Q1- What is the difference between SAS,SCSI and SATA?

Ans- The Differences Between Parallel and Serial Interfaces

For years the parallel interface has been widely used in storage systems. The need for increased bandwidth and flexibility in storage systems made the SCSI and ATA standards an inefficient option. A parallel interface is a channel capable of transferring date in parallel mode that is transmitting multiple bits simultaneously. Almost all personal computers come with at least one parallel interface. Common parallel interfaces include SCSI and ATA. SCSI (sku4ze) Short for small computer system interface, a parallel interface standard used by Apple Macintosh computers, PCs and many UNIX systems for attaching peripheral devices to computers. Nearly all Apple Macintosh computers, excluding only the earliest Macs and the recent iMac, come with a SCSI port for attaching devices such as disk drives and printers. SCSI interfaces provide for data transmission rates (up to 80 megabytes per second). In addition, you can attach multiple devices to a sing. ATA Advanced Technology Attachment, a disk drive implementation that integrates the controller on the disk drive itself. There are several versions of ATA, all developed by the Small Form Factor (SFF) Committee: ATA: Known also as IDE, supports one or two hard drives, a 16-bit interface and PIO modes 0, 1 and 2. ATA-2: Supports faster PIO modes (3 and 4) and multiword DMA modes (1 and 2). Also supports logical block addressing (LBA) and block transfers. ATA-2 is marketed as Fast ATA and Enhanced IDE (EIDE). ATA-3: Minor revision to ATA-2. Ultra-ATA: Also called Ultra-DMA, ATA-33, and DMA-33, supports multiword DMA mode 3 running at 33 MBps. ATA/66: A version of ATA proposed by Quantum Corporation, and supported by Intel, that doubles ATA's throughput to 66 MBps. ATA/100: An updated version of ATA/66 that increases data transfer rates to 100 MBps. ATA also is called Parallel ATA. Contrast with Serial ATA. (Also known as IDE) is a disk drive implementation that integrates the controller on the disk drive itself. ATA is used to connect hard disk drives, CD-ROM drives and similar peripherals and supports 8/16-bit interface that transfer up to 8.3MB/s for ATA-2 and up to 100MB/s (ATA-6). So, what do parallel interfaces have to do with SAS (Serial Attached SCSI) and SATA (Serial ATA)? A lot, actually. It is the architectural limitations of the parallel interfaces that serial technologies like SAS and SATA address. In contrast to multiple parallel data stream, data is transmitted serially, that is in a single steam, by wrapping multiple bits into packets and it is able to move that single stream faster than parallel technology. Serial Attached SCSI (SAS) Abbreviated as SAS, Serial Attached SCSI, an evolution of parallel SCSI into a point-to-point serial peripheral interface in which controllers are linked directly to disk drives. SAS is a performance improvement over traditional SCSI because SAS enables multiple devices (up to 128) of different sizes and types to be connected simultaneously with thinner and longer cables; its full-duplex signal transmission supports 3.0Gb/s. In addition, SAS drives can be hot-plugged. Serial ATA (SATA) Often abbreviated as SATA, Serial ATA is an evolution of the Parallel ATA physical storage interface. Serial ATA is a serial link a single cable with a minimum of four

wires creates a point-to-point connection between devices. Transfer rates for Serial ATA begin at 150MB/s. Starting with SATA, it extends the capabilities of ATA and offers transfer rates starting at 150MB/s and, after years of development, has moved to the mainstream of disk interfaces. The successor the SCSI interface is SAS at speeds of up to 3Gb/s. Additionally, it also addresses parallel interface issues such as drive addressability and limitations on the number of device per port connection. SAS devices can communicate with both SATA and SCSI devices (the backplanes of SAS devices are identical to SATA devices). A key difference between SCSI and SAS devices is the addition in SAS devices of two data ports, each of which resides in a different SAS domain. This enables complete failover redundancy. If one path fails, there is still communication along a separate and independent path The Benefits of SAS & SATA in Storage Serial interfaces offer an improvement over older parallel SCSI (with a serial version) in storage applications and environments. These benefits include better performance, better scalability, and also better reliability as the parallel interfaces are at their limits of speed with reliable data transfers. SAS and SATA drives can also operate in the same environment while SCSI and ATA cannot. For example, using faster SAS drives for primary storage and offloading older data to cheaper SATA disks in the same subsystem, something that could not be achieved with SCSI and ATA.

