Classification of welding processes Welding is a process of joining two metal pieces as a result of significant diffusion of the atoms of the

welded pieces into the joint (weld) region. Welding is carried out by heating the joined pieces to melting point and fusing them together (with or without filler material) or by applying pressure to the pieces in cold or heated state. Advantages of welding: Strong and tight joining; Cost effectiveness; Simplicity of welded structures design; Welding processes may be mechanized and automated. Disadvantages of welding: Internal stresses, distortions and changes of micro-structure in the weld region; Harmful effects: light, ultra violate radiation, fumes, high temperature. Applications of welding: Buildings and bridges structures; Automotive, ship and aircraft constructions; Pipe lines; Tanks and vessels; Rairoads; Machinery elements.

Cold Welding (CW); Friction Welding (FRW); Explosive Welding (EXW); Diffusion Welding (DFW); Ultrasonic Welding (USW); Thermit Welding (TW); Electron Beam Welding (EBW); Laser Welding (LW). Principles of arc welding Arc welding is a welding process, in which heat is generated by an electric arc struck between an electrode and the work piece. Electric arc is luminous electrical discharge between two electrodes through ionized gas. Any arc welding method is based on an electric circuit consisting of the following parts: Power supply (AC or DC); Welding electrode; Work piece; Welding leads (electric cables) connecting the electrode and work piece to the power supply.

Welding processes
Arc welding Carbon Arc Welding; Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW); Submerged Arc Welding (SAW); Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW); Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (TIG, GTAW); Electroslag Welding (ESW); Plasma Arc Welding (PAW); Resistance Welding (RW); Spot Welding (RSW); Flash Welding (FW); Resistance Butt Welding (UW) ; Seam Welding (RSEW); Gas Welding (GW); Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW); Oxyhydrogen Welding (OHW); Pressure Gas Welding (PGW); Solid State Welding (SSW); Forge Welding (FOW);

Electric arc between the electrode and work piece closes the electric circuit. The arc temperature may reach 10000 F (5500 C), which is suffi cient for fusion the work piece edges and joining them. When a long join is required the arc is moved along the joint line. The front edge of the weld pool melts the welded surfaces when the rear edge of the weld pool solidifies forming the joint. Types of weld joints are shown in the figure:

Carbon arc welding is the oldest welding process. If required, filler rod may be used in Carbon Arc Welding. End of the rod is held in the arc zone. The molten rod material is supplied to the weld pool. Shields (neutral gas, flux) may be used for weld pool protection depending on type of welded metal.

When a filler metal is required for better bonding, filling rod (wire) is used either as outside material fed to the arc region or as consumable welding electrode, which melts and fills the weld pool. Chemical compositions of filler metal is similar to that of work piece. Molten metal in the weld pool is chemically active and it reacts with the surrounding atmosphere. As a result weld may be contaminated by oxide and nitride inclusions deteriorating its mechanical properties. Neutral shielding gases (argon, helium) and/orshielding fluxes are used for protection of the weld pool from atmospheric contamination. Shields are supplied to the weld zone in form of a flux coating of the electrode or in other forms. Carbon Arc Welding Carbon Arc Welding (CAW) is a welding process, in which heat is generated by an electric arc struck between an carbonelectrode and the work piece. The arc heats and melts the work pieces edges, forming a joint.

Advantages of Carbon Arc Welding: Low cost of equipment and welding operation; High level of operator skill is not required; The process is easily automated; Low distortion of work piece. Disadvantages of Carbon Arc Welding: Unstable quality of the weld (porosity); Carbon of electrode contaminates weld material with carbides. Carbon Arc Welding has been replaced by Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (TIG, GTAW) in many applications. Modification of Carbone Arc Welding is Twin Carbon Electrode Arc Welding, utilizing arc struck between two carbon electrodes.

Work piece is not a part of welding electric circuit in Twin Carbon Electrode Arc Welding, therefore the welding torch may be moved from one work piece to other without extinguishing the arc. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

The process is discontinuous due to limited length of the electrodes; Weld may contain slag inclusions; Fumes make difficult the process control. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

Shielded metal arc welding (Stick welding, Manual metal arc welding) uses a metallic consumable electrode of a proper composition for generating arc between itself and the parent work piece. The molten electrode metal fills the weld gap and joins the work pieces. This is the most popular welding process capable to produce a great variety of welds. The electrodes are coated with a shielding flux of a suitable composition. The flux melts together with the electrode metallic core, forming a gas and a slag, shielding the arc and the weld pool. The flux cleans the metal surface, supplies some alloying elements to the weld, protects the molten metal from oxidation and stabilizes the arc. The slag is removed after Solidification.

Submerged Arc Welding is a welding process, which utilizes a bare consumable metallic electrode producing an arc between itself and the work piece within a granular shielding flux applied around the weld. The arc heats and melts both the work pieces edges and the electrode wire. The molten electrode material is supplied to the surfaces of the welded pieces, fills the weld pool and joins the work pieces. Since the electrode is submerged into the flux, the arc is invisible. The flux is partially melts and forms a slag protecting the weld pool from oxidation and other atmospheric contaminations.

Advantages of Submerged Arc Welding (SAW): Very high welding rate; Advantages of Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW): Simple, portable and inexpensive equipment; Wide variety of metals, welding positions and electrodes are applicable; Suitable for outdoor applications. Disadvantages of Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW): Disadvantages of Submerged Arc Welding (SAW): Weld may contain slag inclusions; The process is suitable for automation; High quality weld structure.

Limited applications of the process - mostly for welding horizontally located plates. Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW) Metal Inert Gas Welding (Gas Metal Arc Welding) is a arc welding process, in which the weld is shielded by an external gas (Argon, helium, CO2, argon + Oxygen or other gas mixtures). Consumable electrode wire, having chemical composition similar to that of the parent material, is continuously fed from a spool to the arc zone. The arc heats and melts both the work pieces edges and the electrode wire. The fused electrode material is supplied to the surfaces of the work pieces, fills the weld pool and forms joint. Due to automatic feeding of the filling wire (electrode) the process is referred to as a semi-automatic. The operator controls only the torch positioning and speed.

Expensive and non-portable equipment is required; Outdoor application are limited because of effect of wind, dispersing the shielding gas. Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (TIG, GTAW) Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (Gas Tungsten Arc Welding) is a welding process, in which heat is generated by an electric arcstruck between a tungsten nonconsumable electrode and the work piece. The weld pool is shielded by an inert gas (Argon, helium, Nitrogen) protecting the molten metal from atmospheric contamination. The heat produced by the arc melts the work pieces edges and joins them. Filler rod may be used, if required. Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding produces a high quality weld of most of metals. Flux is not used in the process.

