SOLID-STATE PHYSICS II 2008 O.

Entin-Wohlman

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

SEMICONDUCTORS THE P-N JUNCTION DIAMAGNETISM AND PARAMAGNETISM EXCHANGE INTERACTIONS SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

The Meissner eect. An ideal superconductor permits no magnetic eld in its interior. In other words, a superconductor is a perfect diamagnet. Not only a magnetic eld is excluded from entering a superconductor, (which might have been explained by perfect conductivity), but a eld in an originally normal (i.e., not superconductive) sample is expelled as the sample is cooled below the superconductive transition temperature, Tc . This fact cannot be explained by perfect conductivity. This is the Meissner eect. On the other hand, the Meissner eect implies that superconductivity can be destroyed once the magnetic eld exceeds a certain value, the critical magnetic eld, Hc . Let us denote the free energy density of a system when it is above the superconducting transition temperature by fn . As the system is cooled below Tc (in the absence of a magnetic eld) it goes into the superconductive state, since in that state its free energy is lower. Let us denote that free energy density by fs . Then the critical magnetic eld is given by
2 (T ) Hc = fn (T ) fs (T ) . 8

(5.1)

(Remember that the free energy of a magnetic eld is given by the volume integral of H 2 /8 .) Equation (5.1) implies that the critical magnetic eld depends on the temperature, and it vanishes at T = Tc . In fact, Hc (T ) Hc (0)(1 (T /Tc )2 ) . (5.2)

The Meissner eect is described by the (phenomenological) London equations. Let us consider the motion of the electrons in a perfect conductor, i.e., when they are accelerated by an electric eld without any dissipation. Let us also assume that the number density of such dissipation-less electrons is ns , and their common velocity is vs . We can then write m where E is the electric eld, and dJs n e2 = s E, dt m On the other hand, the Faradays law, E= gives n e2 Js + s H = 0 . t mc (5.6) 1 H , c t (5.5) Js = evs ns . (5.4) dvs = eE , dt (5.3)

The London equation states that in a superconducting system, not only the time derivative above vanishes, but that Js + ns e2 H = 0 , London equation . mc (5.7)

Since the Maxwell equation gives us that H= 4 J , c s (5.8)

we arrive at the result that in a superconducting system 2 H = 1 1 H , or 2 Js = 2 Js , 2 (5.9)

where the penetration depth is given by 2 = mc2 . 4ns e2 (5.10)

We note that the penetration depth diverges as the number density of the dissipation-less electrons (i.e., superconducting electrons), ns , tends to zero. In other words, the penetration depth diverges as T Tc . 2

Let us consider a superconducting slab of nite thickness d, placed in a parallel magnetic eld, Ha . The slab is perpendicular to the x direction. According to the rst equation of (5.9), the magnetic eld within the slab is H (x) = Aex/ + Bex/ , (5.11)

where A and B are constants. They are determined from the two requirements that at x = d/2 and at x = d/2, the magnetic eld equals the applied eld, Ha . Hence, H (x) = Ha cosh(x/) . cosh(d/2) (5.12)

The average value of the eld within the slab is H = 1 d

d/2 d/2

dxHa

cosh(x/) 2 = Ha tanh(d/2) . cosh(d/2) d

(5.13)

This average value consists of the (external) applied eld, Ha plus the magnetization induced in the slab, i.e., H = Ha + 4M . When d , H tends to zero, and therefore M Ha , d 4 . (5.15) (5.14)

The susceptibility is 1/4 , which means that a bulk superconductor is a perfect diamagnet. On the other hand, when d , H tends to Ha (1 (d2 /122 )), and therefore M Ha 4 d2 122 . (5.16)

We can estimate from this relation the critical magnetic eld in the special case where the eld is parallel to the slab. The critical eld in this case is not the critical eld of the material from which the slab is made, but it is the critical eld of the material times the ratio /d, Hc = 12 Hc . d (5.17)

exercise: Explain intuitively the result (5.17) (by considering the current needed to screen the eld). What will be the critical magnetic eld perpendicular to the slab? 3