Q2- What is the difference between PCI- Ex x1 and PCI-ExX16? Ans- A connection between any two PCIe devices is known as a "link", and is built up from a collection of 1 or more lanes. All devices must minimally support single-lane (x1) links. Devices may optionally support wider links composed of 2, 4, 8, 12, 16, or 32 lanes. This allows for very good compatibility in two ways. A PCIe (PCI-Express) card will physically fit (and work correctly) in any slot that is at least as large as it is (e.g. an x1 card will work in an x4 or x16 slot), and a slot of a large physical size (e.g. x16) can be wired electrically with fewer lanes (e.g. x1 or x8; however it must still provide the power and ground connections required by the larger physical slot size). PCIe is also known as (PCI-Express). PCI Express slots are not compatible with PCI or PCI-X expansion cards. Is there a difference between PCI-X and PCI-Express? Yes. Are the compatible with each other? No How do I know if what slot I have? and what is the difference? PCI -- Also annoyingly called "Conventional PCI" (like there's an unconventional version?). This is good old 32 and 64 bit PCI that you've come to know and love. The PCI spec has been undergoing a significant set of changes over the years to try to keep pace with speed and system advances. One thing you probably haven't noticed (and don't care about unless you're a hardware guy) is a change from 5V signalling to 3.3V. The spec to which vendors are implementing now is PCI V2.2; There are a PCI V2.3 and PCI V3.0 already defined. Are you asleep yet? PCI-X -- The PCI SIG likes to call this "High performance, backward compatible PCI for the future" which just means that the PCI SIG is not lacking marketing people. PCI-X uses all the same connectors and stuff as "conventional" PCI. The transfer speed is indicated by the goofy moniker added to the end,