Advantages of Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW): Continuous weld may be produced (no interruptions); High level of operators skill is not required; Slag removal is not required (no slag); Disadvantages of Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW):

Advantages of Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (TIG, GTAW): Weld composition is close to that of the parent metal; High quality weld structure Slag removal is not required (no slag);

Thermal distortions of work pieces are minimal due to concentration of heat in small zone. Disadvantages of Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (TIG, GTAW): Low welding rate; Relatively expensive; Requres high level of operators skill. Electroslag Welding (ESW) Electroslag Welding is a welding process, in which the heat is generated by an electric current passing between the consumable electrode (filler metal) and the work piece through a molten slag covering the weld surface. Prior to welding the gap between the two work pieces is filled with a welding flux. Electroslag Welding is initiated by an arc between the electrode and the work piece (or starting plate). Heat, generated by the arc, melts the fluxing powder and forms molten slag. The slag, having low electric conductivity, is maintained in liquid state due to heat produced by the electric current. The slag reaches a temperature of about 3500 F (1930 C ). This temperature is sufficient for melting the consumable electrode and work piece edges. Metal droplets fall to the weld pool and join the work pieces. Electroslag Welding is used mainly for steels.

Low distortion; Unlimited thickness of work piece. Disadvantages of Electroslag welding: Coarse grain structure of the weld; Low toughness of the weld; Only vertical position is possible. Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) Plasma Arc Welding is the welding process utilizing heat generated by a constricted arc struck between a tungsten non-consumable electrode and either the work piece (transferred arc process) or water cooled constricting nozzle (nontransferred arc process). Plasma is a gaseous mixture of positive ions, electrons and neutral gas molecules. Transferred arc process produces plasma jet of high energy density and may be used for high speed welding and cutting ofCeramics, steels, Aluminum alloys, Copper alloys, Titanium alloys, Nickel alloys. Non-transferred arc process produces plasma of relatively low energy density. It is used for welding of various metals and forplasma spraying (coating). Since the work piece in non-transferred plasma arc welding is not a part of electric circuit, the plasma arc torch may move from one work piece to other without extinguishing the arc.

Advantages of Electroslag Welding: High deposition rate - up to 45 lbs/h (20 kg/h); Low slag consumption (about 5% of the deposited metal weight);

Advantages of Plasma Arc Welding (PAW): Requires less operator skill due to good tolerance of arc to misalignments;

High welding rate; High penetrating capability (keyhole effect); Disadvantages of Plasma Arc Welding (PAW): Expensive equipment; High distortions and wide welds as a result of high heat input. Resistance Welding (RW) Resistance Welding is a welding process, in which work pieces are welded due to a combination of a pressure applied to them and a localized heat generated by a high electric current flowing through the contact area of the weld. Heat produced by the current is sufficient for local melting of the work piece at the contact point and formation of small weld pool (nugget). The molten metal is then solidifies under a pressure and joins the pieces. Time of the process and values of the pressure and flowing current, required for formation of reliable joint, are determined by dimensions of the electrodes and the work piece metal type. AC electric current (up to 100 000 A) is supplied through copper electrodes connected to the secondary coil of a welding transformer. The following metals may be welded by Resistance Welding: Low carbon steels - the widest application of Resistance Welding Aluminum alloys Medium carbon steels, high carbon steels and Alloy steels (may be welded, but the weld is brittle) Advantages of Resistance Welding: High welding rates; Low fumes; Cost effectiveness; Easy automation; No filler materials are required; Low distortions. Disadvantages of Resistance Welding: High equipment cost; Low strength of discontinuous welds; Thickness of welded sheets is limited - up to 1/4 (6 mm); Resistance Welding (RW) is used for joining vehicle body parts, fuel tanks, domestic radiators, pipes of gas oil and water pipelines, wire ends, turbine blades, railway tracks.

The most popular methods of Resistance Welding are: Spot Welding (RSW) Flash Welding (FW) Resistance Butt Welding (UW) Seam Welding (RSEW) Spot Welding (RSW) Spot Welding is a Resistance Welding (RW) process, in which two or more overlapped metal sheets are joined by spot welds. The method uses pointed copper electrodes providing passage of electric current. The electrodes also transmitt pressure required for formation of strong weld. Diameter of the weld spot is in the range 1/8 - 1/2 (3 - 12 mm). Spot welding is widely used in automotive industry for joining vehicle body parts.

Flash Welding (FW) Flash Welding is a Resistance Welding (RW) process, in which ends of rods (tubes, sheets) are heated and fused by an arc struck between them and then forged (brought into a contact under a pressure) producing a weld. The welded parts are held in electrode clamps, one of which is stationary and the second is movable.

Resistance Butt Welding (UW) Resistance Butt Welding is a Resistance Welding (RW) process, in which ends of wires or rods are held under a pressure and heated by an electric current passing through the contact area and producing a weld.

Flash Welding method permitts fast (about 1 min.) joining of large and complex parts. Welded part are often annealed for improvement of Toughnesstoughness of the weld. Steels, Aluminum alloys, Copper alloys, Magnesium alloys, Copper alloys and Nickel alloys may be welded by Flash Welding. Thick pipes, ends of band saws, frames, aircraft landing gears are produced by Flash Welding.

The process is similar to Flash Welding, however in Butt Welding pressure and electric current are applied simultaneously in contrast to Flash Welding where electric current is followed by forging pressure application. Butt welding is used for welding small parts. The process is highly productive and clean. In contrast to Flash Welding, Butt Welding provides joining with no loss of the welded materials.

Seam Welding (RSEW) Seam Welding is a Resistance Welding (RW) process of continuous joining of overlapping sheets by passing them between two rotating electrode wheels. Heat generated by the electric current flowing through the contact area and pressure provided by the wheels are sufficient to produce a leak-tight weld.

Gas Welding equipment: Fuel gas cylinder with pressure regulator; Oxygen cylinder with pressure regulator; Welding torch; Blue oxygen hose; Red fuel gas hose; Trolley for transportation of the gas cylinders. Advantages of Gas Welding: Versatile process; Low cost, portable equipment; Electricity supply is not required. Disadvantages of Gas Welding: High skill operator is required; Flame temperature is lower, than in arc welding; Fumes evolved by shielding fluxes; Some metals cannot be welded (reactive and refractory metals). The most popular methods of Gas Welding are: Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW) Oxyhydrogen Welding (OHW) Pressure Gas Welding (PGW) Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW) Oxyacetylene Welding is a Gas Welding process using a combustion mixture of acetylene (C2H2) and oxygen (O2) for producing gas welding flame. Oxyacetylene flame has a temperature of about 6000 F ( 3300 C). Combustion of acetylene proceeds in two stages:

Seam Welding is high speed and clean process, which is used when continuous tight weld is required (fuel tanks, drums, domestic radiators). Gas Welding (GW) Gas Welding is a welding process utilizing heat of the flame from a welding torch. The torch mixes a fuel gas with Oxygen in the proper ratio and flow rate providing combustion process at a required temperature. The hot flame fuses the edges of the welded parts, which are joined together forming a weld after Solidification. The flame temperature is determined by a type of the fuel gas and proportion of oxygen in the combustion mixture: 4500 F - 6300 F (25 00 C - 3500 C). Depending on the proportion of the fuel gas and oxygen in the combustion mixture, the flame may be chemically neutral (stoichiometric content of the gases), oxidizing (excess of oxygen), carburizing (excess of fuel gas). Filler rod is used when an additional supply of metal to weld is required. Shielding flux may be used if protection of weld pool is necessary. Most of commercial metals may be welded by Gas Welding excluding reactive metals (titanium, zirconium) and refractory metals (tungsten, molybdenum).

