MECH 364

MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS
Presentation Part 2
Clarence W. de Silva, Ph.D., D.Eng. (hc), FRSC, P.Eng. Professor of Mechanical Engineering The University of British Columbia e-mail: desilva@mech.ubc.ca http:// www.mech.ubc.ca/~ial
C.W.

de Silva

Plan

Plan
To Provide:
Uses of instrumentation in vibration

engineering
Instrumentation categories Useful examples from each category 4. Stepping stone for laboratory

experiments

Vibration Instrumentation

Applications 1. Design and development of a product 2. Testing (screening) of a finished product for quality assurance 3. Qualification of a good-quality product to determine its suitability for a specific application 4. Mechanical aging of a product prior to carrying out a test program 5. Exploratory testing of a product to determine its dynamic characteristics (e.g., resonances, mode shapes, complete dynamic model) 6. Vibration monitoring for performance evaluation 7. Control and suppression of vibration

VIBRATION INSTRUMENTATION

Instrumentation Categories
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Signal-generating devices Vibration exciters Sensors and transducers Signal conditioning/modification devices Control devices Signal acquisition, recording, display, and processing devices

NOTE:

One instrument may perform tasks of more than one category More than one instrument may be need to carry out tasks in a single category

Response Sensor Test Object Mounting Fixtures Control Sensor

Filter/ Amplifier

Filter/ Amplifier

Signal Recorder, Analyzer, and Display

Power Amplifier

Exciter Drive Signal

Swivel Base Signal Generator and Exciter Controller Reference (Required) Signal (Test Specification)

Command Signal

Typical Instrumentation in Experimental Vibration

Subsystems of an Experimental System 1. Test object 2. Excitation system 3. Control system 4. Signal acquisition and modification system

SIGNAL-GENERATING EQUIPMENT

SIGNAL-GENERATING EQUIPMENT
1. Oscillators 2. Random-signal Generators 3. Analog/Digital Recording Devices (Playback)
Note: Oscillators and random-signal generators may be combined into one unit

Oscillators:
Single-frequency generators. Typically, sine signals. Rectangular, triangular pulses may be available. Two Modes of Operation: 1. Dwell at a specified frequency: Frequency points (or intervals) should be specified 2. Up-and-down sweep between two frequency limits. Sweep rate should be specified in a linear (Hz/min) or logarithmic (octaves/min) scale

SIGNAL-GENERATING EQUIPMENT (Contd) Random Signal Generators:

Generate a random signal having a required distribution (e.g., Gaussian) Wideband signals (e.g., white noise) can be generated Has several (e.g., eight) bandwidth selections over a wide frequency range (e.g., 1 Hz to 100 kHz) A level-control capability (e.g., 80 dB) is available

Recorders/Players:
Digital storage and playback devices (e.g., Computer storage medium) Analog FM players Note: May contain several tracks/channels E.g., Sine-beat signals (each with a particular beat frequency, amplitude, and number of cycles/beat) Random-signal components (each with specific spectral characteristic) They can be mixed to generate a required excitation/spectrum

VIBRATION EXCITERS

VIBRATION EXCITERS
Shakers:
Hydraulic Shakers Inertial Shakers Electromagnetic Shakers

Basis of Shaker Selection

Actual Excitation (e.g., test response spectrum or TRS) should cover a specified excitation (e.g., require response spectrum or RRS) Force Rating (For moderate to high frequencies) Power Rating (For moderate to high frequencies) Stroke (Maximum Displacement) Rating (For low frequencies)

Transient Exciters:
l l

Impulsive Force (Hammer test, Drop tests) Initial Excitation (Pluck test)

Hydraulic Shaker

Inertial Shaker
Test Object Counter-Rotating Rods Test Table

Gear Mechanism

Slots for Eccentric Masses Drive Motor

Carriage
m

2mw2rcoswt

m w wt wt w

Flexible Support

Electromagnetic Shaker

Operation Capabilities of Shaker Types

Typical Operational Capabilities Shaker Type
Frequency Maximum Displacement (Stroke) High 20 in 50 cm Maximum Velocity Intermediate 50 in/s 125 cm/s Maximum Acceleration Intermediate 20 g Maximum Force High 100,000 lbf 450,000 N Excitation Waveform Average flexibility (simple to complex and random) Sinusoidal only

Hydraulic (electrohydraulic)

Low 0.1-500 Hz

Inertial (counter-rotating mass) Electromagnetic (electrodynamic)

Intermediate 2-50 Hz High 2-10,000 Hz

Low 1 in 2.5 cm Low 1 in 2.5 cm

Intermediate 50 in/s 125 cm/s Intermediate 50 in/s 125 cm/s

Intermediate 20 g High 100 g

Intermediate 1,000 lbf 4,500 N Low to intermediate 450 lbf 2,000 N

High flexibility and accuracy (simple to complex and random)

Stepper Motors
Driven in fixed angular steps (increments) Each rotation step = rotor response to an input pulse (or a digital command) Three Basic Types: 1. Variable-reluctance (VR) stepper motors (have soft-iron rotors) 2. Permanent-magnet (PM) stepper motors (have magnetized rotors) 3. Hybrid stepper motors (have two stacks of rotor teeth forming the two poles of a permanent magnet located along the rotor axis).