as in "PCI-X 66" (which supports a 66MHZ clock rate) or "PCI-X 133" (which supports a 133Mhz clock rate). Because the data is transfered in parallel, either 32 or 64 bits at a time (or even 16 bits at a time, don't ask), this means that PCI-X 133 offers a bandwidth of 1.0GB/second, and PCI-X 533 could offer a bandwidth of 4.3GB/second. That's all theoretical, of course. If anybody ever builds a system that supports PCI-X 533, drop me a line, OK? PCI Express -- This is an entirely new bus architecture, previously known by the name "3GIO." It's got new connectors and everything. It even defines a new PC Card (PCMCIA) standard called Express Card. How different is PCI Express from stuff that came befoer it? Well, for one thing, it performs serial data transfers and it starts with a base transfer rate of 2.5Gb/second. Data is transfered in packets, and effectively routed via a switch. Transfers are bi-directional, so data can flow to and from a device simultaneously. Since data is switched, more than 1 device can be transfering at the same time. What's even more fun about PCI Express is that cards can utilize as many as 16 transfers in parallel, thus providing (are you ready for this??) up to 8GB/second total throughput (4GB/second in each direction). These parallelized serial transfers are what are referred to as "PCI Express x8" (pronounced "by eight", by the way) for 8 parallel bit streams or "PCI Express x16" for 16 parallel bit streams. And, here's some cool news: AGP is being replaced with x16 PCI Express connections. Quartz Extreme Some appealing graphics effects, such as the "rotating cube" effect you see when using Fast User Switching to switch users, are powered by Quartz Extreme. Quartz Extreme uses OpenGL and a supported graphics card to reduce the number of onscreen calculations being performed by the CPU. To take advantage of Quartz Extreme, you need one of the following graphics cards: ATI: Any AGP-based ATI RADEON GPU, with 16 MB VRAM or better. NVIDIA: NVIDIA GeForce2 MX or later, with 16 MB VRAM or better. Core Image Other graphics effects and optimizations in Tiger, such as the ripple effect that shows when you place a widget on Dashboard, are driven by Core Image. When a programmable GPU is present, Core Image uses the graphics card for image processing operations, freeing the CPU for other tasks. To take advantage of Core Image, you need one of the following graphics cards: ATI Mobility Radeon 9700 ATI Radeon 9550, 9650, 9600, 9600 XT, 9800 XT, X800 XT nVidia GeForce FX Go 5200 nVidia GeForce FX 5200 Ultra nVidia GeForce 6800 Ultra DDL, 6800 GT DDL Q3- What is misconfig? On which OS can it be found? Ans- MSConfig, or Microsoft System Configuration Utility, (or simply System Configuration in Windows Vista and Windows 7) is a utility to troubleshoot the Microsoft Windows startup process. It is bundled with all Microsoft Windows operating systems since Windows 98 except Windows 2000. Windows 95 and Windows 2000 users can download the utility as well, although it was not designed for them. MSConfig modifies which programs run at startup, edits certain configuration files, and simplifies controls over Windows services. As part of the base Windows install, MSConfig has commonly not been linked to in the Start Menu or Control Panel, but is accessible by using the Run dialog to launch 'msconfig' on any system on which the user has administrator access. Files that can be edited through MSConfig include AUTOEXEC.BAT, CONFIG.SYS, WIN.INI, SYSTEM.INI on Windows 9x systems, and WIN.INI, SYSTEM.INI and BOOT.INI on Windows NT systems prior to Windows Vista. The chief benefit to using MSConfig to edit these files is that it provides a simplified GUI to manipulate sections of those files and the Windows registry tree pertaining to the Windows boot sequence. Using MSConfig, Windows can also be configured to perform a diagnostic startup (load a minimum set of drivers, programs and services) . Features Some of its functionality varies by Windows versions:

In Windows 98 and Windows Me, it can configure advanced troubleshooting settings pertaining to these operating systems. It can also launch common system tools. In Windows 98, it can back up and restore startup files. In Windows Me, it has also been updated with three new tabs called "Static VxDs", "Environment" and "International". The Static VxDs tab allows users to enable or disable static virtual device drivers to be loaded at startup, the Environment tab allows users to enable or disable environment variables, and the International tab allows users to set international language keyboard layout settings that were formerly set via the real-mode MS-DOS configuration files. A "Cleanup" button on the "Startup" tab allows cleaning up invalid or deleted startup entries. In Windows Me and Windows XP versions, it can restore an individual file from the original Windows installation set. On Windows NT-based operating systems prior to Windows Vista, it can set various BOOT.INI switches. In Windows XP and Windows Vista, it can hide all operating system services for troubleshooting. In Windows Vista and later, the tool gained additional support for launching a variety of tools, such as system information, other configuration areas, such as Internet options, and the ability to enable/disable UAC. An update is available for Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 that adds the Tools tab.[1] It also allows configuring various switches for Windows Boot Manager and Boot Configuration Data.