1. Inner core of the flame. C2H2 + O2 = 2CO + H2 2. Outer envelope of the flame: CO + H2 + O2 = CO2 + H2O Acetylene is safely stored at a pressure not exceeding 300 psi (2000 kPa) in special steel cylinders containing acetone. Outside of cylinder acetylene is used at a absolute pressure not exceeding 30 psi (206 kPa). Higher pressure may cause explosion. Oxyhydrogen Welding (OHW) Oxyhydrogen Welding is a Gas Welding process using a combustion mixture of Hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) for producing gas welding flame.

Oxyacetylene flame has a temperature of about 4500 F ( 2500 C). Combustion reaction is as follows: 2H2 + O2 = 2H2O Oxyhydrogen Welding is used for joining metals with low melting points, like aluminum, magnesium, etc. Pressure Gas Welding (PGW) Pressure Gas Welding is a Gas Welding, in which the welded parts are pressed to each other when heated by a gas flame. The process is similar to Resistance Butt Welding. Pressure Gas Welding does not require filler material. Pressure gas welding is used for joining pipes, rods, railroad rails.

Electron Beam Welding (EBW) Electron Beam Welding is a welding process utilizing a heat generated by a beam of high energy electrons. The electrons strike the work piece and their kinetic energy converts into thermal energy heating the metal so that the edges of work piece are fused and joined together forming a weld after Solidification. The process is carried out in a vacuum chamber at a pressure of about 2*10-7 to 2*10-6 psi (0.00013 to 0.0013 Pa). Such high vacuum is required in order to prevent loss of the electrons energy in collisions with air molecules. The electrons are emitted by a cathode (electron gun). Due to a high voltage (about 150 kV) applied between the cathode and the anode the electrons are accelerated up to 30% - 60% of the speed of light. Kinetic energy of the electrons becomes sufficient for melting the targeted weld. Some of the electrons energy transforms into X-ray irradiation. Electrons accelerated by electric field are then focused into a thin beam in the focusing coil. Deflection coil moves the electron beam along the weld. Electron Beam is capable to weld work pieces with thickness from 0.0004 (0.01 mm) up to 6 (150 mm) of steel and up to 20 (500 mm) of aluminum. Electron Beam Welding may be used for joining any metals including metals, which are hardly weldable by otherwelding methods: refractory metals (tungsten, molybdenum, niobium) and chemically active metals (titanium, zirconium, beryllium). Electron Beam Welding is also able to join dissimilar metals.

Advantages of Electron Beam Welding (EBW): Tight continuous weld; Low distortion; Narrow weld and narrow heat affected zone; Filler metal is not required. Disadvantages of Electron Beam Welding (EBW): Expensive equipment; High production expenses; X-ray irradiation.

Solid State Welding (SSW) Solid State Welding is a welding process, in which two work pieces are joined under a pressure providing an intimate contact between them and at a temperature essentially below the melting point of the parent material. Bonding of the materials is a result of diffusion of their interface atoms. Advantages of Solid State Welding: Weld (bonding) is free from microstructure defects (pores, non-metallic inclusions, segregation of alloying elements) Mechanical properties of the weld are similar to those of the parent metals No consumable materials (filler material, fluxes, shielding gases) are required Dissimilar metals may be joined (steel - aluminum alloy steel - copper alloy).

Cold Welding may be easily automated. Disadvantages of Solid State Welding: Thorough surface preparation is required (degreasing, oxides removal, brushing/sanding) Expensive equipment. The following processes are related to Solid State welding: Forge Welding (FOW) Cold Welding (CW) Friction Welding (FRW) Explosive Welding (EXW) Diffusion Welding (DFW) Ultrasonic Welding (USW) Forge Welding (FOW) Forge Welding is a Solid State Welding process, in which low carbon steel parts are heated to about 1800 F (1000 C) and then forged (hammered). Prior to Forge Welding, the parts are scarfed in order to prevent entrapment of oxides in the joint. Forge Welding is used in general blacksmith shops and for manufacturing metal art pieces and welded tubes. Advantages of Forge Welding: Good quality weld may be obtained; Parts of intricate shape may be welded; No filler material is required. Disadvantages of Forge Welding: Only low carbon steel may be welded; High level of the operators skill is required; Slow welding process; Weld may be contaminated by the coke used in heating furnace.

Friction Welding (FRW)

Friction Welding is a Solid State Welding process, in which two cylindrical parts are brought in contact by a friction pressure when one of them rotates. Friction between the parts results in heating their ends. Forge pressure is then applied to the pieces providing formation of the joint. Carbon steels, Alloy steels, Tool and die steels, Stainless steels, Aluminum alloys, Copper alloys, Magnesium alloys, Nickel alloys,Titanium alloys may be joined by Friction Welding.

Explosive Welding (EXW) Explosive Welding is a Solid State Welding process, in which welded parts (plates) are metallurgically bonded as a result of oblique impact pressure exerted on them by a controlled detonation of an explosive charge. One of the welded parts (base plate) is rested on an anvil, the second part (flyer plate) is located above the base plate with an angled or constant interface clearance. Explosive charge is placed on the flyer plate. Detonation starts at an edge of the plate and propagates at high velocity along the plate. The maximum detonation velocity is about 120% of the material sonic velocity. The slags (oxides, nitrides and other contaminants) are expelled by the jet created just ahead of the bonding front. Most of the commercial metals and alloys may be bonded (welded) by Explosive Welding. Dissimilar metals may be joined by Explosive Welding: Copper to steel; Nickel to steel; Aluminum to steel; Tungsten to steel; Titanium to steel; Copper to aluminum. Advantages of Explosive Welding Large surfaces may be welded; High quality bonding: high strength, no distortions, no porosity, no change of the metal microstructure; Low cost and simple process; Surface preparation is not required. Disadvantages of Explosive Welding: Brittle materials (low ductility and low impact toughness) cannot be processed; Only simple shape parts may be bonded: plates, cylinders; Thickness of flyer plate is limited - less than 2.5 (63 mm); Safety and security aspects of storage and using explosives.

