Lectures 11 and 12

Geological Materials: Rocks

Dr. K. Vijaya Kumar School of Earth Sciences SRTM University, Nanded 431 606 Maharashtra, INDIA (E-mail: vijay_kumar92@hotmail.com)

What is a Rock?
A Rock is an aggregate of minerals. Based on the process of formation rocks are classified as Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic. IGNEOUS ROCKS are crystallized from magma SEDIMENTARY ROCKS are formed from surface weathering of existing rocks, deposition and compaction of sediments METAMORPHIC RCOKS are formed from the existing rocks by the action of temperature and pressure

IGNEOUS ROCKS

Igneous rocks are crystallized products of the magmas. The magmas are generated in upper mantle (60-200 km) and lower crust (~ 40 km). Since rocks are aggregate of minerals, the rocks melt at a range of temperatures as every mineral has a specific melting point; temperature where melting begins is called SOLIDUS and temperature where melting ends is called LIQUIDUS. Since melting point of any material increases with increasing pressure, the solidus and liquidus also increase with increasing depth (see figure below). Temperature and pressure increase with depth in the Earth. The rate of increase in temperature with depth is called Geothermal Gradient and the rate of increase in pressure is called Geobaric Gradient. Under normal mantle and lower crustal conditions, temperature at any given depth is lower than melting point of mantle rocks. Therefore melting does not occur. To initiate melting some special conditions are to be created. Magmas are generated by three processes: 1) increasing the temperature of the mantle/crust by addition of heat, 2) adiabatic decompression melting and 3) addition of fluids to the mantle source, so that melting point decreases Generation of Magmas (magmas crystallize to form Igneous rocks)

The ambient temperature in the mantle is increased by addition of heat from a hot plume, pressure is decreased by rifting (separation) of continental or oceanic plates and water is added to the mantle in subduction zones. These three processes are responsible for the generation of magmas, which eventually crystallize to form igneous rocks. Igneous rocks are classified into plutonic, hypabyssal and volcanic depending on the depth of crystallization. PLUTONIC ROCKS (rocks that are crystallized at depth (> 3 km) from a magma) HYPABYSSAL ROCKS (rocks that are crystallized at shallow depths (< 3km) from a magma VOLCANIC ROCKS (rocks that are crystallized on the surface from a lava) Magmas crystallize at depth into different sized and shaped igneous bodies. Some of them include a) dyke (linear discordant igneous body cutting across the enclosing rocks), b) sill (linear concordant igneous body running parallel to the enclosing rocks), c) stock (cylindrical igneous body), d) lopolith (saucer shaped igneous body), e) laccolith (mushroom shaped igneous body) and f) batholith (very large irregular igneous body. Similarly, based on the type of eruptions volcanic flows are classified into pyroclastic + ash (explosive) and aa and pahoehoe (effusive) flows.

Laccolith

Lopolith

Classification of Igneous Rocks

Plutonic and equivalent Volcanic rocks

Igneous rocks are essentially classified on the basis of grain size, mineralogy and chemical composition (SiO2 content). Based o grain size, the igneous rocks are divided into two groups: Phaneritic and Aphanitic. Phaneritic group of rocks are crystallized at plutonic and hypabyssal depths under slow cooling conditions, therefore they are coarse and medium grained (> 1mm). Whereas, the volcanic rocks show Aphanitic texture. Because the volcanic rocks cool rapidly their grain size is very small (fine grained and glassy). Based on chemical composition and mineralogy, igneous rocks are classified as Ultramafic (< 45% SiO2), Mafic (45-55% SiO2), Intermediate (55-65% SiO2) and Felsic (> 65% SiO2). All most all the major igneous rocks are classified on the proportions of seven (7) minerals. Ultramaific rocks contain olivine and pyroxenes), Mafic rocks contain olivine, pyroxene and plagioclase, Intermediate rocks contain plagioclase, amphibole, biotite quartz orthoclase and Felsic rocks contain orthoclase, quartz, plagioclase, amphibole and biotite. Many rocks form by the combination of these minerals. Almost 90% of earth crust is made up of igneous rocks Felsic magmas intrude/erupt with temperature <700oC; they are viscous (sticky, doesnt flow easily), gaseous (steam of H2O and CO2) and usually form course-grained intrusive rocks (ex. Granite). If extrusive, felsic magmas form finegrained rocks by explosive volcanism (ex. rhyolite). Mafic magmas are hot (>1000oC), non-Viscous (runny, flows easily) and dry (little H2O/CO2) and usually form fine-grained extrusive rocks (ex. basalt). If intrusive, course-grained mafic rocks are formed (ex. gabbro). Some of the important plutonic igneous rocks and their volcanic equivalents are described below: Peridotite (Ultramafic rock): Peridotite consists of olivine + orthopyroxene + clinopyroxene. The Earths upper mantle is composed of Peridotite. There are no volcanic equivalents to peridotite. Gabbro (Mafic rock): Gabbro is a plutonic igneous rock composed of plagioclase + clinopyroxene. Basalt is the volcanic equivalent of gabbro. Gabbro and basalt are most abundant rocks of the oceanic crust