Stepping Sequence (Half-stepping) for a Two-phase PM Stepper Motor

Start

f1 =1
N Pole

Step 1

f1 =1
N Pole S Pole S Pole N Pole

f2 = 0

S Pole

f2 = 1

Step 2

f1 = 0

Step 3

f1 = -1
S Pole

f2 = 1

S Pole

N Pole

f2 = 1

S Pole N Pole

N Pole

Step 4

f1 = -1
S Pole

f2 = 0

N Pole

Hybrid Stepper Motor

Rotor Teeth N Phase 1 Phase 2

Stator Teeth S

1 Pitch 4 Offset
N S

Stator Rotor Stack 1 (Magnetized N) Rotor Stack 2 (Magnetized S)

Rotor Stack 1

Stator Segment 1 (Phase 1) Surrounding Stack 1

Rotor Stack 2

Stator Segment 2 (Phase 2) Surrounding Stack 2

Rotor stack misalignment (1/4 pitch) in a hybrid stepper motor (Schematically shows the state where phase 1 is off and phase 2 is on with N polarity)

Stepper Motor Drive System

(a)

Controller/ Indexer

Driver

Motor

Response Feedback

(b) Driver Controller Position Pulse Train Power Supply

Computer/ Indexer

Translator

Amplifier

Stepper Motor

To Load

Direction Pulse Train

Current to Windings

Hammer/Bump Test Arrangement

Release Mechanism Swing Meter

Instrumented Hammer Sensor Channels

Response Measurement and Analysis System

Test Object A B

Mounting

Instrumented Hammer for Bump Test

Drop Test Arrangement

Sensor Channels

Response Measurement and Analysis System B

A Test Object

Impacting Surface

Release Mechanism

Pluck Test Arrangement

Sensor Channels Test Object Response Measurement and Analysis System

Cable

Release Mechanism

SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

Useful in monitoring, testing, model/parameter determination, and control of a vibrating system
Displacement (Potentiometer, LVDT, encoder) Velocity (Tachometer, encoder) Acceleration (Accelerometer) Stress and Strain (Strain Gauge)

Passive Transducers: Self-generating. External electric power source not required for sensing (e.g., electromagnetic, piezoelectric, and photovoltaic transducers) Active Transducers: Need external power for signal generation (e.g., resistive transducer such as potentiometer)

Analog Sensors
Measurand (Typically analog) Signal sensor Transducer Transmittable variable or measurement (Typically Electrical)

Acceleration

Stress Voltage (Strain) (Charge) Generation Generation

Electric voltage

Piezoelectric Accelerometer

Linear-Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

Variable-inductance transducer; Variable-reluctance transducer; Mutual-induction transducer; Passive transducer

vo (Measurement) Insulating Form

Primary Coil

Housing

Ferromagnetic Core

Core Displacement x (Measurand)

Secondary Coil Segment

vref (b)

Secondary Coil Segment

LVDT (Contd)

See the animation at: http://www.rdpe.com/displacement/lvdt/lvdt-principles.htm

DC Tachometer
Permanent-magnet velocity sensor; Uses electromagnetic induction Rectilinear speeds or angular speeds can be measured
Permanent Magnet

Moving Coil

Output vo (Measurement)

Velocity v (Measurand) (a)

Commutator

Speed wc

Permanent Magnet

wc

S Rotating Coil vo Rotating Coil 2r

(b)

Piezoelectric Accelerometer
Spring Direction of Sensitivity (Input) Inertia Mass Output vo Piezoelectric Element

Electrodes

Resonance

Accelerometer Signal (dB)

Useful Range

5,000 20,000 Frequency (Hz)

Accelerometer Mounting Methods

(a) Mounting Method (b) Frequency Response

Strain Gages
dR = Ss e R Ss = gage factor or sensitivity

Direction of Sensitivity Foil Grid Backing Film

Use a bridge circuit =>

dv o = Ce v ref

Solder Tabs (For Leads) (a)

