Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The papers contained in this book let were originally research papers
presented as assignments to the Preston University. In more ways than one,
they were written from the depths of the author’s heart in that they helped
express what he has felt and feels about the carelessness that anthropogenic
activities have brought upon the spaceship earth. He has read and agonized
much about the now frequent and familiar sour news about the degradation
that has and continues to take place at various points of the earth. Despite
countless conferences and affirmations by the World’s nations, hardly any
observes what they pledge to do. In 1992, the Rio summit was a land mark
meeting where many nations officially acknowledged the myriad
environmental problems resulting from human activity and bound
themselves by declarations to either stabilize the toxic emissions or reduce
them over a period of time. We are yet to see any tangible results from that
conference.
It is the prayer of the author that reading through these articles will give the
reader just but a tip in the ice berg of the problems that sunk the Titanic on
April 12, 1912.
Billy C Sichone
01/06/04
Mongu
In December 1952, over 4,000 people perished at the grisly hands of toxic smog which
settled over London for four days. More recently, in 1991, Athens was engulfed in a
cloud of smoke, which landed many in hospital. These and many like incidents have been
recorded more frequently all over the world, especially in major cities where there is
heavy traffic. But what has caused these occurrences? What exactly is the root cause and
what can be done to correct this situation? Many have undertaken to highlight these
problems and one of these is an article “Environmental Polluters to face criminal
charges” which appeared in the Zambia Daily mail issue of 4th August 1999. We shall
attempt to define what this kind of pollution is and then seek to show its effects as well as
the possible remedies.
What exactly is pollution? Pollution is generally defined as “The introduction of certain
parameters into the environmentΓ, which cannot be engrafted properly into the ecosystem
due to their nature or volume and thus lead to deleterious consequences as a result of an
eco-inequilibrium.” Clearly, we note that this state of affairs is very hostile to vegetation,
animals and human kind. The parameters here spoken of are of varied types depending on
the type of pollution at hand. For our purposes we confine ourselves to air pollution. This
is one of the most common forms of pollution because we meet it at every turn. As one
walks around the compound, they will notice little smoke emitting fires, as people clean
their yards. In the city, big industries pour noxious gases galore. But what are the major
sources of pollution in the world today? A number are identified below:
1. The Coal Power generating plants. These are spread all over the world and in some
cases, their concentration is so high like in the coal power plants of the UK. These use
coal that burns and gives off thick dark fumes. These fumes billow into the air and are
transported many kilometres away from the polluting point. It is a curious fact that over
92%Ε of the polluted air present in Norway is as a result of the Pollution in the lower
latitudes such as England. This clearly shows that Pollution is not only a local problem
but a global one. The burnt coal heats up water to produce steam. This selfsame steam
turns the turbines to generate power. While the power is useful and necessary, the by
products from this process are toxic and the solid waste is difficult to dispose off.
2. Volcanic eruptions The Volcanic eruptions have been known to be the largest natural
polluters, even outweighing present anthropogenic emissions. It is estimated that some
eruptions release as much as 15 – 30 million tonnes of sulphur dioxide into the air!∏
The environment is the world in which we live. It is the source of our food, water and the air we breathe
Source: Introduction to global environmental issues, Pickering.C. Owen L Page 109.
Source: Introduction to global environmental issues, Pickering.C. Owen L page 116.
6. Mining activities- Anthropogenic activities such as mining are as old as the world
probably. Today, however, this activity ranks among the highest polluters in the world.
Smoke and dust come from the mineral processing activities especially from the metal
smelters. It is no wonder that the surrounding areas of the mines do not have vegetation
and acid rain is a common feature in nearby localities.
7. Firewood burning- As the need for power rises, so also the demand for firewood. This
means that more trees are felled to produce the wood charcoal. The ramifications are that
there will be fewer trees to carry out photosynthesis which converts carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere to give oxygen. The mere processing of wood to charcoal makes smoke to
be produced. This practice is more pronounced in developing countries.
Source: Enviro line April 1996 Vol 1 No. 1 pp8
Source: Enviro line April 1996 Vol 1 No. 1 pp8
Having identified the major air polluting sources, we proceed to enquire as to the types of
pollutants and the effects of this type of pollution. The question to hand is “What are
some of the toxic air pollutants and what are the effects on man and the environment?”
The major air pollutants are given below:
1. Carbon monoxide. This is a colourless and odourless gas formed when incomplete
combustion takes place. This gas is produced in car engine combustion as well as when
hydrocarbons are burnt where insufficient oxygen is present. The fact that this gas cannot
be smelled makes it doubly dangerous because the person inhaling it suffocates to death.
Carbon monoxide has been the major cause of many a death that has occurred in village
huts where people sleep with a fire in the middle of a poorly ventilated hut. Others have
perished when they have left the car engine running while in an enclosed place such as a
garage.
2. Sulphur dioxide. This gas is mainly emitted from the Mines, which pour out untold
amounts of this gaseous substance into the air. This gas rises into the atmosphere and
settles in the air. Some of it is dissolved into the rainwater to form other chemicals that
fall to the ground. Zambia is said to release over 1,000 tonsℑ of this gas into the air. In
Kitwe and Mufulira (Zambian town on the Copper belt), the refinery plants and the
underground fumes often cause many to choke as the “Senter” is released at certain hours
of the day. Extremely concentrated fumes are released at a particular hour of the day and
when that is done, people are sent scampering while others have to endure the choking
fumes with great discomfort. Later on in life, these selfsame fumes effect will come to
haunt the victims while the mines go Scot-free.
3. Hydro carbons and organic acids- The hydrocarbons fuels and the CFCs are used in
aerosols as propellants. They are preferred because they are chemically very inert and
thus do not react with other materials in the container. However, in the upper atmosphere,
UV light splits the CFC! to give Chlorine. This chlorine then reacts with ozone to
produce oxygen.