Cold Welding (CW) Cold Welding is a Solid State Welding process, in which two work pieces are joined together at room temperature and under a pressure, causing a substantial deformation of the welded parts and providing an intimate contact between the welded surfaces. As a result of the deformation, the oxide film covering the welded parts breaks up, and clean metal surfaces reveal. Intimate contact between these pure surfaces provide a strong and defectless bonding. Aluminum alloys, Copper alloys, low carbon steels, Nickel alloys, and other ductile metals may be welded by Cold Welding. Cold Welding is widely used for manufacturing bi-metal steel - aluminum alloy strips, for cladding of aluminum alloy strips by other aluminum alloys or pure aluminum (Corrosion protection coatings). Bi-metal strips are produced by Rolling technology. Presses are also used for Cold Welding.

Explosive Welding is used for manufacturing clad tubes and pipes, pressure vessels, aerospace structures, heat exchangers, bi-metal sliding bearings, ship structures, weld transitions, corrosion resistant chemical process tanks.

Ultrasonic Welding is used mainly for bonding small work pieces in electronics, for manufacturing communication devices, medical tools, watches, in automotive industry. Advantages of Ultrasonic Welding: Dissimilar metals may be joined; Very low deformation of the work pieces surfaces; High quality weld is obtained; The process may be integrated into automated production lines; Moderate operator skill level is enough. Disadvantages of Ultrasonic Welding: Only small and thin parts may be welded; Work pieces and equipment components may fatigue at the reciprocating loads provided by ultrasonic vibration; Work pieces may bond to the anvil. Thermit Welding (TW) Thermit Welding is a welding process utilizing heat generated by exothermic chemical reaction between the components of the thermit (a mixture of a metal oxide and aluminum powder). The molten metal, produced by the reaction, acts as a filler material joining the work pieces after Solidification. Thermit Welding is mainly used for joining steel parts, therefore common thermit is composed from iron oxide (78%) and aluminum powder (22%). The proportion 78-22 is determined by the chemical reaction of combustion of aluminum: 8Al + Fe3O4 = 9Fe + 4Al2O3 The combustion reaction products (iron and aluminum oxide) heat up to 4500 F (2500 C). Liquid iron fills the sand (or ceramic) moldbuilt around the welded parts, the slag (aluminum oxide), floating up , is then removed from the weld surface. Thermit Welding is used for repair of steel casings and forgings,for joining railroad rails, steel wires and steel pipes, for joining large cast and forged parts. Advantages of Thermit Welding: No external power source is required (heat of chemical reaction is utilized); Very large heavy section parts may be joined. Disadvantages of Resistance Welding: Only ferrous (steel, chromium, nickel) parts may be welded; Slow welding rate; High temperature process may cause distortions and changes in Grain structure in the weld region. Weld may contain gas (Hydrogen) and slag contaminations.

Diffusion Welding (DFW)

Diffusion Welding is a Solid State Welding process, in which pressure applied to two work pieces with carefully cleaned surfaces and at an elevated temperature below the melting point of the metals. Bonding of the materials is a result of mutual diffusion of their interface atoms. In order to keep the bonded surfaces clean from oxides and other air contaminations, the process is often conducted in vacuum. No appreciable deformation of the work pieces occurs in Diffusion Welding. Diffusion Welding is often referred more commonly as Solid State Welding (SSW). Diffusion Welding is able to bond dissimilar metals, which are difficult to weld by other welding processes: Steel to tungsten; Steel to niobium; Stainless steel to titanium; Gold to copper alloys. Diffusion Welding is used in aerospace and rocketry industries, electronics, nuclear applications, manufacturing composite materials. Advantages of Diffusion Welding: Dissimilar materials may be welded (Metals, Ceramics, Graphite, glass); Welds of high quality are obtained (no pores, inclusions, chemical segregation, distortions). No limitation in the work pieces thickness. Disadvantages of Diffusion Welding: Time consuming process with low productivity; Very thorough surface preparation is required prior to welding process; The mating surfaces must be precisely fitted to each other; Relatively high initial investments in equipment. Ultrasonic Welding (USW) Ultrasonic Welding is a Solid State Welding process, in which two work pieces are bonded as a result of a pressure exerted to the welded parts combined with application of high frequency acoustic vibration (ultrasonic). Ultrasonic vibration causes friction between the parts, which results in a closer contact between the two surfaces with simultaneous local heating of the contact area. Interatomic bonds, formed under these conditions, provide strong joint. Ultrasonic cycle takes about 1 sec. The frequency of acoustic vibrations is in the range 20 to 70 KHz. Thickness of the welded parts is limited by the power of the ultrasonic generator.

Laser Welding (LW) Laser Welding (LW) is a welding process, in which heat is generated by a high energy laser beam targeted on the work piece. The laser beam heats and melts the work pieces edges, forming a joint. Energy of narrow laser beam is highly concentrated: 108-1011 W/in2 (1081010 W/cm2), therefore diminutive weld pool forms very fast (for about 106 sec.). Solidification of the weld pool surrounded by the cold metal is as fast as melting. Since the time when the molten metal is in contact with the atmosphere is short, no contamination occurs and therefore no shields (neutral gas, flux) are required. The joint in Laser Welding (Laser Beam Welding) is formed either as a sequence of overlapped spot welds or as a continuous weld. Laser Welding is used in electronics, communication and aerospace industry, for manufacture of medical and scientific instruments, for joining miniature components. Advantages of Laser Welding: Easily automated process; Controllable process parameters; Very narrow weld may be obtained; High quality of the weld structure; Very small heat affected zone; Dissimilar materials may be welded; Very small delicate work pieces may be welded; Vacuum is not required; Low distortion of work piece. Disadvantages Welding: Low welding speed; High cost equipment; Weld depth is limited. Brazing Brazing is a method of joining two metal work pieces by means of a filler material at a temperature above its melting point but below the melting point of either of the materials being joined. Flow of the molten filler material into the gap between the work pieces is driven by the capillary force. The filler material cools down and solidifies forming a strong metallurgical joint, which is usually stronger than the parent (work piece) materials. The parent materials are not fused in the process. Brazing is similar to Soldering. The difference is in the melting point of the filler alloy: brazing filler materials melt at temperatures above 840 F (450 C); soldering filler materials (solders) melt at temperatures below this point. The difference between brazing and welding processes is more sufficient: in the welding processes edges of the work pieces are either fused (with or without a filler