Q4- What is the difference between terminal services and remote desktop? Ans- The Remote Desktop Connection feature allows a single user to connect to his / her desktop remotely by terminal services. When the user is connecting to his / her desktop by Remote Desktop Connection, he or she will see exactly like sitting in front of the computer. Remote Desktop Connection allows only one user to connect to only one terminal services session. When a user is connected, others in front of the computer cannot see what the user is operating. The Terminal Services in Windows Server 2003 allows multiple users connect to multiple terminal services sessions concurrently. Because its also depends on Remote Desktop Protocol, users may use the Windows XP Remote Desktop Connection client to connect to their terminal services sessions. As the result, from the inside view, the Remote Desktop Connection in Windows XP and Terminal Services in Windows Server 2003 are really same thing. We can even say Remote Desktop Connection support in Windows XP is exactly a simplified version of Terminal Services in Windows Server 2003 that only allows one single users session. Q5- What is MAC Address? Ans- Media Access Control address, a hardware address that uniquely identifies each node of a network. In IEEE 802 networks, the Data Link Control (DLC) layer of the OSI Reference Model is divided into two sub-layers: the Logical Link Control (LLC) layer and the Media Access Control (MAC) layer. The MAC layer interfaces directly with the network medium. Consequently, each different type of network medium requires a different MAC layer. On networks that do not conform to the IEEE 802 standards but do conform to the OSI Reference Model, the node address is called the Data Link Control (DLC) address Q6- What is 255.255.255.255 used for? Ans- This is the special network of 255.255.255.255, and is used for broadcasting messages to the entire network that your computer resides on

Q7- What is the difference between ARP and RARP?

Ans- ARP -Meaning of ARP "Address Resolution Protocol", is used to map ip Network addresses to
the hardware (Media Access Control sub layer) addresses used by the data link protocol. The ARP protocol operates between the network layer and the data link layer in the Open System Interconnection (osi) model. RARP-RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol) is a protocol by which a physical machine in a local area network can request to learn its IP address from a gateway server's Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) table or cache. A network administrator creates a table in a local area network's gateway router that maps the physical machine (or Media Access Control - MAC address) addresses to corresponding Internet Protocol addresses. When a new machine is set up, its RARP client program requests from the RARP server on the router to be sent its IP address. Assuming that an entry has been set up in the router table, the RARP server will return the IP address to the machine which can store it for future use. RARP is available for Ethernet, Fiber Distributed-Data Interface, and token ring LANs. Q8- What is a DNS zone? Describe the difference between them? Ans- A DNS zone is a portion of the global Domain Name System (DNS) namespace for which administrative responsibility has been delegated. Type of Zone The root zone and top-level domains At its top level, the global domain name system consists of a single DNS zone, the root zone. This zone is unnamed, i.e. it has a zero-length domain label, and is usually represented in the hierarchy by a full stop (period, "."). Currently, the root zone is serviced by a set of 13 root nameserver clusters (as of June 2010) distributed throughout the world. The root zone contains all top-level international, ISO countrycode, and generic domains, as well as zones used for Internet infrastructure purposes (arpa). Delegation is handed down to governments and various organizations that administer these top-level domains (TLDs), such as com, net, and org. Second-level domains Many top-level registries open up their name spaces to the public or to entities with mandated geographic or otherwise scoped purpose for registration of second-level domains. Each one of these registrations obligates the registrant to maintain an administrative and technical infrastructure to manage the responsibility for its zone, including sub-delegation to lower-level domains. Each delegation confers essentially unrestricted autonomy over the allocated space. As each zone is further divided into sub-domains, each becoming a DNS zone itself with its own set of administrators and DNS servers, the tree grows with the largest number of leaf nodes at the bottom. At this lowest level, in the end-nodes or leafs of the tree, the term "DNS zone" becomes essentially synonymous, both in terms of use and administration, with the term "domain". The term "domain" is used in the business functions of the entity assigned to it and the term "zone" is usually used for configuration of DNS services. Stub Zones Stub zones are a special type of zone introduced in Windows Server 2003 that only contain resource records for other DNS servers. In this way, they provide DNS redundancy while using significantly less network bandwidth than a full-blown secondary zone server. Forward DNS zones The so far mentioned DNS zones are all used for the mapping of humanly-practical, name-based domains to mostly numerically identified Internet resources. Such domain name resolution is also referred to as forward resolution and the DNS zones associated with such process are often referred to as forward zones.