5. Nitrogen Oxides-These are oxides that come from sources such as the burning of
organic substances, or reactions in the air with certain gases such as Carbon Monoxide or
Sulphur oxides. The major sources of these oxides are the burning of coal in power plants
and the car fumes.
6. Nuclear waste and fall out. This topic has been a source of much controversy in the
recent past due to the nature of the materials at hand. While nuclear use and knowledge
has increased over time, the age-old question that still begs answering is, “How are we to
safely dispose off hazardous nuclear waste permanently after use?” No real solution has
been found. The problem is that nuclear materials are lethal and invisible to the human
eye. In addition, they usually have long half-lives and can exist in that lethal state for
many years. Where these have accidentally been exposed to the free atmosphere, untold
amount of damage has been recorded, as was the case with the Chernobyl nuclear disaster
in the former USSR. To this day, large stretches of land and air are deadly to traverse.
This nuclear waste and fallout threatens both the wild life and the environmental health of
a certain locality. Even more hair raising is the fact that the contaminated air moves from
place to place and thus transports the radiation particles to distant places. It has been
reported for example, that animals grazing in Sweden and Norway were condemned and
the milk not fit for human consumption. Various reports have been given as to the
radiation levels at the Chernobyl disaster, but one reading pegged it at more than 300
roentgens an hour, more than 300,000 times above the normally allowed dose!δ once
exposed, the body cells rapidly disintegrate, mutations occur and cancers like Leukaemia
develop later on From the above scenario, it is clear that nuclear technology, whilst
plausibly cheaper and more efficient, is a long-term hazardous pollutant of the
atmosphere.
The aforementioned pollutants are classified as gaseous and particulate. Some of these
pollute directly and as such are known as primary pollutants while others form as a result
of prior reactions of primary gases to form secondary pollutants. An example of a
secondary gas is Nitrogen dioxide and ozone. When these gases are emitted in excessive
“The total chlorine loading of the atmosphere has continued to rise… Governments should replace CFCs
and other Ozone depleting substances, consistent with the Montreal Protocol…” Agenda 21-1992 Rio earth
summit.
Source: Conservation for Survival, an ecological strategy. Lindahl K., 1972 ,page 14
Source: Readers’ digest, May 1991 issue. Pekkanen. J, The man who flew into hell Page 151
1. Discomfort, health problems and death. It is now a documented fact that air pollution
is a silent, slow but certain killer. As intimated at the beginning of this paper, the
noxious gases have and continue to do great harm. In humans, it has been discovered
that where there is more air pollution, diseases such as bronchitis and other
respiratory ailments abound. Another known disease connected to atmospheric
damage is Emphysema. Furthermore, air pollution is linked to Lung cancer as this
disease is more prevalent in industrial countries rather than in agrarian ones. There
has been a world over increase of Lung cancer and in the USA for example, as an
author states, this type of cancer kills more people than all the other cancer types
combinedΚ. Carbon monoxide, one of the poisonous gases once inhaled displaces the
Oxygen in the blood and reduces the amount carried to the body tissues, thus the
brain gets starved of oxygen and the victim dies. The concentration of this gas varies
from place to place. In the USA for example, Lindahl states that more than 100
million tons of Carbon monoxide was emitted in 1968. This figure is nothing
compared to the present levels today, 32 years later. Furthermore, CO slows down the
body reactions even in the healthiest persons and contributes significantly to the risks
of accidents.
2. Acid rain formsΩ. It is hardly necessary to be labour the point that acid rain emanates
directly from air pollution. What happens is that as the Nitrogen oxides and the
Sulphur oxides dissolve into rain water, they change the pH level of the water so
much that by the time the rain falls to the ground, the pH of the water will be around
4. It must be noted that not all the gases are absorbed due to their high concentration,
the excess “sticks” onto the clouds and falls later as rain. This rain will most likely
fall in a totally different locality and cause other problems such as acidifying lakes
and soils. Further, the rain destroys the vegetation as well. The two ways in which this
acid rain destroys the vegetation and plant diversity is by making the soil have an
unfavourable pH level and secondly, by simply poisoning the soil so that certain
plants will not grow. The following is a suggested reactions take place in the
atmosphere to form acid rain:
The 1992 Rio earth summit highlighted the following… “Air pollution damages lungs, corrodes
buildings, poisons soils and crops, kills forests and makes lakes unfit for aquatic life…"
Source: Conservation for survival., Lindahl. 1972,page 19
Vegetation is affected by the following pollutants: Gases kill the cells, acid rain damages plants as well as
lowers the soil pH & mobilizes toxic metals, air borne particles settle on the plants to reduce solar radiation
received hindering photosynthesis, dust particles block stomatal pores and inhibit gas exchange as well as
photosynthesis
3. Large stretches of vegetation are destroyed- Closely akin to the aforementioned point,
large stretches of vegetation are destroyed. It has been speculated by some scientists
that if not carefully managed, air pollution has the potential to cause entire forests to
vanish. This is because the plant leaves are destroyed by either dry or wet deposition
of pollutants on the leaf surfaces. As the pollutants settle on the surface, they not only
destroy the stomata but allow toxic gases like ozone to enter into the plantΩ too.
Furthermore, in places near industrial areas, mines and airports, the vegetation is
either absent or experiences stunted growth. A visit to the Mines in Mufulira, Zambia
will reveal just how much air pollution has damaged large stretches of forest. In those
areas no plant survives once planted. The explanation is simply that the Sulphur
dioxide scorches chokes and kills the plants.
4. Air concentration balances altered. I did not find any documented evidence but I
seriously think that a chance exists that the traditional concentration ratio of gases in
normal clean air (i.e. Nitrogen, 78%, oxygen 21% and 1% other trace elements) is
now being altered due to the anthropogenic actions as more gases are pumped into the
atmosphere. This postulation, if correct, will mean that the air becomes more toxic
and unhealthy for organisms. The will lead to diversity reduction in species and
diseases increases such as lung cancer as asserted in No. 1 above.