Diorite (Intermediate rock): Diorite is an intermediate plutonic igneous rock composed of plagioclase + amphibole + clinopyroxene + biotite quartz orthoclase. Andesite is the volcanic equivalent of diorite. Diorite and andesite are characteristic of subduction-related environments. Granite (Felsic rock): Granite is a felsic plutonic igneous rock composed of orthoclase + plagioclase + quartz. Rhyolite is the volcanic equivalent of granite. Granite is the most abundant rock of continental crust.

Igneous Rock Textures

Texture is the arrangement of mineral grains in the rock and interrelationship between minerals. If the igneous magmas cool slowly then they will display coarse-grained (bigger size) texture and if the magmas cool rapidly then they will show fine-grained (small size) and glassy textures. Plutonic rocks that cool at depth show coarse-grained textures and volcanic rocks that cool on the surface display fine-grained and glassy textures. Escape of gases from the lavas may result in vesicular textures. Explosive volcanism results in the breaking of earlier formed volcanic rocks, which results in pyroclastic texture. Sometimes magmas have a prolonged crystallization history from deeper levels to the surface. In those instances, rocks show bigger grains (phenocrysts) set in a fine-grained matrix (groundmass). This type of mineral fabric is called porphyritic texture.

Sedimentary Rocks
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS are the secondary rocks which are formed from the loose fragments or detrital or clastic sediments produced by weathering of older rocks and chemical precipitation of dissolved material. 75% of land surface on the earth is covered by thin veneer of sediments or sedimentary rocks. These sediments are transported and deposited by river water, wind or by movement of glacial ice. Transportation is either in suspension or in solution. When settle down on the beds of ocean, river and lakes undergo compaction/cementation for millions of years to form SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Importance of Sedimentary Rocks Present is the key to the past Helps in knowing depositional environment viz. marine (ocean deposits), fluvial (river deposits), aeolian (wind deposits), glacial, estuarine, lacustrine (lake deposits) etc. Helps in knowing the provenance (i.e. source area of the sediments); change in climatic conditions i.e. in knowing and understanding old climate=paleoclimate. Sedimentary Rocks are classified into Clastic and Chemical sedimentary rocks based on the process of the formation. Clastic sedimentary rocks are formed by mechanical transportation, deposition and compaction of sediments whereas nonclastic (chemical) sedimentary rocks are formed by transportation in solution to the ocean basins and later precipitation.

Mechanical sediments Breccia (angular fragments) Conglomerate (rounded pebbles/cobbles) Sandstone (sand) Shale (clay) Chemical/Biochemical sediments Limestone (calcium carbonate)

MECHANICAL OR CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Clastic rocks mainly comprise broken fragment of older rock they are also known as Terrigenous rocks. Clastic rocks are classified on the basis of the grain size: conglomerate, sandstone, shale etc.

Classification of Clastic Rocks RUDACEOUS ROCKS: made up of rounded or sub-rounded Pebbles and cobbles e.g. conglomerate ARENACEOUS ROCKS: made up of mainly sand e.g. Sandstone. These rocks are either accumulated by wind action or deposited under water action or marine or lake environment ARGILLACEOUS ROCKS: made up of clay size sediments e.g. Shale, mudstones, siltstones.

BRECCIA AND CONGLOMERATE Breccia is composed of angular rock and mineral fragments cemented by fine-grained rock material Conglomerate is made up of pebbles and cobbles cemented by fine-grained rock material SANDSTONE: Made up of sand grains dominantly of Quartz and Feldspars, where quartz is highly resistive to weathering Cementation plays similar role in this rock as seen in conglomerate SHALE Shales are clastic rocks, made up mainly fine silt/clay They are most abundant sedimentary rocks, accounts for about 80% of them Often contain fossils Mostly hydrous aluminum silicate in composition = from weathered feldspars Deposition takes place under low fluvial regime or under weak water current. Eg. Offshore or in Lagoon

EVAPORITIC ROCKS These rocks are formed within a depositional basin from chemical substances dissolved in the seawater or lake water by the process of evaporation (Example: Gypsum and common salt) CARBONATE ROCKS Limestone and Dolomite: It is a non-clastic rock formed either chemically or due to precipitation of calcite (CaCO3) and dolomite (CaMg (CO3)2 from organisms. Shell remains of organisms will result in formation of a limestone. Limestones formed by chemical precipitation are usually fine grained, whereas, in case of organic limestone the grain size vary depending upon the type of organism responsible for the formation Chalk: which is made up of foraminefera is very fine grained Fossiliferous Limestone is medium to coarse grained, as it is formed out of cementation of Shells.