metal) or pressed to each other without any filler material; brazing joins two parts without melting them but through a fused filler metal. Surface cleaning and brazing fluxes Brazing filler materials Brazing methods Advantages of brazing Disadvantages of brazing Surface cleaning and brazing fluxes Capillary effect (Fundamentals of adhesive bonding#Wetting|wettability) is achieved by both: a proper Surface preparation and use of a flux for wetting and cleaning the surfaces to be bonded. Contaminants to be removed from the part surface are: mineral oils, miscellaneous organic soils, polishing and buffing compounds, miscellaneous solid particles, oxides, scale, smut, rust. The work pieces are cleaned by means of mechanical methods, soaking cleaning and chemical cleaning (acid etching). A brazing flux has a melting point below the melting point of the filler metal, it melts during the heating stage and spreads over the joint area, wetting it and protecting the surface from oxidation. It also cleans the surface, dissolving the metal oxides. It is important that the surface tension of the flux is: 1. Low enough for wetting the work piece surface; 2. Higher than the surface tension of the molten filler metal in order to provide displacement of the flux by the fused brazing filler. The latter eliminates the flux entrapment in the joint. The flux is applied onto the metal surface by brushing, dipping or spraying. ___________________________________________________________________ Brazing filler materials Copper filler alloys: BCuP-2 (Cu-7P), BCuP-4 (Cu-6Ag-7P). Used for brazing Copper alloys, steels, Nickel alloys. Aluminum filler alloys: Al-4Cu-10Si, Al-12Si, Al-4Cu-10Si-10Zn, 4043 (Al5.2Si), 4045 (Al-10Si). Used for brazing Aluminum alloys. Magnesium filler alloys: BMg-1 (Mg-9Al-2Zn), BMg-2 (Mg-12Al-5Zn). Used for brazing Magnesium alloys. Nickel filler alloys: BNi-1 (Ni-14Cr-4Si-3.4B-0.75C), BNi-2 (Ni-7Cr-4.5Si-3.1B3Fe), BNi-3 (Ni-4.5Si-3.1B). Used for brazing Nickel alloys, cobalt alloys, Stainless steels. Silver filler alloys: BAg-4 (40Ag-30Cu-28Zn-2Ni), BAg-5 (45Ag-30Cu-25Zn), BAg6 (50Ag-34Cu-16Zn), BAg-7 (56Ag-22Cu-17Zn-5Sn). Used for most of metals and alloys except aluminum and magnesium alloys. ___________________________________________________________________ Brazing methods Torch brazing utilizes a heat of the flame from a torch. The torch mixes a fuel gas with Oxygen or air in the proper ratio and flow rate, providing combustion process at a required temperature. The torch flame is directed to the work pieces with a flux applied on their surfaces. When the work pieces are heated to a required temperature, filler alloy is fed into the

flame. The filler material melts and flows to the gap between the joined parts. Torch brazing is the most popular brazing method. Torch brazing equipment: - Fuel gas cylinder with pressure regulator; - Oxygen cylinder with pressure regulator; - Welding torch; - Blue oxygen hose; - Red fuel gas hose; - Trolley for transportation of the gas cylinders. Furnace brazing uses a furnace for heating the work pieces. Vacuum brazing is a type of furnace brazing, in which heating is performed in vacuum. Induction brazing utilizes alternating electro-magnetic field of high frequency for heating the work pieces together with the flux and the filler metal placed in the joint region. Resistance brazing uses a heat generated by an electric current flowing through the work pieces. Dip brazing is a brazing method, in which the work pieces together with the filler metal are immersed into a bath with a molten salt. The filler material melts and flows into the joint. Infrared brazing utilizes a heat of a high power infrared lamp. ___________________________________________________________________ Advantages of brazing Low thermal distortions and residual stresses in the joint parts; Microstructure is not affected by heat; Easily automated process; Dissimilar materials may be joined; High variety of materials may be joined; Thin wall parts may be joined; Moderate skill of the operator is required. ___________________________________________________________________ Disadvantages of brazing Careful removal of the flux residuals is required in order to prevent corrosion; No gas shielding may cause porosity of the joint; Large sections cannot be joined; Fluxes and filler materials may contain toxic components; Relatively expensive filler materials. ___________________________________________________________________ Soldering Soldering is a method of joining two metal work pieces by means of a third metal (solder) at a relatively low temperature, which is above the melting point of the solder but below the melting point of either of the materials being joined. Flow of the molten solder into the gap between the work pieces is driven by the capillary force. The solder cools down and solidifiesforming a joint. The parent materials are not fused in the process.

Soldering is similar to Brazing. The difference is in the melting point of the filler alloy: solders melt at temperatures below 840 F (450 C); braz ing filler materials melt at temperatures above this point. The difference between soldering and welding processes is more sufficient: in the welding processes edges of the work pieces are either fused (with or without a filler metal) or pressed to each other without any filler material; soldering joins two parts without melting them but through a soft low melting point solder. Soldering joints have relatively low tensile strength of about 10000 psi (70 MPa). Surface cleaning and soldering fluxes Tin-lead solders Lead-free solders Soldering methods Advantages of soldering Disadvantages of soldering Surface cleaning and soldering fluxes Capillary effect (Fundamentals of adhesive bonding#Wetting|wettability) is achieved by both: a proper Surface preparation and use of a flux for wetting and cleaning the surfaces to be bonded. Contaminants to be removed from the part surface are: mineral oils, miscellaneous organic soils, polishing and buffing compounds, miscellaneous solid particles, oxides, scale, smut, rust. The work pieces are cleaned by means of mechanical methods, soaking cleaning and chemical cleaning (acid etching). A soldering flux has a melting point below the melting point of the solder, it melts during the preheating stage and spreads over the joint area, wetting it and protecting the surface from oxidation. It also cleans the surface, dissolving the metal oxides. It is important that the surface tension of the flux is: 1. Low enough for wetting the work piece surface; 2. Higher than the surface tension of the molten solder in order to provide displacement of the flux by the fused solder. The latter eliminates the flux entrapment in the joint. The flux is applied onto the metal surface by brushing, dipping, spraying, in form of a gas-flux foam or by a flux wave (flowing flux forms a wave and the printed circuit board moves over the apex of the wave). Flux is acidic therefore its residuals may cause corrosion if not removed. ___________________________________________________________________ Tin-lead solders Traditional lead containing solders consist of tin (Sn) and lead (Pb). The most popular alloy in this group is eutectic composition 63Sn-37Pb (commonly called 63/37). The melting point of this alloy is lowest of all Sn-Pb alloys: 361 F (183 C). This solder is used for joining electronic compo nents, to which minimum heat may be applied (computers, telecommunication devices). The 63/37 alloy may be modified by addition of 1.4% of silver (Ag) for improvement of the joint Creep resistance. Low tin solders such as 5Sn-95Pb (5/95), 10Sn-90Pb (10/90), 15Sn-85Pb (15/85)