(a) Strain gage nomenclature

Single Element

Two-Element Rosette

(b) Typical foil-type strain gages

Three-Element Rosettes (b) Doped Silicon Crystal (P or N Type)

Welded Gold Leads

Nickle-Plated Copper Ribbons

(c) A semiconductor strain gage

Phenolic Glass Backing Plate (c)

(a)

Incremental Optical Encoder

vo Output LED Light Source t Encoder Track Transparent Windows

Phototransistor, Or Photodiode (Light Sensor)

Opaque Disk (Code Disk) (b)

Cover and Connector

Electronics Assembly Photodetector Array Code Disc and Spindle Assembly Light Source and Mask

Bearing Housing Assembly

Direction Sensing
Pick-Off Pick-Off 1 2 v1 90 Lags by 90 Time Reference Window , w Code Disk Reference Pulse Pick-Off (a) v1 90 Leads by 90 v2 t

Time

Counting (timing) starts when the v1 signal begins to rise (i.e., when a rising edge is detected). n1 = number of clock cycles (time) up to time when v2 begins to rise n2 = number of clock cycles up to time when v1 begins to rise again. If n1 > n2 - n1 cw rotation If n1 < n2 - n1 ccw rotation.
(b) v2

Time

Time

Time (c)

Displacement and Velocity Measurement Using Encoder

Displacement Measurement:

q=

n q max M

Count = n; Maximum count possible = M pulses; Range of the encoder = qmax Digital resolution Dq d = Physical Resolution
180o 360o = r 2 r -1 2
360o 4N

(Number of bits = r)

Dq p =

(with quadrature signals)

Velocity Measurement Pulse-counting (Pulse-rate) method (For high speeds): Speed w = T / n = NT (count during a time period T is n) Velocity resolution Dw c =
2p NT
2p / N 2p n

Pulse-timing method (For low speeds): Speed w = m / f = Nm (m clock counts with clock frequency f Hz)
2p f N w 2 Velocity resolution Dwt Nm 2 = 2p f
2p / N 2p f

Rating Parameters of Sensors and Transducers

Measurand Frequency Transducer Measurand Max/Min Output Impedance Potentiometer LVDT Resolver Displacement Displacement Angular displacement 5 Hz/DC 2,500 Hz/ DC 500 Hz/ DC (limited by excitation freq) Tachometer Velocity 700 Hz/ DC Moderate (50 W ) Eddy current proximity sensor Piezoelectric accelerometer Semiconducto r strain gage Acceleration (and velocity, etc.) Strain (displacement, acceleration, etc.) Loadcell Force (10 - 1000 N) Laser Displacement/ Shape Optical encoder Motion 100 kHz/ DC 500
W

Typical Resolution 0.1 mm 0.001 mm or less 2 min.

Accuracy

Sensitivity

Low Moderate Low

0.1% 0.3% 0.2%

200 mV/mm 50 mV/mm 10 mV/deg

0.2 mm/s

0.5%

5 mV/mm/s 75 mV/rad/s

Displacement

100 kHz/ DC

Moderate

0.001 mm 0.05% full scale 1 mm/s2

me

0.5%

5 V/mm

25 kHz/ 1Hz

High

1%

0.5 mV/m/s2

1 kHz/ DC (limited by fatigue) 500 Hz/ DC

200

1 - 10
6

(1 me =10-

1%

1 V/ e , 2,000
me

unity strain) 0.01 N 1.0 mm 0.05%

max

Moderate

1 mV/N

1 kHz/

DC

100

0.5% bit

1 V/mm 104/rev.

10 bit

Perfect Measurement Device

It Possesses Following Characteristics: 1. 2. 3. Output of the measuring device instantly reaches the measured value (Fast Response). Transducer output is sufficiently large (High Gain, Low Output Impedance, High Sensitivity). Device output remains at the measured value (without drifting or being affected by environmental effects and other undesirable disturbances and noise) unless the measurand (what is measured) itself changes (Stability and Robustness). 4. 5. 6. The output signal level of the transducer varies in proportion to the signal level of the measurand (Static Linearity). Connection of a measuring device does not distort the measurand itself (Loading effects are absent and Impedances are matched). Power consumption is small (High Input Impedance).