5. Weather and climate changes-The far-reaching consequence of pollution is that the
weather, world-over is changing rapidly and unpredictably. Hither to, it took no less
than 30 years to predict the climatic conditions of an area but today this data is
obsolete. The reason is that air pollution has affected the weather patterns so much
that we can no longer easily predict the climatic conditions of a place. The advent of
the computer and Satellite technology aids us to figure out what is going on at a given
moment but cannot tell us precisely what will happen 10 years hence. All these
sudden weather changes are attributed to atmospheric pollution.
6. Death of marine life due to temperature changes. Due to the weather instability and
the atmospheric changes, marine life will die. The water temperature changes will
lead to extensive deaths of organisms which are sensitive to temperature variations,
even minute changes of say 1*C will create a mass grave of organisms. The Bio
diversity is at risk as well.
7. Destruction of buildings. Air pollution has caused certain gases which were hitherto
not in abundance in the air to increase to such levels where when they react with
certain substances, they cause a lot of damage. A well observed case is that of acid
rain which destroys the curving on some ancient limestone buildings. The acid reacts
with the calcium carbonate and thus breaks down the structures slowly but surely.
Other uncalculated costs such as the dirt on the walls of buildings, the corroded metal
bridges and many other structures distorted by pollution indirectly. To replace, paint
Quoted from the Awake! Magazine, December 22, 1994 issue page 6 “When our atmosphere is damaged”
Unless drastic measures are put in place, we will continue to witness more and more
ozone holes, as the present ones are growing bigger by the day. Also the skin cancer cases
will continue to rise especially among the white skinned people in places like Australia∆
where the ozone protection has fallen sharplyΛ. It is gratifying to note that modern fringes
and aerosol cans have been branded “Ozone friendly”. Although extensive damage has
been done to the Ozone layer already, there is still hope of reversing the trend, tough it
will take many years, aye, centuries to repair the mess. We badly need the Ozone layer.
12. Frequent Famine and floods. Air pollution is poised to cause more frequent natural
disasters. There is so much evidence for this assertion because the natural disasters are
galore in almost all parts of the world. An example is the flooding which took place in
Mozambique recently. This is probably a place where no previous record of flooding of
that magnitude has been recorded, but alas, it has happened! Much more is to come.
Further, what is the explanation of the droughts, famines and crop failures worldwide?
Isn’t it because of mans’ continued violation of the natural balance in the ecosystem? We
are bold to assert that all this has its root cause in Pollution! Let us gear up for more
natural disaster show downs!
13. Heat waves. Hither to, heat waves were a rare phenomenon and restricted to certain
geographical areas but the recent years have witnessed a higher frequency of these heat
waves even in places where these were previously unheard of. It is believed that the said
waves will increase in frequency as the chaotic weather patterns continue to be catalysed
by more air pollution. Scanning the local press, one will definitely come across some
incidence related to these sudden heat outbursts in different parts of the world. Where
these have occurred, the temperatures have risen to unbearable degrees causing many
An estimated 20 million tons of CFC 1994 have been already been released into the atmosphere…reports
the 1994 magazine Popular Science.
The following except is from The New scientist: “…there were unusually low values of Ozone
concentrations in 1992 between latitudes 50*N & 60*N, covering northern Europe, Russia and Canada.
The Ozone level was 12% below normal, lower than at anytime in 35 years of continuous observations…”
Depletion is most rapid in extremely cold & still conditions like Antarctica where over 60% or more
Ozone has bee destroyed.
14. Polar cap melting. There is a belief that in coming months and years, the rising world
temperatures will cause the ice caps at the two poles of the earth to melt. The two cold
deserts hold a lot of water in frozen state and thus reduce the amount of free flowing
water in the oceans, but with the afore mentioned development, there is going to be a
more pronounced ice melting and the consequent release of more water to the oceans.
This development will be a result of air pollution that will in turn lead to higher
temperatures. What this melting will entail has not been fully calculated but suffice it to
say that the ice caps will definitely begin to melt in coming days, if they have not already
begun!
15. Global warming. Although warmer temperatures have been alluded already, it is
necessary for us to highlight this as we see it being pivotal to the many changes that are
taking place in the world today. As may have been noticed, there is a general increase in
the world temperatures due to the presence of more free Carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is a green house gas, meaning that its presence causes the
world to heat up because the gas traps the Infra red radiation and keeps the heat in the
lower atmosphere. When this happens, the heat builds up in the world causing an
inequilibrium in the ecosystem. The off shoots are the observed changes in the weather
and climate. It is postulated that going by the present trends, the temperatures worldwide
might rise by an estimated 1.5-4.5*C, depending partly on the response of the natural
CO2 reservoirs such as forests and oceans. Talking about the reservoirs, it is estimated
that some 300,000 times more carbon dioxide is trapped in the ocean floors in fossils and
rocks. It is feared that as more global warming occurs, these deposits will be released
into the atmosphere, causing even more problems. Reversing the global warming will be
hard since CO2 remains in the atmosphere for many decades. The 1992 Rio de Jenairo
earth summitε called for countries to stabilise the CO2 emissions at 1990 levels by the
year 2000. Whether this has been achieved, we have no telling just now.
16. Tide rise. It is postulated by some scientists that there has been and will be more tidal
rise in the ocean and sea water levels. As pointed out in 14 above, the melting of the polar
caps will mean more water unlocked into the oceans. This, among many things threatens
to flood lowlands such as the pacific islands and Bangladesh. Also, the atolls, Coral reefs
and other bodies where organisms thrive will be submerged and reduce the biodiversity
further. This will also mean that the hurricanes on coastlines will be even more difficult
to quell. It is feared that the world melting ice might raise the sea water level uniformly
worldwide by no less than thirty centimetres within a century.
