Community of Inquiry

Helping Students and Teachers to

Build Thinking Communities

Philip Cam
 The Pattern of Inquiry and Classroom Practice
INQUIRY’S BASIC PATTERN INQUIRY IN THE
(BASED ON DEWEY’S HOW WE THINK) CLASSROOM

Initial
STIMULATING problematic
situation

2
 The teacher
introduces stimulus
material

se Formulating Students raise

INITIATING problems, issues questions and set
Pha and questions agendas
ive
reat
C Ideas Students’ make
Conjectures initial suggestions in
SUGGESTING Hypotheses answer to a question

Implications Students explore the

REASONING Assumptions implications of their
Critical Phase

& ANALYSIS Meanings suggestions

Evidence Students evaluate

Criteria their suggestions in
EVALUATING Counterexamples light of reasons and
evidence

Conclusion Students reflect on

CONCLUDING Resolution their conclusions,
Implementation improved
understandings, etc.

The exploration and evaluation of suggestions in an inquiry is not usually a single step-wise
sequence. It tracks backwards and forwards as suggestions encounter difficulties and fresh
suggestions are made. Moreover, since reasoning and analysis is carried out with an eye to
evaluation, these activities are effectively concurrent in the conduct of inquiry. It is important to
distinguish them from a theoretical point of view, however, as they perform separate, though
interlocking, functions.

3
Sample stimulus material

4
 Questions and Questioning

A standard way of assisting students to set their agenda for collaborative inquiry is to
have them raise questions that can be used to initiate discussion. The following example
comes from a Year 7 class. The questions were based on a short article on ‘The Use
and Abuse of Animals’. The article was used as a stimulus for discussion when the class
was being introduced to philosophy for the first time.

1) Why should humans be dominant over animals?

2) Why should humans use animals as slaves?

3) Why is man's life more important than an animal’s?

4) Will animals evolve like we did?

5) Why were oxen one of the earliest animals that man tamed?

6) Why were bears, boars, lions and tigers thought to be entertainment for man?

7) Why were deer and hare hunted by man for sport?

8) Why do we have pets?

This beginning effort raises ethical issues about our treatment of animals and differences
in the way that we regard human and non-human animals, as well as historical, social
and psychological queries about our relations to animals that have implications for
thinking about human nature. Many of these questions would provide a good starting-
point for class discussion.
While I have deleted the students’ names that accompanied this list of questions, it can
be useful to attach names to the questions for future reference. It also confers
ownership, of course.
It is often a good idea to ask the students whether any of the questions can be grouped
together because they relate to the same issue, problem, or theme, or because the
answer to one question depends upon the answer to another, and so on. If you do ask
the students to group their questions, then be sure to have them give a word or phrase
to identify the connection and place that identifier on the board with connectors to the
questions, so that it is visible to the class.
In order to begin a discussion you may also like to have the students vote for a question
or group of questions, in order to discover where the centre of interest lies.

5
 Activity: The Question Quadrant
Procedure:

1. Make up Question Quadrant questions of all four kinds in relation to narrative or

other stimulus material that you will give to the class. Alternatively, use the
students’ own questions from a previous session supplemented as necessary
with ones of your own. Write these questions on pieces of card so that they are
legible from across the room. You will need half the number of questions as you
have students in your class.

2. Lay the Question Quadrant out on the floor and explain it to the class. Say that
later you will be handing out questions that they will be asked to place on the
quadrant.
3. Hand out the stimulus material and have the students read it or whatever is
appropriate.
4. Distribute the question cards, one to each pair of students, reminding them that
they are to discuss where their question belongs on the Question Quadrant.
5. When the students are ready, go around the class, having each pair read their
question and place it where they think it belongs. Ask each pair to justify their
decision. If they are unable to reach agreement or are unsure where to place their
question, ask them to give their reasons for this and then have them seek help
from the class.
6. Check for any disagreement or uncertainty in the class before going on to the
next pair.

6
 COMPREHENSION BRAINSTORMING
QUESTIONS QUESTIONS

We need to go back Any sensible answer

to the text. will do.