SIGNAL CONDITIONING DEVICES

SIGNAL CONDITIONING DEVICES

1. Amplifiers (Charge, Voltage, Current, Power) 2. Filters (Analog and Digital; Active and Passive): Low-pass, High-pass, Band-pass, Tracking 3. Bridge Circuits 4. ADC and DCA 5. Modulators and Demodulators 6. Phase Shifters 7. Voltage-to Frequency Converters 8. Frequency-to-Voltage Converters

Instrumentation Amplifiers
(a) Rf vi1 Inputs vi2
R R

A B + Rf Output vo

vo =

Rf R

( v i 2 - vi 1 )
(b) vi1 + A R1 1

R4

2R v B - v A = 1 + 1 ( vi 2 - v i 1 ) R2

R3

+ R4+d R4 Output vo

vo =

R4 (v B - v A ) R3

Inputs 2 -

R2
R3 R1 B

vi2

Charge Amplifier
Piezoelectric devices need a charge amplifier
Primary Reasons: 1. 2. High output impedance in sensor => small output signal levels and large loading errors The charge can quickly leak out through the load
Rf Cf A -vo/K q C Cc + K + Output vo Charge Amplifier

Note: Feedback resistance and capacitance

R f jw v o ( jw ) = q ( jw ) R f C f jw + 1

Piezoelectric Sensor

Cable

=>

G ( jw ) =

jt c w [ jt c w + 1] ; t c = R f C f

Filters (Ideal)
(a) w
Magnitude

G( f )
1 0

fc = Cutoff frequency

fc

Frequency f

(b)

G( f )
1 0

(a)Low-pass (b)High-pass (c)Band-pass (d)Band-reject (Notch)

fc

(c)

G( f )
1 0

fc1

fc2

(d)

G( f )
1 0

fc1

fc2

Tracking Filter

Input Channel 1

Output Channel 1

Tracking Filter
Input Channel 2 Output Channel 2

Carrier Input (Tracking Frequency)

Note: This is a very-narrow-band-pass filter with a tunable center frequency (tuned to the carrier frequency)

Anti-Aliasing Filter
Eliminates spectrum distortion due to data sampling A low-pass filter with cut-off at half the sampling frequency = Nyquist frequency
fc = Nyquist frequency Spectral Magnitude
Aliasing

Folded High-Frequency Spectrum

Original Spectrum

fc

Frequency f

Illustration of Aliasing
(a)

f1 = 0.2 Hz f2 = 0.8 Hz
Signal

1 2 3 4

Sampling rate fs = 1 sample /s Nyquist frequency fc = 0.5 Hz (b) Amplitude Spectrum

f1
0 0.2

fc
0.5

f2
0.8 Frequency (Hz)

Wheatstone Bridge
(a) R1 A R2 R4 B
vref (Constant Voltage)

Small i

+ RL

vo Load (High)

(a) Constant-voltage resistance bridge (b) Constant-current resistance bridge (c) A linearized bridge

R3

(b) R1

A R2 R4 B
iref (Constant Current)

Small i

+ RL

vo Load (High)

R3

(c) A R C R+R B + vref

+

Rf

R + D R

vo

Bridge Equations
(a) Constant-Voltage Bridge (Wheatstone Bridge)
vo = v A - v B = R1vref (R1 + R2 ) R3 vref (R3 + R4 ) = (R1 R4 - R2 R3 ) v ref (R1 + R2 )(R3 + R4 )

Set

R1 = R 2 = R 3 = R 4 = R

(Balanced bridge) and increase R1 by dR:

dv o dR / R = v ref ( 4 + 2d R / R )

Linearize:

dv o dR = v ref 4R

(b) Constant-Current Bridge

vo = ( R1 R4 - R2 R3 ) iref (R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 )

dv o dR / R = Ri ref ( 4 + d R / R ) => Less nonlinear than (a)

(Compare denominators). (c) Linearized Bridge

d vo R f d R = vref R R

Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation

Modulating Input (Data)

Multiplier Modulated Signal Out

Carrier Signal

(a)

~ X(f)
M
M 2

-2 fc

-fb

fb

2 fc

Frequency f

(b)
Modulated Signal

Multiplier
~ x (t )
OUT

x a (t )
Carrier

Original Signal

Low-Pass Filter
Cutoff = fb

x (t )

2 cos 2p f c t ac

Signal Conditioning for LVDT

x(t)
Carrier Signal R C

v p sin w ct

v1

+ _

v2 R2

v3 R1

Output

vo
+

R1
LVDT Amplifier Multiplier

R1

Low-pass Filter

x (t )

v1

v2

v3

vo

v3 =

v p 2 rk 2

x(t ) [1 - cos 2 w c t ]
v p 2 rk 2 x(t ) [1 - cos 2 w c t ] ; t = RC = filter time constant; ko = R/R1

Frequency Domain: v3 =

CONTROL SYSTEM

Purpose

CONTROL SYSTEM

1. To guarantee that the specified excitation is applied to test object 2. To ensure that dynamic stability (motion constraints) of the test setup is preserved