The Ginzburg-Landau (GL) theory. Ginzburg and Landau constructed a theory of superconductivity, by introducing a complex pseudo wave function as an order parameter. The local density of the superconducting electrons is given by ns = | (r)|2 . The order parameter obeys the Ginzburg-Landau equations,
2 1 e i A + | |2 = , 2m c

(5.18)

(5.19)

and the equation for the supercurrent density Js , e e2 Js = i ) | |2 A . 2m mc (5.20)

Here, and are (temperature-dependent) parameters, and A is the vector potential which represents the action of a constant magnetic eld, H = A. Note that if we write the complex order parameter in the form = | |ei , then the supercurrent is related to thegradient of the phase, Js = The GL theory introduces a length, = 1 , |2m| (5.23) e e | |2 A . m c (5.22) (5.21)

which characterizes the distance over which (r) can vary. Near Tc diverges as (Tc T )1/2 , since vanishes as (T Tc ). Thus, superconductivity is described by two lengths, the coherence length and the penetration length . The ratio of these two lengths, = , (5.24)

is approximately temperature-independent. Type II superconductors are those for which > 1/ 2. The GL equations can be derived from the free energy density, f , which takes the form f = f n 0 + | |2 + 1 4 | | + 2 2m 4
2 e H2 i A + , c 8

(5.25)

by minimizing the free energy with respect to the complex order parameter. In a bulk superconductor, and in the absence of the magnetic eld (A = 0) we can take the order parameter to be real, since in this case all the coecient of the dierential equation are real. In a homogenous bulk superconductor we do not expect any spatial variation, and therefore Eq. (5.19) takes the form + 3 = 0 . (5.26)

This has two solutions: either the bulk is simply not a superconductor, i.e., = 0, or
2 2 =

(5.27)

This result leads to the identication of the temperature dependence of the coecient , Tc + T . (5.28)

Namely, for temperatures below the transition temperature Tc where is negative, the superconducting order parameter is non zero. It vanishes (continuously) at T = Tc , and then system phase transforms into the normal state. Since this happens continuously (by construction) the GL equation describes properly the second order phase transition. Note that this argument ignores the temperature dependence of the other coecient . It assumes that depends only weakly on the temperature. Note that the superconducting free energy density, | |2 + | |4 is zero when is zero, and 2 is ||2 /(2 when | |2 = / , namely, it is lower in the superconducting state. Let us now assume that the superconductor occupies only half of the space, x > 0 (no elds are applied). Then the GL equation becomes + 3 Denoting = f = ( ||/ )f , (5.30) 1 2 =0. 2m x2 (5.29)

( is the full value of the order parameter in the bulk superconductor), this equation becomes
2 1 d2 f 3 2d f +f f + f f3 = 0 , 2 2 2m|| dx dx

(5.31)

where we have used the denition (5.23) for the superconducting coherence length . It is quite straightforward to solve Eq. (5.31). Denoting f df /dx, and f d2 f /dx2 , we multiply Eq. (5.31) by f . Then, f f = (1/2)df 2 /dx , f 3 f = (1/4)df 4 /dx, and f f (1/2)df 2 /dx, and hence d 2 2 1 f + f2 f4 = 0 . dx 2 (5.32) =

This implies that the combination of terms within the brackets do not depend on x, and consequently their value is the same as for x , i.e., f = 1 [see Eq. (5.30)]. Namely, 1 1 1 2f 2 + f 2 f 4 = (1 f 2 (x))2 = 2 f 2 (x) 2 2 2 df dx x = f (x) = tanh( ) . 2 1f 2 2

(5.33)

We see that near the boundary, the order parameter decays to zero over a scale length of order . exercise: Find and discuss the order parameter of a superconducting slab of width d, placed normal to the x axis (the slab is innite along the y and the z directions). Discuss in particular the cases d and d .

