarrativeofthe LossoftheAmericanBrigCommerce,WreckedontheWesternCoastofAfrica,intheMonth ofAugust,1815,withanAccountoftheSufferingsoftheSurvivingOfficersandCrew,who wereEnslavedbytheWanderingArabsoftheGreatAfricanDesertorZahahrah.More recently,CaptainRileysmemoirehasbeenreprinted,thoughwithatitlethatbetterfits modernsensibilities:SufferingsinAfrica:theIncredibleTrueStoryofaShipwreck, Enslavement,andSurvivalontheSahara(NewYork:Skyhorse,2007).Thisedition,along withafictionalizedversionbyDeanKing,calledSkeletonsontheZahara:ATrueStoryof Survival(NewYork:BackBayBooks,2005)enjoyrespectablesalesforreprintsofabook nearlytwocenturiesold.

CaptainRileysstoryisprettywellsummedupbytheoriginaltitleofhisbook.While sailingfromGibraltartotheCapeVerdeIslands,Rileysmidsizedmerchantshipgot lostinthefogandwreckedonthewestMoroccancoast.Trappedonshoreandhaving runoutofbothfoodandwater,Rileyandthesurvivingcrewthrewthemselvesonthe mercyofsomepassingBerbertribesmen,whopromptlyenslavedandcarriedthemoff intothedesert.Abused,underfed,andoverworked,thecaptiveswerenearlydead whentheirmasterssoldthemtoanArabtrader,whoboughttheAmericansonRileys promiseofransomiftheyreturnedtothecoast.TherestofAnAuthentic Narrativerecountsthesurvivorsslightlylessbrutaljourneyoverdesertandmountains totheportcityofMogador(modernEssaouira)andtheireventualfreedom.

 Likemanyanotheradventurestory,CaptainRileystalewasessentiallyghostwritten. TherealauthorwasRileysrespectablefriend,AnthonyBleecker[orBleeker],Esquire ofNewYork,calledinasRileyhimselfputit,tosmoothdowntheasperitiesofmy unlearnedstyle.StartingwithRileyslogbook,notes,andrecollections,Bleecker appliedhisowntalents,judgements,anderudition,andinunderayearcameup withanarrativerichinemotional,andevenspiritualthemes.Intheprocess,Bleecker spunwhathadactuallybeenafairlyshortadventurethewholestory,fromthe shipwreckuntilthesurvivorsreturntoMogador,lastedbarelytwomonths,ofwhich onlythefirstthreeweekswerespentasslavesoftheBerbersintoanepictaleof survivalagainstbothhumanandnaturalodds. AnAuthenticNarrativewashardlythefirstChristianenslavementaccountthoughit wasnearlythelasttobesetinNorthAfrica.Otherunluckytravellershadalsobeen shipwreckedonthewildAtlanticcoastofAfrica,southofAgadir,andafewofthem survivedtoproducesimilaraccounts.PaulBaepler,inWhiteSlaves,African Masters(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1999),offeredseveraltalesofbrutal treatmentbysuchslaves,madeworse,ifpossible,bytheterrifyingandbleakSaharan landscapesandbythedesperateconditionstheywereforcedtosharewiththenomadic Berbers,whothemselveslivedonthemarginsofsurvival.OnewasbyRobertAdams, anAfricanAmericansailorwhoseshipranagroundinthefogin1810,severalhundred

milessouthofwhereRileycameashore.Adamswasaslaveforoverthreeyearsand withhiswanderingmastersmadeitasfarasTimbuktu.Anothercastaway,the AmericanwomanElizaBradley,supposedlyspenteightmonthsinBerberhands, thoughsomehavequestionedheraccountasaworkofanonymousfictionthatalso plagiarizeslargesectionsfromJamesRileysbestsellingaccount.

ThecaptivityaccountsofRiley,Adams,andBradley(ifindeedsheexisted)werenot typicalexamplesofthegenre,however.FarmorecommonwerethestoriesofEuropean andAmericanChristianswhofellintothehands,notofnomadicBerbersbutofBarbary corsairs.Ofthesewehavescoresofexamples,publishedandunpublished,inlanguages rangingfromLatinandSpanishtoItalian,French,Portuguese,English,Dutch,German, andIcelandic.TheearliestdatebacktoMigueldeCervantes,aslaveinAlgiersfrom 157580;amongthelastwastheItalianpoetFilippoPanantisNarrativeofaResidencein Algiers,publishedthesameyearasRileysAuthenticNarrative.Thecorsairswho capturedthemwereprofessionalslavers,rangingtheentirelengthoftheMediterranean and(after1600)outintotheAtlantic,asfarafieldastheCapeVerdeIslandsand Iceland.Thesefreebooterstooktheircaptivesfrommerchantships,fishingboats,and anyvillagetheycouldsack,sellingthemintheslavemarketsofSalonMoroccos Atlanticcoast,orinAlgiers,Tunis,andTripoli,ontheBarbaryCoast.Somecaptives theverywealthyandmanywomenwereboughtbydealerswhospecializedin ransomingandwereoftenwelltreated,moreashostagesthanasslaves.Thegreat

majoritywereproperlyenslaved,though,workedhardbytheirmasters,regularly beatenandsoldwhentheywerenolongerfitorprofitable.Atleastaneighthofthe captiveswereallocatedtothestate,itsshareinrecompenseforsupportingthecorsairs. Theyweresettoworkonstateprojectsbuildingtheharbor,orfortifications,digging inquarries,servingaslongshoremen;orrowinginthegalleys.Thosesoldtoprivate masterswereeitherusedashouseservantsorfarmlaborersorrentedouttopotters, tanners,constructionbosses,orwatersellers.Aluckyfewmanagedrunshopsor taverns,payingtheirmastersamonthlyfeefortheprivilege.Womennotsuitablefor ransominggenerallyendedupintheharemofwealthycorsairsortherulingpasha, eitherasservingmaidsorconcubines.