17. Reduced light intensity It has been noticed that the light intensity in heavily polluted
areas has been reduced significantly due to the dark fumes that hover over the polluted
18. Noise pollution. Another component that comes hand in hand with mechanisation is
noise. As the machines efficiently do their work, noise has made our world so
uncomfortable. Although the definition of “Noise” is relative, any unwanted sound can be
classified as noise. The Factories, cars, aeroplanes and even our own domestic gadgets
give off noise. Of concern is the sonic booms produced from aeroplanes and also from
magnificent vehicles like the space shuttle. Not only do the planes pollute by the
destructive gases they produce, they also emit too much noise, such that some people
have had their hearing impaired as a result. In some instances, glasses are shattered due to
the high noise decibels flooding the atmosphere. Those who work among machines for
long hours on end are most at risk of suffering the ill effects of continuous noise
pollution.
19. Acidification of lakes and soil poisoning. When the acid rain falls it pollutes the water
bodies making them inhabitable to aquatic life. This has occurred in Norway and Sweden.
Also, the selfsame acid rain changes the pH of the soil making it poisonous to plants.
This has a bearing on the type of Flora and Fauna extant in a given locality. Both these
negative effects lead to reduced bio diversity.
The above outlined air pollution effects speak for themselves that we are virtually sitting
on a pending time bomb. Only a few seconds remain before the detonation takes place,
what ought to be done? How are we to handle the prospects that confront us? The article
to hand suggests that the law be invoked. In Zambia, the Environmental Protection and
Pollution Control act is in place, in particular, the Air Pollution Control Bill which was
signed in 1996 are there to help the Environmental Council of Zambia. But what practical
tangible steps can we take to help tame the pollution tide? A few practical steps are
suggested:
1. Strengthen the existing laws against Polluters. - The relevant appointed environmental
protection institutions must be strengthened. In turn, this will empower them to prosecute
polluters with minimal external interference. In many countries, the same ecological
protection bodies are there only to report pollution occurrences but have no power to
bring to book all the offenders. If they are to be relevant and effective, laws must be
enacted to give them “teeth to bite”, otherwise they remain as white elephants in any
country, these bodies must have the powers to issue or revoke a licence to all that pollute
the atmosphere in one way or the other. Not only should they be empowered to issue
licences, but they must also be given the right to monitor and check any premises at will,
2. Minimise the polluting levels of the atmosphere.Θ Presently, the emissions into the
atmosphere are so high that if we continue at the present rate, we are headed for a major
catastrophe. With the breakdown of the ecosystem will come economic collapse and
death. The ideal situation is to simply shut down the pollution sources! Unfortunately,
this is not a possibility now. The best that can be done is to minimise the air
contamination levels to a bare minimum so that the earth can be given the capacity to
recover, though this process will take many years (the recovery). Pragmatic measures
must be put in place that will enable the existing polluters to carefully watch their waste
emissions and also to be at the forefront promoting the anti pollution cause. Furthermore,
cleaner and more efficient ways must be developed which reduce the degree of air
contamination.
3. Develop healthier, cleaner and efficient power sources. More money must be spent on
research into newer cleaner power sources. Presently, hydrocarbon fuels are extensively
used world over. The problem with these hydrocarbon fuels is that they are not renewable
and therefore wasting assets. Secondly, they emit a lot of by products that cannot be
safely disposed off. In burning coal for example, we have a two-fold waste-the solid as
well as the gaseous waste. These cannot be disposed off easily. The one (solid waste) has
to be dumped on land previously undisturbed whilst the other (gas) will billow into the
air and contaminate it, thus destroying the air quality. As though that were not enough,
acid rain falls to the earth as a bonus! It should be our firm belief that research is primary
at the moment or else risk destroying the earth further. Some countries have made
plausible strides towards that direction but the majority are still engrossed in exploiting
these dirty power sources. Some of the latest developments are the use of water as a fuel
instead of petrol. Other inventions are the solar power and the now generally accepted
hydroelectric power. For many developing countries, the nuclear power harnessing is still
a far-fetched dream and many do not even think about that option because of the
attendant hazards. Many still harbour an antipathy for Nuclear power harnessing because
of its potential deleterious nature. In an ideal situation, Nuclear power is potentially a
good power source as is the hydro one but these systems must be perfected and made
more efficient before they can be effectively used widely across the world. Other power
source ideas are yet to be hatched, for this, we anxiously wait!
4. Regulate the emission to the 1990 levels. Among the many proposals that were
suggested at the 1992 Rio earth summitε was the desire to regulate emission to the 1990
levels. This means that nations must strive to either reduce or maintain the 1990 levels
while alternative solutions were being sought. The extent to which this proposal has been
implemented is yet to be ascertained but it is certainly a good first step towards taming
the pollution tide. If we are to tackle any issue, we must first stop in our tracks and then
refocus which way forward.
It is important to note the following as stated by UNEP in 1992 “ Exposure to air pollution is now an
inescapable part of urban life through out the world…”
See foot note under global warming on 10 by Maurice strong.
6. Encourage people to use public transport so as to minimise the air polluting traffic-
This proposal is a plausible one but it largely depends on the degree of understanding and
sympathy people have towards environmental issues. The idea at hand is to encourage
people to use public transport rather than their own vehicles. This cuts down significantly
on the number of vehicles on the road, thus fewer emissions into the air. There is
obviously going to be a reduction in the concentrations of the carbon monoxide and other
related gases into the atmosphere. The problem with this idea is that some people will not
trade their comforts for anything. Perhaps one way to encourage people is to offer some
kind of incentive to those who voluntarily use public transport though they have their
own cars.
7. In extreme cases, declare certain days as “car free”- This proposal is closely
connected to the one above except that in this instance, people have no choice but to
obey. The issue at hand is a moral one that affects everyone. It was done once in
Japan (1970) and the CO dropped as much as 80%!≈ This ban was implemented on
Sundays on over 122 busiest streets in Tokyo. We are fast approaching a time when
this will not only be an issue of indifference but a must. We need to act fast before the
laws of nature force us into an austere position.