The critical current. There are certain cases in which one can assume that the absolute value of the order parameter, | |, does not vary spatially, however, its phase , does [see Eq. (5.21)]. This occurs when the spatial change in | | has to occur over distances far smaller than , and hence will cost too much kinetic energy. For example, if | | has to change over the width d of a thin lm, its change will be of order x/ equations, [see Eqs. (5.22)) and (5.25)] take the form Js = e e | |2 ( A) e| |2 vs , m c mv 2 H 2 f = fn0 + | |2 + | |4 + | |2 s + . 2 2 8 d/ 1. In such cases the GL

(5.34)

In a very thin lm or wire, of thickness d

, one may neglect the magnetic energy density

H 2 /(8 ) as compared to the kinetic energy (the latter is of order 2 , and the former of order d2 ). The super conducting free energy density is then fs = | |2 + 4 mv 2 | | + | |2 s . 2 2 6 (5.35)

minimizing it with respect to | |2 , we nd | |2 =

2 2 + mvs /2 | | mvs = 1 2|| 2 = 1 (mvs )2 .

(5.36)

The supercurrent is then

2 Js = e vs 1 (mvs )2 .

(5.37)

We see that the supercurrent vanishes when vs = 0 and vs = 1/(m ). Its maximal value (found below) is the maximal supercurrent that the system can carry. The value of vs at
2 the maximum is obtained by minimizing Js with respect to vs , yielding mvs /2 = ||/3.

Inserting this value into Eq. (5.36), we nd 2 2 | |2 = , 3 (5.38)

namely, in the presence of current, the superconducting order parameter is reduced as compared to its value in the bulk (and in the absence of a current). The critical current, Jc , is given by inserting the results of the minimization into the rst of Eqs. (5.34), Jc = e2 2 2 | | 3 3m
1/2

(5.39)

Note that the critical current vanishes at the transition temperature Tc , where = 0. The upper critical eld, Hc2 . Let now consider how superconductivity is nucleated in the bulk, in the presence of a magnetic eld H (along the z direction). We use the gauge ay = Hx , (5.40)

and ignore in the GL dierential equation the cubic term, since the system is only barely superconducting and the order parameter is therefore small. Then 2 + 2H 4i Hx + 0 y 0
2

x2 =

1 , 2

(5.41)

where the superconducting ux quantum is 0 = By substituting (r) = eiky y+ikz z f (x) , 7 (5.43) c . e (5.42)

we nd 2H 2f + 2 x 0
2

(x x0 )2 f =

1 2 kz f , 2

x0 =

ky 0 . 2H

(5.44)

The problem now is the same as the Schr odinger equation for an harmonic oscillator, with the eigenvalues
n

1 1 eH = (n + )c = (n + ) 2 2 mc

(5.45)

In our case, however, the energy is given by the term on the right hand side of Eq. (5.44). The maximal magnetic eld (corresponding to the lowest value of n, i.e., n = 0) which the system can support is therefore H= 0 1 2 kz . 2 2 (5.46)

The truly maximal eld is obtained for kz = 0 (i.e., no variation of the order parameter along the axis parallel to the eld). Hence H c2 = 0 . 2 2 (5.47)

Note that this eld vanishes at the superconducting transition temperature. The BCS Hamiltonian. The reduced Hamiltonian, which is assumed to include all interactions important for superconductivity, reads H=
k

k nk +
kk

Vkk c k ck ck ck .

(5.48)

Here, c k is the operator that creates an electron at state of wave vector k and spin , ck is the operator that destroys such a state (these operators obey the anti commutation fermionic relations), nk is the number operator of electrons in the state k with spin nk = c k ck , (5.49)

and Vkk is the pairing interaction: it destroys a pair of electrons of opposite spins and momenta, and creates another pair of opposite spins and momenta. Finally, k is the single electron energy, measured from the Fermi energy. The BCS Hamiltonian may be solved using the mean-eld approximation, which we have already encountered in the discussion of the Heisenberg exchange interaction. We replace
c ck ck c k ck ck ck = k ck + ck ck ck ck ck ck ck ck ,

(5.50)

and denote
bk = ck ck , b k = ck ck .