CLOSED QUESTIONS OPEN QUESTIONS

There is one right There may be many
answer. possibilities.

We could go and look We will need to sit down together

up the answer. and think the whole thing through.

BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE DISCUSSION

QUESTIONS QUESTIONS

7
Procedural Questions
Thinking about Reasons and Evidence
Have we some reason to think that so-and-so?
Would such-and-such be a good reason for believing that so-and-so?
Does anyone have a different reason?
Can anyone think of a better reason?
How certain can we be that such-and-such?
Does anyone know of a case where so-and-so occurs but not such-and-such?

Seeking Intellectual Cooperation

Who agrees with Tony?
Would anyone like to add to what Linda said?
Do you think that Sarah may be right after all?
Do you think that Neil may have part of the answer?
Can anyone help Naomi?

Exploring Other Possibilities or Points of View

How else might we look at this?
Are there other ways in which this problem might be solved?
Can you think of someone who might take a different point of view?
Is that the only reason why such-and-such might happen?
Would it be better if we did this in some other way?
How about such-and-such? Does that seem like a possibility to you?

Dealing with Objections & Disagreements

Can you explain to Heather why you disagree with her?
Why do you think that isn’t a good reason?
Why is that an objection to what Sandy said?
Does it mean that Richard must be entirely wrong?
Who else disagrees with Paul?

Asking for Clarification

Are you asking the same question as Sandra?
What do you think Rachel means by that?
By such-and-such do you mean so-and-so, or something else?
Can you give us an example?
How does that differ from what you said earlier?
Does that help to answer Jackie’s question?

Attending to Assumptions
What are we taking for granted here?
Is that what you’re assuming?
When Abbey says that so-and-so, must she be assuming that such-and-such?
What else might Robert be supposing?
Is Tony right to make that assumption?

Exploring Concepts
Would does it mean to be fair?
Why wasn’t he really a friend?
What else is involved in being good?
In what ways are a horse and an elephant are the same kind of thing?
Is conceiving of something the same thing as imagining it?

Thinking about Inferences and Implications

What do you suppose follows from that?
Does that follow from what Cassandra said?
What else would have to be the case if things were thus-and-so?
What does Naomi’s statement imply?

8
 Exploring Issues and Ideas
If we were to accept what Scott said, then would we also have to agree with Abbey?

Differences of Kind
“Dumbbells”

good
bad

right wrong

MORAL IMMORAL

ethical decent
unethical

Procedure:
1. Write the words for a pair of opposites in the circles of the dumbbell.
2. Ask the students to think of any other words that are similar in meaning to one of
the two words. When a word is suggested, place it in the appropriate circle and
see if someone can suggest it’s opposite. Keep going until the class (or group)
runs out of words.

Differences of Degree
“Bridge”
Procedure:
1. Place relative terms for a concept under a line and name the scale.
2. Hand out a list of words to pairs of students. One at a time, invite them to place
them roughly where they think they belong. Alternatively, invite students to write
down a word that falls somewhere along that line and do the same.
3. Discuss any confusion or uncertainty as you proceed.
Example: acceptable, wicked, commendable, thoughtless, naughty, thoughtful,
abominable, saintly, exemplary, outstanding, worthy, diabolical, mediocre, kind,
poor, nasty, lackluster, appalling

LESS ACCEPTABLE MORE ACCEPTABLE

9
 Concept: ACCEPTABILITY (of conduct)

Distinction-making
While we all make distinctions without even noticing, it is one thing to be able to do
so implicitly and quite another to understand how distinctions work and to learn to
use them effectively. Although there are many ways in which students can learn to
draw distinctions, exercises of the following kind have the benefit of combining two
basic conceptual moves in thinking: (1) identifying a relevant common class and (2)
spotting a significant differentiating feature. In collaborative inquiry, these kinds of
exercises are usually done in pairs, followed by class discussion.

Drawing Distinctions: The Same but Different

Can you state some respect in which the following pairs are the same and some
other respect in which they are different? For example, a brother and his sister might
be said to have the same parents, but to be of the opposite sex.