8. Introduce toxins neutralising elements during mass production processes. This will
mean that certain chemicals will have to be introduced either into the air or be added
to by-products so that when they react with atmospheric pollutants, they bring about
some kind of neutralisation. This has been explored in some coal power stations
where the waste fumes are passed through some substances, which neutralise or filter
out most of the toxic Sulphur dioxide. This could be extended to other areas and used
on a wider scale. The only hurdle is that this is an expensive undertaking and also
9. “Nip” potential pollution sources in the “bud.” This is simply the idea that any
upcoming pollution source must be watched strictly even before one puff of smoke is
released to the atmosphere. This is very involving because it amounts to “witch
hunting”! By and by, this will be a necessary activity. To ensure that this works well,
realistic guidelines must be put in place. These parameters will guarantee that we are
not always acting as “fire fighters” but rather, disaster preventers. By that token, new
factories must be meticulously watched lest they proliferate and add to the existing
mess.
10. Be cautious and meticulous what “Investment” to allow into the country, especially in
the poorer developing countries! Although most of the atmospheric pollution
presently occurs in the highly Industrialised countries, this scourge is fast shifting to
the less developed nations. While the Developed nations are looking for ways to deal
with the waste emanating from mass production, the poorer nations will compromise
many issues so as to get the technological and financial assistance from the more
advanced nations. Since these poor nations have no choice in the matter, they open
their countries to all manner of investment without caring to put certain minimum
environmental and health standards in place. As such, the rich investors come with
their powerful Dollars, revive old dilapidated mines and factories as well as explore
new areas of development. Half the time, these new investors’ main goal is profit and
not sustainable development per se. We do not need to go far, we just need to turn our
eye and see what has taken place in Zambia where the major factories and mines have
been taken over. There is literary no care for the environment. Another way this
serpent has slithered its way into the less environmentally polluted countries is under
the guise of “aid”. This subjective point is validated by the fact that in the countries
where these industries originate have strict laws and very high fines slapped for
pollution offences. Without foresight, these beggarly nations embrace any glimmer of
apparent free technical help not realising that there is a translation of pollution points.
That is not to say that there is nothing good in all the technical aid given, not at all!
To the contrary, the presence of these institutions will create the much-coveted jobs,
though at the cost of long term permanent damage to the environment. The air quality
degenerates to almost inhaling smokeα, akin to Hitler’s gas chambers!
11. Establish the critical loads of every environment. This is very crucial if sustainable
development is to be a reality in the world today. There must be a deliberate policy in
place to determine the critical loads of the environment. Since Pollution cannot be
entirely eradicatedχ, degradation. As such, the environment has certain levels of
Pollution that it can safely clean beyond which the earth does not have the capacity to
effectively clear the air. This calls for careful observation and research and then to
determine the maximum levels beyond which degradation begins. In the case of water
See the May 1987 issue of the National Geographic page 624
“Exposure to air pollution is now almost an inescapable part of the urban part of life through out the
world”- UNEP, 1992
12. Curb noise pollution: Though noise pollution is here to stay, ways must be devised
which minimise the noise levels from machinery. Silencers must be utilised or the
noise pollution sources relocated to alternate places far from society. This will
minimise the inconvenience suffered by myriads.
As the article new millennium unfolds we, like the article author ably concludes, hope
that the law enacted will have the potency to restore sanity in human kinds’ mad quest to
exploit nature without paying back dividends. Let us join hands with the environmental
crusaders on the throes of earth restoration!
Bibliography
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15. Quotations from the Rio de Jenairo summit
“NIMBY!”-“ Not in my back yard!” is now a common word to express just the degree of
averseness people have towards all forms of pollution, especially that which poses a
severe health hazard. People no longer want to live, work or visit a place near to a
dumping site, Nuclear power plant or any toxic waste emitting industry. This aversion has
been on the increase from the middle of last century… but why the sudden “noise”? Why
are people bothered by pollution? Is it harmful? If so, what are some of the effects and
remedies of pollution? These are some of the questions & answers the article “Hazardous
waste” from the March 1985 issue of the National Geographic addresses.
As one turn to the article, a person clad in protective clothing while holding forth thick
sticky oily stuff on a pole is seen. The picture is so graphic that one needs not read the
story. The picture tells it all. Pollution has been a thorny issue for some time now. Being
mindful that the word “Pollution” is a general term and there are various types such as
Air, Water, soil, dust and noise pollution. We seek to define it as such and then draw our
boundaries. Pollution basically is the introduction of certain parameters into the
environment which cause an imbalance in the ecosystem, as a result of dumping waste in
certain localities which situation leads to an environment being hostile to various eco-
players such as humans, animals and vegetation. For our purposes, we confine ourselves
to water pollution. In talking about water pollution, we must go further to state that we
are dealing with fresh ground water.
As earlier intimated, the article takes 34 pages to cover this pollution as found in the
Michigan State-USA. In the said State, like any other, pollution has reached cripplingly
dangerous levels. Reading the article, one cannot help agreeing with people who yell
“NIMBY!” because of the devastating effects of environmental degradation.
It is clear that this problem is a global one but is more serious in some places than others.
The long industrialised countries like the USA are worst hit. On the one hand, the
industrial machinery is churning out an unprecedented high quality and quantities of
products, while on the other, the by-products cannot be easily disposed off! Slowly, the
world has been storing up trouble, which is returning to haunt the human neighbourhood.
It seems the old graves are opening up and hazardous solid waste ghosts are resurrecting
from their graves and coming for us, this time with venomous lethal potency. But what
exactly causes this pollution? What are the sources of these hazardous waste products?