Sphericity and Roundness

Degree of roundness helps in knowing the distance of transportation Angular clasts- short distance transport from the source Rounded clasts- long distance transport

Sorting of the sediments also suggest the mode of deposition and transportation. Long distance transport= well-rounded and well-sorted sediments, Short distance transport = poorly sorted angular grains. Also helps in knowing the energy conditions of the river.

Sedimentary structures
Sedimentary rocks are formed by deposition of successive layers of sediments. Therefore, most of the sedimentary rocks show parallel banding called Bedding. Thickness of sedimentary bedding is highly variable from < 1 cm to > 10s of meters. Bedding is most important feature of a sedimentary Rock Beds are usually > 1 cm Laminae < 1 cm Orientation of bedding helps in knowing the paleo-current direction of the old rivers

Graded Bedding

Sedimentary processes are essentially driven by gravity. Therefore, the sedimentary rocks are differentiated based on grain size and density. Grain size and density stratification results in Graded Bedding (ex. Sandstones).

Laminae If the sediments are very fine grained (clay size) then they will not form graded bedding but form thin veneers/layers called as Laminae (ex. Shale).

Sand Dunes (Typical cross stratification) Sand dunes are formed by deposition by wind. Successive layers of sediments show oblique relationship rather parallel. The inclined laminate is called cross stratification. Ripple Marks Ripple marks are formed by the action of river currents and oceanic waves. The wavelength of current ripples is less than that of wave ripples.

Mud Cracks

Mud cracks are formed by the desiccation of water from clayey material during dry seasons.

Where do the sedimentary rocks form? Sedimentary rocks are formed by sorting of the material at different stages of deposition. Sedimentary rocks deposited proximal to the source show poor sorting and irregular shaped grains. With progressive transport the grain size decreases and sorting increases. Based on these observations the sequence of sedimentary rock formation is Breccia Conglomerate Sandstone Shale Limestone. Breccia Conglomerate Sandston e Shale Limestone

Metamorphic Rocks
Meta = Change Morph = form A rock changes from its original form (parent) by heat, pressure, and fluid activity into a new rock (daughter). This phenomenon is called metamorphism and the rocks formed by metamorphism are called metamorphic rocks. Recrystallization of minerals while still solid into minerals that are stable at different temperatures and different pressures (usually progressively higher temperatures and pressures). Metamorphic rocks contain certain minerals formed through the process of metamorphism. This depends on original rock composition and metamorphic grade (Pressure and Temperature). One can see changes in mineral composition in contact metamorphosed zone near intrusion. Mineral assemblage characteristic of metamorphism at a particular grade Low grade Medium GradeHigh Grade

Classification of metamorphic rocks Foliated vs. non-foliated Foliated metamorphic rocks show directional property i.e. the minerals are oriented in a particular direction. Example: slate, phyllite, schist, gneiss Non-foliated rocks do not have directional property; minerals are randomly oriented. Example: Quartzite (metamorphosed sandstone) and Marble (metamorphosed limestone).

Metamorphic Textures and Products

TEXTURE Foliated Non-foliated PARENT ROCK Contact Metamorphism: Limestone Bituminous coal Sandstone Granite Regional Metamorphism: SHALE SLATE, PHYLLITE, SCHIST, GNEISS Marble Anthracite coal Quartzite Granitic gneiss TYPE OF METAMORPHISM Regional metamorphism Contact metamorphism RESULTING METAMORPHIC ROCK

Important Metamorphic rocksSLATES Fine grained impermeable, cleavable and soft Incompetent; cannot withstand great loads But since they are impermeable and split easily; thin large sized slabs of uniform thickness can be extracted for roofing purpose. Economic importance: Since they are bad conductor of electricity used in electrical industries for switch board base

GNEISS Gneissic rocks are rich in SILICA i.e. predominantly Quartz and Feldspars along with garnet, pyroxene, Hornblende etc. Non-porous and impermeable nature increases the strength of the rock Foliated character to some extend improves workability Load perpendicular to foliated planes gives more stronger foundation SCHIST Mainly composed of prismatic or platy minerals, which contributes in development of Schistose Structure. Eg. Hornblende, tourmaline, sillimanite etc (prismatic); chlorite, muscovite, biotite, talc, kyanite etc. (platy) Cleavable nature of Schists is the main reason for their weakness; they are incompetent QUARTZITE SANDSTONE (composed of quartz/feldspars/feldspathoid minerals) when undergo metamorphism result into Quartzite. Granulose texture/structure (Granoblastic) makes them most competent rock amongst all other metamorphic rocks. Because metamorphism of Sandstone. Result disappearance of cementing material, bedding planes, fossil content etc. Quartzites are compact, hard and strong; very less porous and less permeable than the parent sandstone. Predominance of Quartz makes the rock very hard and suitable for road metal; can be used as concrete aggregate etc. Acts as strong foundation for any CE structure.