1. People and animals 6. Hinduism and Buddhism

2. Using and exploiting 7. Lions and tigers
3. Superior and inferior 8. Domestic and wild
4. Needs and wants 9. Racism and speciesism
5. Rights and obligations 10. Equal treatment and equal consideration

Categorical Thinking
The two basic conceptual moves that we encountered in distinction-making permeate all
of our categorical thinking, and form the basis of logical division and classification. It is
worth noting that these two moves are reciprocally related to one another, as is easily
seen in the following elementary example:

Living things
Logical division
Living things
Animals Plants
Classification
Animals Plants
When we attempt to arrange an assortment of objects into groups, for example, we are
primarily trying to classify them into more general kinds, but as we do so we also
construct a logical division of the objects. In fact, our thought tends to move in both
directions, using one move to check upon the other.

10
 Classification Activity
In this activity children are asked to produce classification schemes for themselves. The
activity uses a mixture of work in small groups and class discussion, and it makes use of
the practice of reason-giving using the word ‘because’.
Procedure:
(1) Make sufficient copies of the set of animals below so that each small group of three
or four students can be given a set. Then cut up the sheet to separate the animals, and
place each set in an envelope.
(2) Divide the class into the small groups, and distribute one envelope to each group.
(3) The students are to order their animals into groups. Explain that they can have as
many groups as they like, except that one animal all by itself is not a group, and that we
don’t want any animals ending up in a group where they don’t belong. Also tell your
students that they will need to have good reasons for placing their animals in groups.
They will need to be able to explain why the animals are grouped that way by using
‘because’.
(3) Have each group in turn explain their groupings of animals, or alternatively have the
other students guess. Ensure that they say that, or ask whether, the animals are in this
or that group because….so as to give the reasons for the groupings.
(4) Allow other students to question or challenge any placement of an animal or grouping
that they think does not work, again ensuring that they give their reasons using the word
‘because’.
(5) After any improvements have been made through discussion, have the students glue
their groups of animals onto sheets of paper and help them to label each group in
writing.

11
 Exploring differences of degree
Many significant judgments admit of differences of degree, and activities can be
designed to explore the basis of those differences. For these purposes you can run a
tape across the floor of the discussion circle and label it to indicate the gradient, as in
Bridge. Here is an example that asks students to judge the relative acceptability our
treatment of animals. Through discussing a range of cases and exploring their
disagreements, the students will be drawn into giving and evaluating reasons for their
judgments, and thereby to form considered relative judgments. The aim is for students to
carefully consider their reasons, rather than necessarily to end up in agreement.

Procedure:
1. Briefly discuss the difference between an absolute judgment of taking something
to be either acceptable or unacceptable and a relative one of judging a thing to be
either more or less acceptable. (With younger students, you might introduce this
in terms of ‘good vs. bad’ and ‘better vs. worse.)
2. Place a cord or line across the floor of the discussion circle and along it place
cards marked “MORE ACCEPTABLE” and “LESS ACCEPTABLE”.
3. Divide the class into groups of three students and give each group a card from
those set out below.
4. Give the groups a few minutes to discuss their card.
5. Now ask for a group that took their card to belong toward one end of the
spectrum to place their card where they think it belongs, and invite the group to
present the reasons for its decision. Do not embark upon further discussion at this
stage. There will be an opportunity to do so later.
6. Do the same for a group that took their card to belong toward the other end of the
spectrum.
7. Introduce all the other cases, with reasons to be stated briefly.
8. If the members of a group are unable to agree upon where to place their card,
they should be asked to give their reasons, but to withhold their card. Call upon
other members of the class to assist any such groups to sort the matter out.
9. As students enter into discussion and begin to explore their disagreements, it is
generally useful for the students to pass a speakers’ ball or beanbag from
speaker to speaker to help establish appropriate behaviour in relation to speaking
and listening.
10. Discuss disagreements as time permits, intervening when necessary to keep the
discussion focused and to assist students to uncover any general conditions or
considerations that make some cases better or worse than others. As these are
extracted, the teacher should record them on the board.