Approach
1. Compares actual excitation felt by test object at exciter interface (measured by control sensor) with desired (specified) excitation 2. Modifies the drive signal to exciter depending on the error

Response Sensor Test Object Mounting Fixtures Control Sensor

Filter/ Amplifier

Filter/ Amplifier

Signal Recorder, Analyzer, and Display

Power Amplifier

Exciter Drive Signal

Swivel Base Signal Generator and Exciter Controller Reference (Required) Signal (Test Specification)

Command Signal

Typical Instrumentation in Experimental Vibration

CONTROL SYSTEM (Contd)

Compressor: Automatically controls excitation level depending on feedback from control sensor and specified (reference) excitation Usually, compressor hardware is included in excitation-signal generator (e.g., sine generator) Equalizer (Spectrum Shaper): Bank of narrow-band filters with adjustable gains. Typically used with random signal generators Random-signal equalizers shape power/energy spectrum (E.g., rms value in each one-third-octave band is compared with the desired spectral level, and automatic adjustment is made)

Tracking Filter: A frequency-tuned band-pass filter

CONTROL SYSTEM (Contd)

Automatically tunes center frequency of (very narrow band-pass) filter to frequency of carrier signal For any (noisy) signal input, filter output = signal component at carrier frequency Carrier frequency may come from a signal generator (sweep oscillator) Dual Channels: Two signals can be tracked simultaneously

Excitation Controller (Amplitude Servo-Monitor):

Typically part of signal generator. Performs automatic sweep between two frequency limits at a selected sweep rate (linear or logarithmic); automatic switchover between constant-displacement, constant-velocity and constant-acceleration excitation at specified frequencies Automatic cutoff for damaging large displacement values A compressor is a subcomponent

SIGNAL ACQUISITION AND ANALYSIS SYSTEM

SIGNAL ACQUISITION AND ANALYSIS SYSTEM Functions

1. Measuring, conditioning, sampling, and storing of response signals and operating data 2. Processing of measured data according to objectives (using an operator interface as necessary) 3. Generation of drive signals for control system 4. Generation and recording of vibration responses in a required format

Capabilities
1. Number of response data channels that can be handled simultaneously 2. Data sampling rate (samples per second) for each channel 3. Computer memory/storage size 4. Computer processing speed 5. External storage capability (hard disks, CD, flash drive, etc.) 6. Nature of input and output devices 7. Software features

Standard Processing Capabilities

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Response spectrum analysis FFT analysis (spectral densities, correlations, coherence, Fourier spectra, and so on) Frequency-response function, transmissibility, and mechanical-impedance analysis Natural-frequency and mode-shape analysis System-parameter identification (e.g., damping parameters)

Note: Most processing is done in real time (signals analyzed as they are being measured) needs fast data acquisition (sampling rate) and processing In real-time frequency analysis, entire frequency range (not narrow bands separately) is analyzed together

Response Spectrum

Digital Oscilloscopes
Samples a signal from an input channel and stores digital data within memory (c.f.: analog-to-digital conversionADC) operation Data may be processed to extract and display the necessary information Data and processed information may be stored on a disk for further processing using a digital computer Typically has four input channels Has various triggering options Signal acquisition may be initiated and synchronized using an internal or an external trigger

Other Useful Features: 1. Automatic scaling of the acquired signal 2. Computation of signal features (e.g., frequency, period, amplitude, mean, root-mean-squarerms value, and rise time) 3. Zooming into regions of interest of a signal record 4. Averaging of multiple signal records 5. Enveloping of multiple signal records 6. Fast Fourier transform (FFT) capability, with various window options and anti-aliasing Menu selectable Incoming data (signal) channel is selected; an appropriate operation on the data is chosen from the menu

Digital Oscilloscopes (Contd)

Time Signal Frequency Spectrum (Magnitude and Phase) [Fourier Transform] Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT): Discrete/digital version of Fourier integral transform Fast Fourier Transform (FFT): An efficient version of DFT (redundant computations removed) Digital Spectrum Analyzer: Hardware-based frequency domain analyzers; very fast but less flexible than software analyzers (computers) in terms of programmability and functional capability

Signal Analysis

Signal Analysis (Contd)

Digital Spectrum Analyzer

Basic Operations: 1. Anti-alias filtering (analog) 2. Analog to digital conversion (signal sampling) 3. Truncation of a block of data and multiplication by a window function 4. FFT analysis of the data block Typically has two (dual) or more (multiple) input signal channels for frequency response (transfer) functions, cross spectra, coherence functions, and cross-correlation functions