For generations, as new technological feats have been surmounted, the world population
has been growing exponentially. As at 6th October, 1999, the World Population was
estimated at six billion!Ρ By all standards, this is a big number of people, looking at the
present earth carrying capacity. Somehow, all these people must have good clothing,
enough food, good shelter and access to clean drinking water. The tragedy is that the
Having laboured to establish the sources of this ground water pollution, we now proceed
to find what the major types of toxic substances which are prevalent in the ground water
and what the effects of ground water pollution are. The article mentions the following
chemicals
1. Mercury
2. Nitrogen
3. Polychlorinated biphenyls-PCBs
These are but some of the toxic chemicals which are difficult to deal with as they result
from necessary human activities. For example, some of the mercury may come from
watches which people throw away! Furthermore, some of these are by products from
manufacturing detergents and carpet cleaning chemicals. What exactly are the effects of
ingesting these substances? The effects are many but the findings from the article reveal
the following:
a. These contaminants cause cancers in humans as well as in other animals. Some fish
have been found with tumours.?
b. There are reported birth defects in humans. The offspring are found to have disfigured
bodies or may have brain damage. Usually, these children will be mentally retarded.
c. Miscarriages are another result. These chemicals induce spontaneous abortions which
leave terrible scars on the victims.
d. Blood diseases are also common. The blood is badly contaminated and as such, the
body does not function well causing body weakness and a slow death.
e. Some organs are not spared as they cannot metabolise these chemicals and heavy
metals. Damages occur to the Liver, Kidney and the genes (mutation). This leads to
serious fatal conditions.
f. Nervous disorders will be witnessed as well. The chemicals will wind their way into
the nerve centres of the body and cause them to malfunction. Nerves, as sensitive as
they are, will be permanently damaged-Mind you, most of these are in remote parts of
the body, are too numerous, minute and nigh impossible to replace.
g. The bones are destroyed. In the case of the Itai-itai disease, there is excruciating pain
felt by the victim. The bones become so weak that a mere sneeze will cause a bone to
crack! Numerous bone dislocations are experienced as well. This has crippled many a
soul in Japan.
The gloomy picture painted above largely affects humans. Other animals and plants are
affected differently. For example, some fish can carry toxic substances such as DDT in
their body tissues and remain in good health until, by a shortage of food, they begin to
utilise the stored up fat. The same fat poisons the fish with lethal effect♥. What are the
antidotes and the remedies to the problem? What can be done to avoid the above
situation spreading further? A few solutions are offered:
1. Treat the solid waste before dumping or burying. The truth is that it is easier and
cheaper to dispose off untreated waste. As such, companies, whose main interest is profit,
will look for any loop hole to avoid incurring more expenses on things like incineration.
If all polluters would spend more on treating waste, this would significantly reduce the
ground water pollution.
2. Dispose solid waste materials far from the water table, away from humans and animals
which need fresh clean water supplies. This is but another time bomb because man will
have recourse to this same water in future, especially in the light of the dwindling
supplies and the world exponential population growth.
3. Use Raw materials which will give off harmless disposable by products. This is a hard
alternative but it is viable once found. Most of the Pollution emanates from the toxic by
products. Furthermore, the said wastes are usually hard to get rid of as they very long half
lives. Others will virtually take thousands of years to decompose and lose their toxic
potency.
4. Bury all waste in Impermeable dump sites and pits. Ensure that the garbage is located
in an area where the rock structure that is impermeable, as is the case in West Germany,
where the solid waste is stored in drums 2,300 feet below ground in former salt mine
tunnels. These tunnels are deep, dry and geologically stable. This is thought to be the
safest facility in the world. Alternatively, the waste could be dumped in other artificially
made concrete sites. This is very costly to construct but Pollution is more costly in the
long run! Generations ahead will curse us if we do not do something now!
5. Promote the use of natural fertilisers where possible. This keeps within the ecosystem
equilibrium. More ways must be devised that will ensure maximum use of decomposition
and animal waste. This is extremely difficult to achieve given the population today which
demands food on a commercial level. Subsistence ways are far outstripped by food
demand and somewhat obsolete for our times.
The environmental problems hem in on us from every side but as the author of the article
ably quotes someone at the end of his report, we affirm that “We would like to live long
enough to see an end to problems with hazardous waste”, to this we aspire!
3.GIS World, Battista .C, March 1994 issue “Chernobyl: Model Aids Nuclear Disaster
relief” pp32-35.
6.Cobbs Jr. C,(July,1987,pp 2-31) The Great lakes’ troubled waters. Washington D.C:
National Geographic society
Ρ
Source-UNEP,1999.
Deforestation
There has been much talk about the threat to exterminate forests lately. The local and
international press including books are replete with the debates on the forests. The
crusade for the forest conservationΤ is on the increase each day. But why is there such an
outcry? After all, what is the necessity of keeping many needless trees around us? Are we
backtracking on the dreams of our forefathers who wanted a clearer planet? Among the
many people who have ventured to address this issue is Bwalya Nondo whose article
entitled “Kafue Forest reserves fall to squatters” is a classic one. Perhaps the question
that still begs answering is “What is the importance of forest?”
In answering that question, we will do well to state that in this assignment, we deal with
the topic of Deforestation, in general and its effects.
What then is deforestation? Someone has simply defined it as “The conversion of forest
land to other uses, such as pasture and cropland”& This simple definition means that large
stretches of prior forested land are cleared due to anthropogenic actions, in the quest to
develop. A few years ago, trees occupied more land than people did but now, the opposite
is true. In Zambia, where at least three major categories of vegetation exist i.e. the closed
forests, the open forests, and the grassland, including wetlands & Dambos, none have
escaped unscathed by the wave of forest degradation wave that has hit world.ϒ The
question still lingers, what is the importance of forests? A number of answers come to the
fore:
1. Forests are the Natural oxygen machines through the process of photosynthesis.
2. Forests help to hold the soil together. The soil structure is refined as well as held
together.
3. Forests are windbreakers. Many a whirlwind is stopped by the tree barrier. Dust
pollution is also minimised.
4. Forests help regulate the hydrological cycle. Through transpiration, much water is
transmitted to the atmosphere. Also, the trees keep water from being lost rapidly.
5. Forests are of economic value-Forests provide the much needed wood for
construction and other uses such as paper and rubber making. The trees also enrich
the soil with nutrients.