LESS ACCEPTABLE MORE ACCEPTABLE

12
 Horseracing
Foxhunting

Bullfighting Killing whales

Using animals Exterminating

to test cosmetics rabbits

using
seeing eye dogs
Using animals
for
medical research Hunting elephants
for their tusks

Keeping
battery hens

13
 REASONING

So: Elementary Deductive reasoning

In “So” students work out which conclusion can be deduced from a pair of statements.

Procedure:
1. Put the ‘So’ conclusion cards in the middle of the circle so they can be read by all
members of the group.
2. In pairs, give students a card with a statement on it. They should hold it so it can be
read by everyone in the circle.
3. The pairs of students identify and join with the pair that holds a card with a statement
that goes together with their statement.
4. When each pair has joined with their corresponding pair, they are asked to decide
upon and collect the ‘So’ card that best concludes their two statements.
5. The groups then return to the class circle to discuss any conflicts or confusion that
may have arisen from the activity.

“So…”

So: Some snakes should not be sold in pet shops. Some birds can talk.

Talking birds make good pets. So: Arthur likes to chew.

So: Arthur has a wet nose. No dogs can fly like birds. Arthur is a dog.

Arthur is a dog. Dangerous animals should not be sold in pet shops.

So: Arthur cannot fly like a bird.
Some big dogs are friendly.

Some snakes are dangerous. All healthy dogs have wet noses.

So: Some big dogs do not bite. So: Some birds make good pets.

All dogs like to chew. No friendly animals bite. Arthur is a healthy dog.

14
 Exercise: Good and Bad Reasoning

Let us listen in as Robin and Tom discover an error in Susan’s reasoning:

Susan: “I think that Elfie is a rabbit.”

Teacher: “Why do you think that Elfie is a rabbit, Susan?”
Susan: “Well, because it says here that Elfie curled up into a ball to sleep, and that what
rabbit’s do.”
Robin: “That doesn’t prove anything, Susan.”
Susan: “I think it proves that Elfie is a rabbit.”
Robin: “No it doesn’t. What about kittens? They curl up into a ball to sleep, and they’re
not rabbits.”
Tom: “I agree with Robin, because I curl up into a ball to sleep—and I am certainly not a
rabbit.”

Robin and Tom take Susan to reason like this:

Elfie curled up into a ball to sleep.

Rabbits curl up into a ball to sleep.
So: Elfie is a rabbit.

In reply, they show that by the same reasoning Susan would have to accept that kittens
are rabbits and that Tom is a rabbit. Since both claims are obviously false, there is
something wrong with Susan’s reasoning.

Some of the following pieces of reasoning are mistaken and others are not. Can you tell
which of them are mistaken?

1. 4.
Elfie has pointed ears. Spartacus the cat has a fungus.
Elves have pointed ears. Mushrooms are a fungus.
So: Elfie must be an elf. So: Spartacus has mushrooms.

2. 5.
This ruler is 50 centimeters long. I love to eat bananas.
Half a meter is 50 centimeters long. Monkeys love to eat bananas.
So: This ruler is 50 centimeters long. So: I am a monkey.

3. 6.
The earth is a sphere. Rachel won the sports prize.
A planet is a sphere. A redhead won the sports prize.
So: The earth is a planet. So: Rachel is a redhead.

15
 Justifying and Inferring
Exercise: ‘because’ and ‘therefore’

The reasons that we give in order to explain or to justify something also

provide a warrant for that conclusion. Thus, giving reasons and drawing
conclusions are related activities. In fact, they are strictly correlated activities.
Whenever A is given as a reason for B, we might equally have inferred B from
A. Here are a couple of examples:

“2 is half of 4 because 2 plus 2 makes 4.”

“2 plus 2 makes 4. Therefore 2 is half of 4.”

“He missed the bus because he arrived late.”

“He arrived late. Therefore he missed the bus.”

