CHAPTER I

1.1 Introduction
Cellular telephone technology became commercially available in the 1980 Since then, it has been like a snowball rolling downhill, ever increasing in the number of users and the speed at which the technology advances. When the cellular phone was first implemented, it was enormous in size by today standards. This reason is two-fold; the battery had to be large, and the circuits themselves were large. The circuits of that time used in electronic devices were made from off the shelf integrated circuits (IC), meaning that usually every part of the circuit had its own package. These packages were also very large These large circuit boards required large amounts of power, which meant bigger batteries. This reliance on power was a major contributor to the reason these phones were so big. Through the years, technology has allowed the cellular phone to shrink not only the size of the ICs, but also the batteries. New combinations of materials have made possible the ability to produce batteries that not only are smaller and last longer, but also can be recharged easily. However, as technology has advanced and made our phones smaller and easier to use, we still have one of the original problems: we must plug the phone into the wall in order to recharge the battery. Most people accept this as something that will never change, so they might as well accept it and carry around either extra batteries with them or a charger. Either way, just something extra to weigh a person down. There has been research done in the area of shrinking the charger in order to make it easier to carry with the phone. One study in particular went on to find the lower limit of charger size [1]. But as small as the charger becomes, it still needs to be plugged in to a wall outlet. Now, think about this; what if it have to be that way? Most people realize that there is an abundance of energy all around us at all times. We are being bombarded with energy waves every second of the day. Radio and television towers, satellites orbiting earth, and even the cellular phone antennas are constantly transmitting energy. What if there was a way we could harvest the energy that is being transmitted and use it as a source of power? If it could be possible to gather the energy and store it, we could potentially use it to power other circuits. In the case of the cellular phone, this power could be used to recharge a battery that is constantly 2

being depleted. The potential exists for cellular phones, and even more complicated devices - i.e. pocket organizers, person digital assistants (PDAs), and even notebook computers to become completely wireless. Of course, right now this is all theoretical. There are many complications to be dealt with. The first major obstacle is that it is not a trivial problem to capture energy from the air. We will use a concept called energy harvesting. Energy harvesting is the idea of gathering transmitted energy and either using it to power a circuit or storing it for later use. The concept needs an efficient antenna along with a circuit capable of converting alternating-current (AC) voltage to direct-current (DC) voltage. The efficiency of an antenna, as being discussed here, is related to the shape and impedance of the antenna and the impedance of the circuit. If the two impedances matched then there is reflection of the power back into the antenna meaning that the circuit was unable to receive. A chip for inductive battery charging is presented, which needs no external components except an antenna to capture the energy from an electromagnetic field. The integrated system blocks are a front-end to limit and rectify the induced alternating voltage and a charge regulator with three control loops for the current, the voltage and the temperature. The external antenna forms a resonance circuit with the on-chip capacitor. The resonance frequency of the front end is 13.56 MHz, so it is compatible to the well known smart-card standard. In the electromagnetic field of commercial reader systems the chip produces an output current to charge a lithium battery with the mandatory constant-current-constant voltage (cccv) charge profile This architecture is implemented to charge lithium cells at a current of 4 mA up to a cell voltage of 4.2 volts. The target application are high-end smartcards with secondary batteries. The chip, fabricated in a 0.8 m BICMOS-technology, includes two contacts for the antenna and two for the battery. The operating current of the IC is approximately 1 mA.