6. Forests are the natural habitats of many organisms. Myriads of organisms perch and
flourish in the trees. Untold bio diversity is found in the forest, adding to the beauty
of the natural world.
7. Forests help prevent floods. There have been postulations that the frequent flooding in
area like Bangladesh has been due to deforestation. Trees reduce the run off rate and
also retain most of the water from the uplands.
8. Forests provide Fuel and charcoal.-This goes without saying, fuel and energy are
derived from trees for domestic use.
9. Forests protect the water catchment areas. Where trees have been felled around the
catchment area, streams have dried shortly afterwards. This is because trees retain
water and also keep the water table near the surface. When they are cleared, all the
water is lost rapidly.
The points above show the importance of trees if man is to survive in ages to come. Our
introduction declared that forests were being indiscriminately cleared, what exactly are
the major contributors of this scourge? The underlying answer is that human activity is at
the centre of it all. Some major causes are highlighted below:
1. Charcoal burning. The demand for charcoal has increased as the global population
has. The article highlights the activity as one that takes place every day in the forest
reserve. Although charcoal burning is labour intensive, economic necessity overrides
inconvenience.
2. Demand increase. The exponential world population growth means the demand has
increased by the same token. Therefore, more trees are felled to satisfy the ready
market.
3. Development. Large stretches of land are cleared annually pave way for
development. New towns, roads and structures are constructed without taking an
environmental impact assessment. The profit motive rather than the sustainable
development is the human goal.
4. Atmospheric pollution -There has been an increase in the incidence of acid rain as a
result of atmospheric pollution. When the acid rain falls on the vegetation, it has
destroyed many of them.
5. Agriculture- As man has moved to commercial farming, large areas have been cleared
for monoculture thus not only destroying forests but the biodiversity as well. The
article highlights how the Kafue east topography has been ravaged.
6. Spraying-In the quest to kill pests, many forests and plants have been poisoned and
killed. When DDT was widely used, it actually went up the food chain to poison man
as well.
7. Pasture- With the advent of commercial farming, animals are kept in one area where
they live and feed. Their confinement causes pressure on the land as the hoofs destroy
the land and all the available vegetation is either trampled on or eaten.
We have looked at the causes and effects of deforestation, it is now fitting to offer some
possible remedies to this pending catastrophe. These are:
1. Strengthen the law on forestry. As the article suggests, the greatest need is to enact
laws that will empower forest pundits to deal with offenders. As is the case in the
Kafue forest reserve, the pundits are the law-abiding citizens and not the forest
destroyers! The Ministry has no teeth.
2. Carry out an environmental assessment impact before any major under taking such as
the building of towns or roads.
The problem at hand is indeed a very grave one and can only be solved by humankind.
Quick action must be taken or else all that remains will also be extinct. We fear that what
has happened at the Kafue Forest reserve will spread like bush fire. It is so heart rending
to watch helplessly as Gods’ creation is ripped asunder. Let marshal all our resources to
save what remains!
Bibliography
1. Sunday Times of Zambia, July 25th 1999 issue. Bwalya Nondo, “Kafue forest reserves
fall to squatters”.
“Pollution” is a pregnant term and has been defined variously. My own simple definition
of pollution is “The introduction of certain parameters into the environment which
cannot be co-opted into the ecosystem and thus cause an eco-inequilibrium leading to
environmental degradation”. This situation renders the environment to be harmful and
unpleasant to humans, animals and plants. As can be seen, this definition of pollution is
general. Since there are different types of pollution, it is fitting for us to be clear in our
minds from the outset, what type of pollution we are talking about exactly. For our
purposes, we confine ourselves to fresh surface water pollution.
“Human kind has been polluting water since the early days of civilisation.”λ In those
earlier days when the World population was small, the fresh water bodies seemed far
from being significantly contaminated. But alas, with the advent of the industrial
revolution, there has been an “explosion” of goods produced. “Mass production” has
been the call. With the advent of modern technology, higher living standards, longer life
expectancies and population booms have been experienced. Naturally, these have their
own impact on the environment. As such, since the 1950s, we began to hear outcries from
different pockets on this terrestrial ball. The present six billion (As at October 6th 1999-
UNEP estimations) people on the earth today, have surely led to great strains on the
earth’s carrying capacity to meet all the needs. The exponential population boom is
having its toll today. As such, one does not need to go far to discover how and why the
issue of fresh water scarcity is being highlighted today. There is a critical shortage of
clean fresh water generally on the earth. On the one hand, the industrialised countries
maximise on the use of the fresh water resources, while on the other, the less
development countries like Zambia only use 3% letting the other 97% to flow wastefully
to the ocean!
The industrialised countries like the USA, Norway and Sweden have some of the worst
polluted fresh water bodies where, in some cases, the entire aquatic and biological life is
almost dead! The Great lakes in the USA, for example, are so polluted such that it is
hazardous to drink the water directly from them! In the quest to industrialise, the
developing countries have also started polluting their fresh water sources as well. Their
industrial waste is dumped into the rivers and lakes whose pollution levels in most cases
far exceed the maximum accepted pollution levels. Most of the industrial and human
effluents are not treated, as this option is cheaper.
As one of the ramifications of pollution, the articles “Kafue weed becoming national
crisis”, and “Kariba weed under control” show clearly that a catastrophe is looming in
Zambia as well. The problem illustrated is but a tip in the ice berg of the grave
environmental decay that confronts the world today. The Kafue and Kariba weeds are two
different water hyacinths, which have plagued rivers and lakes in Zambia. The said
But what has caused this situation? For one thing, it is not known how this Kafue weed
got into the river, because it is natively found in South America. How this weed landed
on the Kafue is yet to be discovered. One thing for sure is that it is there and flourishing!