It is well worth students becoming conscious of the correlation between these

two modes of thought and learning to move freely between them.
Materials: You will need two cards on which are written ‘because’ and ‘therefore’ (or ‘so’
if you prefer for younger students) together with a set of cards that contain the following
statements.

The Big Bad Wolf could not blow down the house of bricks.
Old MacDonald had a farm and on that farm he kept some pigs.
No one could blow down a house of bricks.
Little Bow Peep has lost her sheep.
BECAUSE
Some sheep are lost.
Some mice are blind.
Not everyone is awake.
THEREFORE
Some farmers have kept pigs.
Little Miss Muffet was frightened of the spider.
All girls are frightened of spiders.
There were three blind mice that all ran after the farmer’s wife.

The little boy who looks after the sheep is under the haystack fast asleep.

Procedure:

16
 1. Hand out the statement cards in no particular order, one to each pair of students.
2. A card on which is written the word ‘therefore’ is then placed in centre of the
discussion circle.
3. Go around the circle and ask the students to read out their cards and then hold
them up so that others can see them.
4. Choose a statement from which a conclusion can be drawn (e.g., ‘Little Bow Peep
has lost her sheep’) and ask who has the card with a conclusion following from
that statement. Have the students place their two cards on the floor flanking the
word ‘therefore’ in the appropriate order, as in the example:

Little Bow Peep has lost her sheep THEREFORE Some sheep are lost.
5. Now have the rest of the students place their cards in two columns to match them
up in the same way. You may like to have students read out each set using the
word ‘therefore’ to join the statements. Be sure to have then students discuss any
uncertainty or disagreement.
6. Now remove the ‘therefore’ card and bring out the ‘because’ card. Ask whether
anyone can find two statements that go either side of ‘because’. (If the students
have difficulty it helps to have them begin with ‘We know that…’) Have a
volunteer change the order of that pair and read out the result. For the example
above, we would have the following:
(We know that) Some sheep are lost BECAUSE Little Bow Peep has lost
her sheep.
7. As students begin to see that they can reverse the order of their statements, have
them come out and continue in the same way, reading out the result as they do
so, until all of the pairs of statements have been reversed.
8. Now see whether your students can explain the relationship between ‘because’
and ‘therefore’. You may expand on their efforts by talking to them about the
relationship between giving reasons and drawing conclusions.
9. After completing the exercise, pin up an example of a pair of statements showing
the reversal between ‘because’ and ‘therefore’ as a reminder of the relationship.

Inductive Reasoning about Causes

The so-called methods of agreement and difference are the standard means of trying to
figure out the causes of something. With agreement we look for a factor that is present
whenever that thing occurs. That is to say, we look for a common factor in what may be
otherwise varied circumstances. With difference we look for a factor that is normally
present when the thing in question occurs, but absent when it fails to occur. That is to
say, we look for a difference in otherwise similar circumstances. It is common to use
these methods together, relying upon a combination of both agreement and difference to
identify a cause. Exercises like the one below can be used to introduce these methods
to students. They can be carried out in pairs and then discussed by the class.

17
 Exercise: What made it happen?
In the following cases, you and your partner are asked to work out what is or is not
responsible for something. You will need to discuss how you figured it out, as you may
be called upon to explain your answer to the class.

1.
After it rained, and was hot, and the rubbish wasn’t collected, the mosquito population
soared.
After it was hot, and the pools were full of algae, and the rubbish wasn’t collected, the
mosquito population did not soar.
After it rained, and the pools were full of algae, and there was no spraying, the mosquito
population soared.
After it was hot, and the rubbish wasn’t collected, and there was no spraying, the
mosquito population did not soar.
What was responsible for the mosquito population soaring? How did you figure that out?

2.
In January the hens were fed on Lucky Cluck and given Go Hen in their drinking water.
Their eggs were below standard.
In February the hens were fed on Lucky Cluck, but not given Go Hen in their drinking
water. Their eggs were good.
In March the hens weren’t fed on Lucky Cluck, but were given Go Hen in their drinking
water. Their eggs were below standard.
What do you suppose caused the eggs to be below standard? Give your reasoning.

18