1.2 Transmitter
In electronics and telecommunications or radio transmitter is an electronic device which, with the aid of an antenna, produces radio waves. The transmitter itself generates a radio frequency alternating current, which is applied to the antenna. When excited by this alternating current, the antenna radiates radio waves. In addition to their use in broadcasting, transmitters are necessary component parts of many electronic devices that communicate by radio, such as cell phones, Wifi and Bluetooth enabled devices, garage door openers, two-way radios in aircraft, ships, and spacecraft, radar sets, and navigational beacons. The term transmitter is usually limited to equipment that generates radio waves for communication purposes; or radiolocation, such as radar and navigational transmitters. Generators of radio waves for heating or industrial purposes, such as microwave ovens or diathermy equipment, are not usually called transmitters even though they often have similar circuits. The term is popularly used more specifically to refer to transmitting equipment used for broadcasting, as in radio transmitter or television transmitter. This usage usually includes both the transmitter proper as described above, and the antenna, and often the building it is housed in. An unrelated use of the term is in industrial process control, where a "transmitter" is a device which converts measurements from a sensor into a signal, and sends it, us. The

Voice

Code Generator

Digital / Analog Conversion

Voltage/ Frequency Conversion

Amplifier

Electrical Signal

Crystal

Module

Figure -1 Antena 4

antenna plays a very important role. To charge a battery, a high DC power signal is needed. The wireless battery charger circuit must keep the power loss to the minimal. Therefore, there are many considerations to choose the correct parts for the design. The considerations of choosing the appropriate antenna are: 1. Impedance of the antenna 2. Gain of the antenna The most basic transmitter setup consists of a piece of equipment that generates a signal whose output is then fed into an amplifier that is finally output through a radiating antenna the air interface. A condition must be met where the antenna operates optimally at the desired frequency output from the signal generator. In the current case, an antenna was connected through an amplifier to a radio-frequency (RF) source. The RF source is a circuit that outputs a signal at a user-specified frequency and voltage. The range of frequencies of the signal generator resides in the radio frequency band, 3 mega-hertz (MHz) to 3 giga-hertz (GHz). The output power of this device is limited. For this reason, an amplifier is required on the output. The transmitting antenna is called a patch antenna and is fabricated from copper plating that is soldered to a feed wire and has a ground plane. The frequency of 915MHz was chosen for this project because it is one at which our team has experience, and it falls in one of the Industrial-Scientific-Medical (ISM) RF bands made available by the Federal Communications Commission for low power, short distance experimentation. This frequency was chosen mostly for simplicity in using the available equipment. It is not used for mass communication or anything else on a major scale, and therefore is not going to be interfered with, or interfere with other devices at low power levels. This also means that transmitters for short distances are readily available. In fact, 915MHz is a very common frequency used in RF research. This makes a transmitter system easy to construct and manage. The source is nothing more than a signal generator, capable of outputting a low-noise AC signal at 915MHz. This setup results in the antenna beaming approximately 6mW of power per square meter. This was the limit of the gain of the amplifier.

1.3 Receiver
The receiver main purpose is to charge a battery. A simple battery charging theory is to run current through the battery, and apply a voltage difference between the terminals of the battery to reverse the chemical process. By doing so, it recharges the battery. There are other efficient and faster ways to charge the battery, but it requires a large amount of energy which the wireless battery charger cannot obtain, yet. Therefore, in our design, we use a straight forward method to charge the battery. Microwave signal is an AC signal with a frequency range of 1 GHz 1000 GHz. 915 MHz is in between the RF/ Microwave range. No matter how high the frequency is, AC signal is still AC signal. Therefore, the signal can also be treated as a low frequency AC signal. In order to get a DC signal out of the AC signal, a rectifier circuit is needed. At the output of the rectifier, the signal is not a fully DC signal yet. Thus, by adding a capacitor and a resistor can smooth out the output to become DC signal