are used mainly for sealing containers and radiators, joining and coating metal parts working at increased temperatures (above 250 F/121 C). The alloy 70Sn-30Pb (70/30) is used for coating parts before soldering. The advantages of tin-lead alloys: Non-expensive; Simple equipment (soldering iron, torch); Low skill of operator is enough; Low melting point. The main disadvantage of these alloys is toxicity of lead. ___________________________________________________________________ Lead-free solders Most of lead-free solders are tin base alloys: 96.5Sn-3Ag-0.5Cu, 99.3Ag-0.7Cu, 95Sn-5Sb. The alloy 96.5Sn-3Ag-0.5Cu has a composition very close to the eutectic. Its melting point is 423 F (217 C). Fatigue strength of the alloy is similar to that of SnPb solders, however its wettability is poorer. Addition of 1-3% of bismuth (Bi) to the alloy improves its wettability and decreases the melting point but the fatigue resistance deteriorates. The alloy is now used for wave soldering, reflow and hand soldering. The alloy 99.3Ag-0.7Cu with the melting point 441 F (227 C) is low a cost alternative of the silver containing alloy. It is used for wave soldering. When a low melting point is required, the alloy 42Sn-58Bi is used. Its melting point is 280 F (138 C). Fatigue strength, tensile strength and ductility of the alloy are relatively low but may be improved by some addition of silver (Ag). The melting point of the alloy 95Sn-5Sb is 450 F (23 2 C). The solder is used in the plumbing works. ___________________________________________________________________ Soldering methods Hand soldering Iron soldering utilizes a heat generated by a soldering iron. Torch soldering utilizes a heat of the flame from a torch. The torch mixes a fuel gas with oxygen or air in the proper ratio and flow rate, providing combustion process at a required temperature. The torch flame is directed to the work pieces with a flux applied on their surfaces. When the work pieces are heated to a required temperature, solder is fed into the joint region. The solder melts and flows to the gap between the joined parts. Hand soldering is used in repair works and for low volume production. Wave soldering The method uses a tank full with a molten solder. The solder is pumped, and its flow forms awave of a predetermined height. The printed circuit boards pass over the wave touching it with their lower sides. The method is used for soldering through-hole components on printed circuit boards.

Reflow soldering In this method a solder paste (a mix of solder and flux particles) is applied onto the surface of the parts to be joined and then are heated to a temperature above the melting point of the solder. The process is conducted in a continuous furnace, having different zones: preheating, soaking, reflow and cooling. The joint forms when the solder cools down and solidifies in the cooling zone of the furnace. ___________________________________________________________________ Advantages of soldering Low power is required; Low process temperature; No thermal distortions and residual stresses in the joint parts; Microstructure is not affected by heat; Easily automated process; Dissimilar materials may be joined; High variety of materials may be joined; Thin wall parts may be joined; Moderate skill of the operator is required. ___________________________________________________________________ Disadvantages of soldering Careful removal of the flux residuals is required in order to prevent corrosion; Large sections cannot be joined; Fluxes may contain toxic components; Soldering joints can not be used in high temperature applications; Low strength of joints. ___________________________________________________________________ Thermal spraying Thermal spraying is a method of deposition of a metal atomized at high temperature and delivered to the substrate surface in a high velocity gas stream. There are following thermal spraying methods: Flame spraying Arc spraying Plasma spraying High velocity oxyfuel spraying (HVOS) Flame spraying Flame spraying involves a combustion heat of the mixture of a fuel gas (propane or acetylene) with Oxygen. The coating material in form either powder or wire is fed to the spraying gun where it is melted, atomized by the compressed air and ejected to the substrate. ___________________________________________________________________ Arc spraying Arc spraying method utilizes a heat of a DC arc struck between two consumable wires made of the coating material. The wires melt in the arc region and the molten material is atomized and accelerated by compressed air.

Metals, alloys, metal matrix composites and cermets may be deposited by this high productive method. ___________________________________________________________________ Plasma spraying Plasma spraying uses a DC arc struck between two non-consumable electrodes for ionization of an inert gas delivered to the arc region. Ionized gas (plasma) heats, melts and accelerates the coating material fed to the plasma torch in form of powder. Ceramic and refractory metals coating of high quality are manufactured by the plasma spraying method. ___________________________________________________________________ High Velocity Oxyfuel Spraying (HVOS) High Velocity Oxyfuel Spraying (HVOS) is similar to the flame spraying method, but differs from it by using high pressure fuel gas and oxygen, burning of which produces a flame of supersonic velocity. Refractory metals and ceramic coatings are produced by high velocity oxyfuel spraying method. Thermal spraying methods are extensively used for applying corrosion and wear resistant coatings in automotive and aerospace industries, power generation equipment and electronic industry. ___________________________________________________________________ Advantages of Plasma Welding 1. Less sensitivity to changes in Arc length. 2. Recessed electrode reduces the possibility of tungsten inclusions in the weld and can substantially increase the period between electrode dressings resulting in increased life. 3. Weld in a single pass up to 6 mm plates in square butt position and 10 mm plates in only two passes. 4. Keyhole mode of welding gives smaller heat affected zone resulting in reduced strength loss at the joint for heat treated metals, promotes less grain growth which gives better ductility. 5. Reduced weld time results in less embrittlement by carbides and complex intermetallic compounds for stainless steel and super alloys. 6. Equalization of distortion stresses results in less residual stress. 7. Less filler metal required in keyhole mode significantly reduces porosity. What is Plasma Welding ? Plasma arc welding (PAW) is a advanced version of the tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding process. TIG welding has a free-burning arc, which is unstable and tends to wander in the low current range. With increase in current, the arc power increases and the arc diameter also increases. This leads to a lack of concentrated power in the work-piece, which results in a bigger seam and a larger heat-affected zone. Unlike TIG-welding torches, PAW uses a constricting nozzel and employs two separate gas flows, which give rise to a concentrated plasma arc having a narrow

columnar shape. The plasma column is now stabilized along the axis of the electrode and is more intense than the TIG-welding arc. The column temperature is 10,000-24,000 K compared to 8,000-18,000 K in case of TIG-welding. TOP... ARCRAFT PW 200 and PW 400 Plasma welding machines operational capabilities 1. Manual plasma-arc welding is usually adapted to non key hole fusion type welding. 2. Mechanized plasma-arc welding is required for high current plasma-arc applications such as making key hole-mode welds or high current filler passes.Metals welded by these processes: Weld unalloyed, low alloy and high alloy steels, nickle, copper, titanium, zircon and their alloys and special

Arc Modes in Plasma Welding materials.

Welded Coupon of 5mm SS Plate completed in one single pass using Key hole Plasma process

TOP...

The Plasma-keyhole welding process The Plasma-keyhole method is a welding process where the gas flow is restricted through a reduction of the gas orifice. This increases the gas velocity and the arc temperature. The plasma arc blows a hole through the joint or the plate. Behind the hole the molten metal flows together filling the hole, due to the gravity forces, surface tension and the gas pressure from the shielding gas. The advantage of the Plasma-keyhole technique is the ability to weld simple I-butt joints in one single run up to a plate thickness of 8 mm. This will greatly improve welding efficiency. An other advantage is the limited distortion obtained with the process due to the even distribution of heat through the plate thickness.