(5.51)

The model Hamiltonian, HM , that results reads HM =

k

k nk
k

(k c k ck + k ck ck k bk ) ,

(5.52)

where we have dened k =

k

Vkk bk
k

Vkk ck ck .

(5.53)

This model Hamiltonian is diagonalized by the Bogoliubov transformation:

ck = u k k0 + vk k1 , ck = vk k0 + uk k1 .

(5.54)

exercise: Check that in order for the new operators k0 and k1 to be fermions (that is, to obey the anti commutation relations), it suces that |uk |2 + |vk |2 = 1. exercise: Show that
k0 = uk ck vk c k k1 = uk ck + vk ck .

(5.55)

Explain the meaning of these operators. The next step is to insert Eqs. (5.54) into the model Hamiltonian (5.52). This procedure gives HM =
k 2 k (|uk |2 |vk |2 )(k 0 k0 + k1 k1 ) + 2|vk | + 2uk vk k1 k0 + 2uk vk k0 k1 2 2 (k uk vk + k uk vk )(k0 k0 + k1 k1 1) + (k vk k uk )k1 k0 k 2 2 + ( k vk k uk )k0 k1 + k bk .

(5.56)

Now we see that when the condition

2 2 2k uk vk + k vk k uk = 0

(5.57)

is satised, the Hamiltonian becomes diagonal. Moreover, upon multiplying this condition
2 by k /uk we obtain

k vk 2 = (k + |k |2 )1/2 k Ek k = real . uk 9

(5.58)

This means that E k 1 vk = k = |vk |2 = 1 |uk |2 = 1 k uk |k | 2 Ek . (5.59)

Inserting all these results into the model Hamiltonian (5.56), we nally obtain HM =
k

(k Ek + k b k) +
k

Ek (k 0 k0 + k1 k1 ) .

(5.60)

The rst term here is a constant, and the second is just the Hamiltonian of free fermions, with excitation energy Ek . We see from Eq. (5.58) that the excitation spectrum has a gap, of magnitude |k |. Another important point is that k itself, as given in Eq. (5.53), becomes k =
k

Vkk ck ck =
k

Vkk u k v k 1 k 0 k 0 k 1 k 1 ,

(5.61)

where, using Eq. (5.58) u k vk = k . 2Ek (5.62)

Since the model Hamiltonian is diagonal, we know that

k 0 k0 = k1 k1 =

1 e
Ek

+1

f (Ek ) .

(5.63)

Using this in Eqs. (5.61) and (5.62) yields the gap equation, k =
k

Vkk

k E tanh k . 2Ek 2

(5.64)

In particular, with the simplifying BCS assumption, Vkk = V , we nd 1 1 = V 2 tanh(Ek /2) . Ek (5.65)

One should note that the BCS assumption about the pairing potential V cannot hold over the entire Brillouin zone; it is expected to be valid in a narrow range of energies about the Fermi energy. That narrow energy range is limited by a certain energy, c . When the pairing potential is due to the electron-phonon interaction, then c is a typical phonon energy. Taking all this into account, we may convert Eq. (5.65) into the famous BCS form, 1 = N (0)V
c 0

tanh 1 ( 2

2 + 2 )

2 + 2

(5.66)

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where N (0) is the density of states at the Fermi level. This equation determines the temperature dependence of the gap , and in particular, it yields the transition temperature into the superconducting state. At the transition temperature Tc , vanishes, and therefore we have 1 = N (0)V
c 0

tanh 1 (c ) 2

= kB Tc = 1.13c e1/N (0)V .

(5.67)

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Bibliography 1. N. W. Ashcroft and N. D. Mermin, Solid State Physics, Saunders College, 1975.

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