According to the Kafue weed article, the said pester was first spotted in the early nineteen
seventies though in very insignificant traces but overtime, this selfsame weed has spread
widely ending up as a menace. It has proliferated to almost uncontrollable levels. In
attempting to answer the question as to the causes of this pending holocaust, the article
points to the issue of pollution. The hyacinth thrives in an atmosphere where there is a
lot of water, sunshine, Nitrogen and Phosphorus nutrients. All these elements are
present on the river. The following are the sources of some of these elements.
1. The industries – The Nitrogen Chemicals, Kafue textiles, Indeni oils & the Tannery,
to name but a few, pollute the river.
2. The Mines – the mines dump some of their waste such as the slug into the river.
These contain some nutrients. In some cases, the mines dump the waste in lagoons
which lead to other pollution problems such as the pollution of ground water.
3. The Agricultural Activities – The Nakambala Sugar Estate and the other farmers
release a lot of chemical effluents into the river. These chemicals are a good ground
for the hyacinth thriving- leading to eutrophicationφ in the river.
4. The sewerage – Which is dumped into the river from the cities such as Lusaka, Kafue
and Mazabuka. In some cases these human waste is not treated thereby causing a lot
of problems later on downstream.
The above have continued to dump more and more waste into the river to the extent that
the Kafue river has turned out to be probably the most severely polluted river in Zambia.
This river, with all its impurities flows into the Zambezi River, which river, we have
reason, is itself polluted because of the presence of a similar weed at the Lake Kariba.
But what are the effects of this water pollution? Does it affect anything or anyone at all?
The answer to this is an affirmative yes! The presence of heavy water pollution leads to
the following.
1. The water becomes unfit for human consumption. As we all know, “Water is life”, a
familiar adage says. It will mean people cannot have access to clean and safe water. If
they drink the water, their health is at risk. Actually, in some countries people are
warned sternly against drinking water from the tap or else get ill, develop terminal
diseases such as cancer and die!
2. The water once polluted will cause the hyacinth to flourish thereby making the river
not navigable. In some cases, the river dies!-In extreme situations, the river simply
dries up and is buried!
4. The hyacinth, in the case of the Kafue, Kafubu and Lake Kariba sucks in enormous
amount of water, which is lost rapidly through evaporation. The Kafue weed article
stated that these plants are composed of 95% water, which water is lost and replaced
very frequently. This means that the rivers or lakes lose the much needed water for
the hydroelectric power generation. This has serious adverse economic impact – Also,
the concentration of the effluents increases, since the water is less.
5. The water bodies cannot be used for other economic activities such as fishing, boating
or swimming. Imagine diving into an acid swimming pool! But this can happen to the
massive water bodies too!
6. Breeding ground for mosquitoes. These Water hyacinth are a perfect hub for mosquito
breeding, having significantly reduced the water speed. The environment created is
like a stagnant pool of water.
7. Closely connected to No.6 above, the reduced water speed due to the presence of the
weed will lead to siltation at the Dam wall bases of the man-made lakes. This siltation
is undesirable because it will ultimately lead to the interruption of hydro power
generation and also create more pressure on the Dam wall.
Having looked at the effects of fresh water pollution, the article goes on to attempt to
offer some solutions. The following are suggested:
1. Using biological methods – This is breeding the Weevils, which feed on the hyacinth.
These weevils are propagated and then introduced into the water bodies. Ideally, if
there were a large enough population, they could clear the hyacinth. Questions have
been asked such as “After the hyacinth are wiped out, what plants will the weevils
ravage next?” Others have raised the point that the populations of these self-same
weevils are too small while the imminent danger is great, needing immediate action.
2. The second suggestion is the use chemicals to clear the weed. This was used at the
lake Kariba (August 1998) with a measure of successΨ. The question that begs
answering is “Won’t those chemicals eventually get into the food chain and cause
problems later?” This method is quite effective but poses a danger on the aquatic life
in that water body. Infact, this chemical method is in itself another source of
pollution!!
3. The third remedy is the mechanical. This method suggests that direct physical
intervention be implemented. The Government will have to hire certain organisations
4. The last suggested remedy is to simply turn off the supply of those nutrients! This
will mean that all the polluting sources must have alternative places to dump their
effluents. For example, the Nakambala Sugar Estate will have either to strictly treat
its waste or find an alternative dumping site.
The above suggested ways are not exhaustive, other possible solutions exist as well. It is
a fitting conclusion drawn by the Kafue weed article that this scourge ought to be fought
with as much vigour as we spend on fighting the HIV/AIDS pandemic. We must marshal
all our resources to fight the Hyacinth to the very bitter end!
So, we can see that surface water pollution is on the increase Worldwide and must be
meticulously watched. In Zambia, the Environmental Council has been empowered
through the Environmental protection and pollution control act (EPPC) cap 204 of
1991, to monitor and prosecute polluters. We feel more power is needed if this careless
pollution tide is to be tamed. Remember, water is life!
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Zambia Daily Mail, Singy Hanyona, January 25th 1999 “Kafue weed becoming
national crisis”
2. Time of Zambia, Emelda Shonga,16th July, 1999 “ Kariba weed Crisis” under control
says ZRA
3. “The Chronicle” February 12th, 2000 “River Polluted”< This is a Zimbabwean
National daily.
4. Zambia Daily Mail ,Mulenga Kasuba, August 4th, 1999 “Environment polluters to
face criminal charges”
5. Environment line, ECZ April 1996 volume 1 number 1 “Environmental Pollution in
Zambia: What is it like?”
6. Pickering. C.K., Owen. L.A(1995) An introduction to Global Environmental issues.
London & New York: Routledge
7. Cobb Jr. C,(July, 1987, pp 2-31) The Great Lakes’ troubled waters. Washington D.C:
National Geographic society
8. Lindahl.K(1972) Conservation for Survival. London. Victor Collancz ltd
Extra note:
3. The Lake Kariba & Dam- The Dam wall was not too badly clogged but the weed
could be seen floating on the lake in large “Batches” of healthy green vegetable
islands.
λ
An introduction to Global Environmental issues, Pickering C & Owen L (1995) page 135.