IllustrationfromWilliamOkeleysEbenezer:or,aSmallMonumentofGreatMercy(London,1675).

WhereasCaptainRileyexperiencedhiscaptivitywithintheconfinesofasmalland sociallysimplenomadicband,thoseEuropeanstakentoBarbarywerethrowninto crowdedcitiesthatteemedwithmyriadsofslaves,freeChristians,renegadeChristians (whohadtakentheturban),Turkishjanissaries,Jews,Arabs,Berbers,Greeks,and blackAfricans.InitsheydayAlgierswasimmenselypowerful,oneoftherichestcities ontheMediterranean,and,likeSal,akindofmerchantrepublic,runbythesame

corsairswhohadgrownrichthroughslaving.EachofthoseBarbaryslaveswhowrote aboutitportrayeddifferentaspectsofcaptivityFrancisKnightandJooMascarenhas portrayedlifeasgalleyslaves;EmanueldArandaandChasteletdesBoysdescribed manyotherkindsofslavelabor,plusthedauntingtaskofarrangingtheirownransom. LouisMarotandWilliamOkeley,ontheotherhand,werefairlysuccessfulslave entrepreneurs,whoalsomanagedtoescapefromtheirbondage;theAmericanJoseph FossandtheItalianFilippoPanantiwroteatlengthabouttheconditionsofslavery duringtheinstitutionslastyears.Manyofthesecaptivitynarrativesarenowbeing republished.Thosethathavenotareoftenavailableonline,foranyonewhoknows wheretolook. Nevertheless,itisJamesRileysspareaccountofslaveryandinitsbarestandbleakest termsthathasconsistentlyoutsoldalltherestofthesenarrativescombined.Its AmericandebutwassoonfollowedbyaBritisheditionandwithinayearaFrench translation,titledNaufragedubrigantinamricainElcommerce,perdusurlacteoccidentale dAfrique,aumoisdaot1815(Paris:LeNormant,1818);thefollowingyearsawa Germanversion.Backhome,AnAuthenticNarrativewasrepublishednofewerthan eighteentimesby1860.Likeanybestseller,thebookalsoaccrueditsshareofcelebrity blurbs.HenryDavidThoreauandJamesFenimoreCooperbothpraisedit,and,above all,AbrahamLincolnincludeditinhis1860campaignbiographyalongwithPilgrims ProgressandTheBibleasoneofthebooksthathadshapedhisyouthfuldevelopment.

DetailofanillustrationofaslavemarketinAlgiersfromPierreDansHistorievanBarbaryenendeszelfsZee Roovers(Amsterdam,1684)

ThemodernappealofAnAuthenticNarrativecertainlystretchesbeyonditsillustrious AmericanreadershiptherehavebeentwoFrenchrepublicationsinjustthelasttwo years.Itspopularitysaysagreatdealaboutthepublicsnewfascinationwiththe Muslimworldandthewholeclashofcivilizationsthesis,whichhassodominated politicaldiscoursesince9/11.PerhapsitisnosurpriseRileysstoryhastakenagreater holdonthemodernimaginationthanthosesetinthecitiesofBarbary.Hisaustereand desperatetalerevolvesaroundarestrictedcastofcharacters,likeaChekhovplay RileyhimselfandhisfewAmericancomrades;theirnamelesshandfulofBerber tormenters;theArab,SidiHamet,whoeffectivelyrescuedthem;andtheEnglishconsul, WilliamWillshire,whoredeemedthemandsetthemfree.Thesimplicityandintimacy ofRileysstorywhichcloselyresemblescontemporaryAmericancaptivityaccounts, wheresettlersfellintothehandsofAmericanIndianspresentsanuncluttered narrativearc,aDanteantaleofthedescentofalostwandererintothehellofbondage anddespair,onlytoriseagainthrougharedemptionearnedbysteadfastness.Itisatale fitforthemovies(DeanKingmadeadocumentary),whichmayexplainitsenduring popularityincomparisonwiththemorecomplexandsubtleBarbaryenslavement narratives,wherevictimsandpersecutors,thedamnedandthesaved,therighteous andthefoolishareoftensomuchhardertotellapart.

RobertC.DavisisaprofessorofItalianRenaissanceandpremodernMediterraneanhistoryat OhioStateUniversity.Hehasappearedinanumberoftelevisiondocumentaries,on shipbuilding,Carnival,andtheMediterraneanslavetrade,inadditiontoauthoringnumerous booksincludingChristianSlaves,MuslimMasters:WhiteSlaveryintheMediterranean,the BarbaryCoastandItaly,15001800in2004.