A great Information Site about Plasma Welding ! Plasma Welding, Arc Plasma Welding Plasma arc welding (PAW) is a process in which coalescence, or the joining of metals, is produced by heating with a constricted arc between an electrode and the workpiece (transfer arc) or the electrode and the constricting nozzle (nontransfer arc). Shielding is obtained from the hot ionized gas issuing from the orifice, which may be supplemented by an auxiliary source of shielding gas. Shielding gas may be an inert gas or a mixture of gases. Pressure may or may not be used, and filler metal may or may not be supplied. The PAW process is shown in figure 10-35.

It is desirable for the power source to have a built-in contactor and provisions for remote control current adjustment. For welding very thin metals, it should have a minimum amperage of 2 amps. A maximum of 300 is adequate for most plasma welding applications. (2) Plasma Welding, Arc Plasma Welding Welding torch. The welding torch for plasma arc welding is similar in appearance to a gas tungsten arc torch, but more complex. (a) All plasma torches are water cooled, even the lowest-current range torch. This is because the arc is contained inside a chamber in the torch where it generates considerable heat. If water flow is interrupted briefly, the nozzle may melt. A cross section of a plasma arc torch head is shown by figure 10-36. During the nontransferred period, the arc will be struck between the nozzle or tip with the orifice and the tungsten electrode. Manual plasma arc torches are made in various sizes starting with 100 amps through 300 amperes. Automatic torches for machine operation are also available. Plasma Welding, Arc Plasma Welding

Plasma Welding, Arc Plasma Welding

b. Plasma Welding, Arc Plasma Welding Equipment. (1) Plasma Welding, Arc Plasma Welding Power source. A constant current drooping characteristic power source supplying the dc welding current is recommended; however, ac/dc type power source can be used. It should have an open circuit voltage of 80 volts and have a duty cycle of 60 percent.

Plasma Welding, Arc Plasma Welding

(b) The torch utilizes the 2 percent thoriated tungsten electrode similar to that used for gas tungsten welding. Since the tungsten electrode is located inside the torch, it is almost impossible to contaminate it with base metal.

(3) Control console. A control console is required for plasma arc welding. The plasma arc torches are designed to connect to the control console rather than the power source. The console includes a power source for the pilot arc, delay timing systems for transferring from the pilot arc to the transferred arc, and water and gas valves and separate flow meters for the plasma gas and the shielding gas. The console is usually connected to the power source and may operate the contactor. It will also contain a high-frequency arc starting unit, a nontransferred pilot arc power supply, torch protection circuit, and an ammeter. The high-frequency generator is used to initiate the pilot arc. Torch protective devices include water and plasma gas pressure switches which interlock with the contactor. (4) Plasma Welding, Arc Plasma Welding Wire feeder. A wire feeder may be used for machine or automatic welding and must be the constant speed type. The wire feeder must have a speed adjustment covering the range of from 10 in. per minute (254 mm per minute) to 125 in. per minute (3.18 m per minute) feed speed. c. Plasma Welding, Arc Plasma Welding Advantages and Major Uses. (1) Advantages of plasma arc welding when compared to gas tungsten arc welding stem from the fact that PAW has a higher energy concentration. Its higher temperature, constricted cross-sectional area, and the velocity of the plasma jet create a higher heat content. The other advantage is based on the stiff columnar type of arc or form of the plasma, which doesnt flare like the gas tungsten arc. These two factors provide the following advantages: (a) The torch-to-work distance from the plasma arc is less critical than for gas tungsten arc welding. This is important for manual operation, since it gives the welder more freedom to observe and control the weld. (b) High temperature and high heat concentration of the plasma allow for the keyhole effect, which provides complete penetration single pass welding of many joints. In this operation, the heat affected zone and the form of the weld are more desirable. The heat-affected zone is smaller than with the gas tungsten arc, and the weld tends to have more parallel sides, which reduces angular distortion. (c) The higher heat concentration and the plasma jet allow for higher travel speeds. The plasma arc is more stable and is not as easily deflected to the closest point of base metal. Greater variation in joint alignment is possible with plasma arc welding. This is important when making root pass welds on pipe and other one-side weld joints. Plasma welding has deeper penetration capabilities and produces a narrower weld. This means that the depth-to-width ratio is more advantageous. (2) Plasma Welding, Arc Plasma Welding Uses. (a) Some of the major uses of plasma arc are its application for the manufacture of tubing. Higher production rates based on faster travel speeds result from plasma over gas tungsten arc welding. Tubing made of stainless steel, titanium, and other metals is being produced with the plasma process at higher production rates than previously with gas tungsten arc welding.

(b) Most applications of plasma arc welding are in the low-current range, from 100 amperes or less. The plasma can be operated at extremely low currents to allow the welding of foil thickness material. (c) Plasma arc welding is also used for making small welds on weldments for instrument manufacturing and other small components made of thin metal. It is used for making butt joints of wall tubing. (d) This process is also used to do work similar to electron beam welding, but with a much lower equipment cost. (3) Plasma arc welding is normally applied as a manual welding process, but is also used in automatic and machine applications. Manual application is the most popular. Semiautomatic methods of application are not useful. The normal methods of applying plasma arc welding are manual (MA), machine (ME), and automatic (AU). (4) The plasma arc welding process is an all-position welding process. Table 10-2 shows the welding position capabilities. Plasma Welding, Arc Plasma Welding ``` Plasma Welding, Arc Plasma Welding

(5) The plasma arc welding process is able to join practically all commercially available metals. It may not be the best selection or the most economical process for welding some metals. The plasma arc welding process will join all metals that the gas tungsten arc process will weld. This is illustrated in table 10-3. Plasma Welding, Arc Plasma Welding

Plasma Welding, Arc Plasma Welding (6) Regarding thickness ranges welded by the plasma process, the keyhole mode of operation can be used only where the plasma jet can penetrate the joint. In this mode, it can be used for welding material from 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) through 1/4 in. (12.0 mm). Thickness ranges vary with different metals. The melt-in mode is used to weld material as thin as 0.002 in. (0.050 mm) up through 1/8 in. (3.2 mm). Using multipass techniques, unlimited thicknesses of metal can be welded. Note that filler rod is used for making welds in thicker material. Refer to table 10-4 for base metal thickness ranges.

(c) The difference between these two modes of operation is shown by figure 10-37. The transferred arc mode is used for welding metals. The gas tungsten arc process is shown for comparison.

d. Limitations of the Process. The major limitations of the process have to do more with the equipment and apparatus. The torch is more delicate and complex than a gas tungsten arc torch. Even the lowest rated torches must be water cooled. The tip of the tungsten and the alignment of the orifice in the nozzle is extremely important and must be maintained within very close limits. The current level of the torch cannot be exceeded without damaging the tip. The water-cooling passages in the torch are relatively small and for this reason water filters and deionized water are recommended for the lower current or smaller torches. The control console adds another piece of equipment to the system. This extra equipment makes the system more expensive and may require a higher level of maintenance. e. Principles of Operation. (1) The plasma arc welding process is normally compared to the gas tungsten arc process. If an electric arc between a tungsten electrode and the work is constricted in a cross-sectional area, its temperature increases because it carries the same amount of current. This constricted arc is called a plasma, or the fourth state of matter. (2) Two modes of operation are the non-transferred arc and the transferred arc. (a) In the non-transferred mode, the current flow is from the electrode inside the torch to the nozzle containing the orifice and back to the power supply. It is used for plasma spraying or generating heat in nonmetals. (b) In transferred arc mode, the current is transferred from the tungsten electrode inside the welding torch through the orifice to the workpiece and back to the power supply.