MARBLE Latin word Marmor Shining stone. Calcareous metamorphic rock Though it shows granulose structure it is not as hard as Quartzite because of its Calcareous composition; but can withstand reasonable load. Due to its pleasant colour and brilliant appearance when polished it is extensively used as building stone

Evidence of Metamorphism
E.g., Sedimentary Rocks Made of minerals derived from weathering of a parent rock Stable at atmospheric temperatures and pressures (low T & P) Originally horizontal, continuous and uniform layers 1. Bent (deformed) layers 2. Flattened Pebbles Differential pressure squashes rock and included features Limestone Bioclastic calcite Marble Crystalline calcite

Quartz Sandstone Quartzite Granular quartz Crystalline quartz Granite Uniform texture Gneiss Foliation (schistosity and gneissic banding)

Temperature and Pressure of Metamorphism

Metamorphism operates at a range of temperatures and pressures from 200 to 1000 oC and 2 kbar to 15 kbar respectively. With increasing temperature and pressure the Grade of metamorphism increases and type of stable mineral assemblages change. Types of Pressure

Uniform or confining pressure results in Non-foliated texture. There will be a change in volume of the metamorphic product. Whereas, under non-uniform or directional stress metamorphic rocks develop foliated textures. Temperature-Pressure changes and Grade and Facies of Metamorphism

The grade of metamorphism depends on the temperature and pressure. With increasing temperature and pressure the metamorphic rocks are classified as low grade, medium grade and high grade respectively. For example shale (a clay-rich sedimentary rock) is converted to slate, phyllite, schist, gneiss and migmatite with increasing temperature and pressure. Some mineral assemblages are stable under given P-T conditions. These distinctive metamorphic lithologies called as Facies that occur in well defined areas and named after the key rocks found. For example, greenschist is low temperature-low pressure lithology, granulite is high temperature-high pressure lithology and Eclogite is a very high pressure-moderate temperature lithology.

Controls of Metamorphism
Parent Rock Even though minerals will change Most elements are provided by parent rock Except water and some dissolved ions

 Increased Temperature (geothermal gradients) Minerals stable at lower temperatures converted to minerals stable at higher temperatures Solid state chemical reactions are accelerated Increased Pressure (and stresses) Increased Confining Pressure as rocks are buried Compression at convergent plate boundary or Sheared as plates slide past each other Addition or removal of fluids (and elements) Water (and other fluids) within rocks and minerals Moving during metamorphism Accelerates solid-state chemical reactions and May change rock composition Time Millions of years!

The Rock Cycle Igneous Rocks are formed by Solidification of Magma derived by Partial Melting of Mantle Rock. The Igneous rocks when exposed to surface conditions get weathered, eroded and form sediments. Deposition of the sediments in a basin and their compaction forms Sedimentary rocks. Igneous rocks formed on the surface may also be taken to deeper depths (high P and T conditions) and get metamorphosed forming Metamorphic rocks. Sedimentary rocks formed on the surface, they themselves get converted to sediments and form 2nd cycle sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks also may be taken to deeper depths to form Metamorphic rocks. Similarly, Metamorphic rocks exposed to surface form Sedimentary rocks. With increasing P and T low-grade Metamorphic rocks change to high-grade Metamorphic rocks and under extreme high temperature conditions, the metamorphic rocks undergo melting and form Igneous rocks. This inter-linkage between Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic rocks is known as the Rock Cycle.

In Summary.. There are three types of rocks: Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic. Igneous rocks are crystallized from magma. Sedimentary rocks are formed from surface weathering of existing rocks, deposition and compaction of sediments. Metamorphic rocks are formed from the existing rocks by the action of temperature and pressure. Igneous rocks are classified into plutonic, hypabyssal and volcanic depending on the depth of crystallization. Sedimentary rocks are classified as Clastic and Chemical. Clastic sedimentary rocks are formed by mechanical transportation, deposition and compaction of the sediments. Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed by chemical (or biochemical) precipitation of dissolved material. Metamorphic rocks classified as low grade, medium grade or high grade depending on the temperature and pressure of metamorphism. Inter-linkages between the three types of rocks are known as Rock Cycle.