The term arose as the opposite of reverse zones, used for the reverse process, namely the process of finding the DNS name associated with an IP address, for example. Such reverse zones are maintained in the Internet Address and Routing Parameter Area (domain arpa). Another common use of the term forward zone refers to a specific configuration of DNS name servers, particularly caching name servers, in which resolution of a domain name is forwarded to another name server that is authoritative for the domain in question, rather than being answered from the established cache memory Internet infrastructure DNS zones and reverse zones The arpa top-level domain serves as a delegation zone for various technical infrastructure aspects of DNS and the Internet and does not follow the well-known registration and delegation system of the country and generic domains. The name arpa is a remnant of the ARPANET, one of the predecessor stages of today's Internet. Intended as a transition aid to the modern DNS system, deleting the arpa domain was later found to be impractical. It is now officially the acronym for Address and Routing Parameter Area. It contains sub-zones used for reverse resolution of IP addresses to host names (IPv4: in-addr.arpa, IPv6: ip6.arpa), telephone number mapping (ENUM, e164.arpa), and uniform resource identifier resolution (uri.arpa, urn.arpa). Although the administrative structure of this domain and its sub-domains is different, the technical delegation into zones of responsibility is similar and the DNS tools and servers used are identical to any other zone. Sub-zones are delegated by components of the respective resources. For example, 8.8.2.5.5.2.2.0.0.8.1.e164.arpa., which might represent an E.164 telephone number in the ENUM system, might be sub-delegated at suitable boundaries of the name. Examples of IP addresses in the reverse DNS zone are: 166.188.77.208.in-addr.arpa, resolving to the domain name www.example.com. In the case of IP addresses, the reverse zones are always delegated to the Internet service provider (ISP) to which the IP address block is assigned. When an ISP allocates a range to a customer, it usually also delegates the management of that space to the customer by insertion of name server resource records (pointing to the customers DNS facilities) into their zone. Notably, however, many ISPs serving individual end-users, such as homes or small businesses with only one IP address do not do so Q9: What is APIPA? Ans- Automatic Private IP Addressing, a feature of later Windows operating systems. With APIPA, DHCP clients can automatically self-configure an IP address and subnet mask when a DHCP server isn't available. When a DHCP client boots up, it first looks for a DHCP server in order to obtain an IP address and subnet mask. If the client is unable to find the information, it uses APIPA to automatically configure itself with an IP address from a range that has been reserved especially for Microsoft. The IP address range is 169.254.0.1 through 169.254.255.254. The client also configures itself with a default class B subnet mask of 255.255.0.0. A client uses the self-configured IP address until a DHCP server becomes available. The APIPA service also checks regularly for the presence of a DHCP server (every five minutes, according to Microsoft). If it detects a DHCP server on the network, APIPA stops, and the DHCP server replaces the APIPA networking addresses with dynamically assigned addresses. APIPA is meant for nonrouted small business environments, usually less than 25 clients

Q10- What is NAT? What is the real difference between NAT and PAT? Ans- NAT is Network address Translation PAT is Port address translation Q11- What is the (default) class type of 195.152.12.1? C 192.0.0.0 223.255.255.255

Class C: There is a total of 2,097,152 Class C networks available, with each network consisting of 255 individual IP addresses. This type of class is generally given to small to mid-sized companies. Q12: What is Private Addresses? There are also blocks of IP addresses that are set aside for internal private use for computers not directly connected to the Internet. These IP addresses are not supposed to be routed through the Internet, and most service providers will block the attempt to do so. These IP addresses are used for internal use by company or home networks that need to use TCP/IP but do not want to be directly visible on the Internet. These IP ranges are: Class A B C Private Start Address 10.0.0.0 172.16.0.0 192.168.0.0 Private End Address 10.255.255.255 172.31.255.255 192.168.255.255

If you are on a home/office private network and want to use TCP/IP, you should assign your computers/devices IP addresses from one of these three ranges. That way your router/firewall would be the only device with a true IP address which makes your network more secure.