(3) The plasma is generated by constricting the electric arc passing through the orifice of the nozzle. Hot ionized gases are also forced through this opening. The plasma has a stiff columnar form and is parallel sided so that it does not flare out in the same manner as the gas tungsten arc. This high temperature arc, when directed toward the work, will melt the base metal surface and the filler metal that is added to make the weld. In this way, the plasma acts as an extremely high temperature heat source to form a molten weld puddle. This is similar to the gas tungsten arc. The higher-temperature plasma, however, causes this to happen faster, and is known as the melt-in mode of operation. Figure 10-36 shows a cross-sectional view of the plasma arc torch head.

(4) The high temperature of the plasma or constricted arc and the high velocity plasma jet provide an increased heat transfer rate over gas tungsten arc welding when using the same current. This results in faster welding speeds

and deeper weld penetration. This method of operation is used for welding extremely thin material. and for welding multipass groove and welds and fillet welds. (5) Another method of welding with plasma is the keyhole method of welding. The plasma jet penetrates through the workpiece and forms a hole, or keyhole. Surface tension forces the molten base metal to flow around the keyhole to form the weld. The keyhole method can be used only for joints where the plasma can pass through the joint. It is used for base metals 1/16 to 1/2 in. (1.6 to 12.0 mm) in thickness. It is affected by the base metal composition and the welding gases. The keyhole method provides for full penetration single pass welding which may be applied either manually or automatically in all positions. (6) Joint design. (a) Joint design is based on the metal thicknesses and determined by the two methods of operation. For the keyhole method, the joint design is restricted to full-penetration types. The preferred joint design is the square groove, with no minimum root opening. For root pass work, particularly on heavy wall pipe, the U groove design is used. The root face should be 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) to allow for full keyhole penetration. (b) For the melt-in method of operation for welding thin gauge, 0.020 in. (0.500 mm) to 0.100 in. (2.500 mm) metals, the square groove weld should be utilized. For welding foil thickness, 0.005 in. (0.130 mm) to 0.020 in. (0.0500 mm), the edge flange joint should be used. The flanges are melted to provide filler metal for making the weld. (c) When using the melt-in mode of operation for thick materials, the same general joint detail as used for shielded metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding can be employed. It can be used for fillets, flange welds, all types of groove welds, etc., and for lap joints using arc spot welds and arc seam welds. Figure 10-38 shows various joint designs that can be welded by the plasma arc process. (7) Welding circuit and current. The welding circuit for plasma arc welding is more complex than for gas tungsten arc welding. An extra component is required as the control circuit to aid in starting and stopping the plasma arc. The same power source is used. There are two gas systems, one to supply the plasma gas and the second for the shielding gas. The welding circuit for plasma arc welding is shown by figure 10-39. Direct current of a constant current (CC) type is used. Alternating current is used for only a few applications. (8) Tips for Using the Process. (a) The tungsten electrode must be precisely centered and located with respect to the orifice in the nozzle. The pilot arc current must be kept sufficiently low, just high enough to maintain a stable pilot arc. When welding extremely thin materials in the foil range, the pilot arc may be all that is necessary. (b) When filler metal is used, it is added in the same manner as gas tungsten arc welding. However, with the torch-to-work distance a little greater there is more freedom for adding filler metal. Equipment must be properly adjusting so

that the shielding gas and plasma gas are in the right proportions. Proper gases must also be used. (c) Heat input is important. Plasma gas flow also has an important effect. These factors are shown by figure 10-40. e. Filler Metal and Other Equipment. (1) Filler metal is normally used except when welding the thinnest metals. Composition of the filler metal should match the base metal. The filler metal rod size depends on the base metal thickness and welding current. The filler metal is usually added to the puddle manually, but can be added automatically. (2) Plasma and shielding gas. An inert gas, either argon, helium, or a mixture, is used for shielding the arc area from the atmosphere. Argon is more common because it is heavier and provides better shielding at lower flow rates. For flat and vertical welding, a shielding gas flow of 15 to 30 cu ft per hour (7 to 14 liters per minute) is sufficient. Overhead position welding requires a slightly higher flow rate. Argon is used for plasma gas at the flew rate of 1 cu ft per hour (0.5 liters per minute) up to 5 cu ft per hour (2.4 liters per minute) for welding, depending on torch size and application. Active gases are not recommended for plasma gas. In addition, cooling water is required. f. Quality, Deposition Rates, and Variables. (1) The quality of the plasma arc welds is extremely high and usually higher than gas tungsten arc welds because there is little or no possibility of tungsten inclusions in the weld. Deposition rates for plasma arc welding are somewhat higher than for gas tungsten arc welding and are shown by the curve in figure 10-41. Weld schedules for the plasma arc process are shown by the data in table 10-5.

(2) The process variables for plasma arc welding are shown by figure 10-41. Most of the variables shown for plasma arc are similar to the other arc welding processes. There are two exceptions: the plasma gas flow and the orifice diameter in the nozzle. The major variables exert considerable control in the process. The minor variables are generally fixed at optimum conditions for the given application. All variables should appear in the welding procedure. Variables such as the angle and setback of the electrode and electrode type are considered fixed for the application. The plasma arc process does respond differently to these variables than does the gas tungsten arc process. The standoff, or torch-to-work distance, is less sensitive with plasma but the torch angle when welding parts of unequal thicknesses is more important than with gas tungsten arc.

g. Variations of the Process. (1) The welding current may be pulsed to gain the same advantages pulsing provides for gas tungsten arc welding. A high current pulse is used for maximum penetration but is not on full time to allow for metal solidification. This gives a more easily controlled puddle for out-of-position work. Pulsing can be accomplished by the same apparatus as is used for gas tungsten arc welding. (2) Programmed welding can also be employed for plasma arc welding in the same manner as it is used for gas tungsten arc welding. The same power source with programming abilities is used and offers advantages for certain types of work. The complexity of the programming depends on the needs of the specific application. In addition to programming the welding current, it is often necessary to program the plasma gas flow. This is particularly important when closing a keyhole which is required to make the root pass of a weld joining two pieces of pipe. (3) The method of feeding the filler wire with plasma is essentially the same as for gas tungsten arc welding. The "hot wire" concept can be used. This means that low-voltage current is applied to the filler wire to preheat it prior to going into the weld puddle. Return from Plasma Welding to www.weldguru.com