Antena

Filter

Demodule

Seperator Filter

Reset

Frequency/ Voltage conversion

Analog / Digital Conversion

Input/ Output interface

-P

Output interface

Battery charger

Crystal

Speaker

Figure -2

The receiver in information theory is the receiving end of a communication channel. It receives decoded messages/information from the sender, who first encoded them. Sometimes the receiver is modeled so as to include the decoder. Real-world receivers like radio receivers or telephones can not be expected to receive as much information as predicted by the noise receiver operating characteristic (ROC), or simply ROC curve, is a graphical plot of the sensitivity, or true positive rate, vs. false positive rate (1 specificity or 1 true negative rate), for a binary classifier system as its discrimination threshold is varied. The ROC can also be represented equivalently by plotting the fraction of true positives out of the positives (TPR = true positive rate) vs. the fraction of false positives out of the negatives (FPR = false positive rate). Also known as a Relative Operating Characteristic curve, because it is a comparison of two operating characteristics (TPR & FPR) as the criterion changes.ROC analysis provides tools to select possibly optimal models and to discard suboptimal ones independently from (and prior to specifying) the cost context or the class distribution. ROC analysis is related in a direct and natural way to cost/benefit analysis of diagnostic decision making. The ROC curve was first developed by electrical engineers and radar engineers during World War II for detecting enemy objects in battle fields, also known as the signal detection theory, and was soon introduced in psychology to account for perceptual detection of stimuli. ROC analysis since then has been used in medicine, radiology, and other areas for many decades, and it has been introduced relatively recently in other areas like machine learning and data mining

1.3.1 The Antenna

The most straightforward option for the receiving antenna is to use an existing antenna that can be obtained commercially. This idea was explored along with fabricating a new antenna. As can be seen from Figures 3.1 and 3.2, there is a coaxial connector to connect to the antenna. For the initial research, a quarter-wave whip antenna was used for all the testing purposes. This antenna is similar to that used on car radios. It is called a quarter-wave antenna because it is designed so that its length is approximately one quarter of the wavelength of the signal. This means that for a 915MHz signal, with a wavelength equal 32cm, a quarter-wave antenna would have 7

an 8cm length. The main dilemma in using this type of an antenna is that it requires a rather large ground plane in order to work properly. This is fine for car radios that can be grounded to the frame of the car. But, for this project, the ground plane needed to receive enough of a signal to power the charging circuit is larger than the form factors of the charging stands chosen to house the circuits. A picture of the quarter-wave whip antenna The largecopper plate is the ground plane. The antenna is attached to the copper, with an SMA connector on the under side of the ground plane. This type of connector uses a simple screw mechanism allowing for easy connectivity with other circuits and test equipment. The cord is connected on the other side to the BNC connector of the board. As you can see, this ground plane is rather large, too large to be used inside the stand for a cellular phone. It covers almost 50% more area than the stands that were selected for this research. With this in mind, a different type of antenna needs to be researched and tested. Other types of antennas to consider are patches, microstrips, dipoles, and monopoles. The patch antenna has two major problems when being used with a research project like this. The first is that it also needs to be relatively large, on the order of the ground plane for the quarter-wave whip antenna. The second reason is that it is highly directional, meaning that it only radiates, and accepts radiation, in one direction, i.e., it does not have a good coverage area. These reasons rule out this option. A microstrip antenna can be any type of antenna discussed previously, but what makes it unique is that it is painted on to a surface so that it is in the same plane as the printed circuit board. This type of antenna is used mostly on small surfaces such as silicon die to be used by the circuit on the same die. By painted on, what is meant is that on a silicon die it is etched onto the surface, or on a printed circuit board, it is part of a conductive layer. This means that it can be patch, a dipole, or a quarter-wave whip, as long as all the metal is in the same plane. The main problems with this antenna are its gain and its directionality. These types of antennas are appropriate to be used in RFID, but for this project they would be a hindrance. It is possibly an option to explore in future research. The last two types of antennas, dipole and monopole, are similar in characteristics and structure. The difference is that a monopole has one connection point to the circuit, while a

1.4 Charging system

At this point, it is necessary to explain what exactly a charge pump is, and how it works. A charge pump is a circuit that when given an input in AC is able to output a DC voltage typically larger than a simple rectifier would generate. It can be thought of as a AC to DC converter that both rectifies the AC signal and elevates the DC level. It is the foundation of power converters such as the ones that are used for many electronic devices today. These circuits typically are much more complex than the charge pumps used in this thesis. Power converter circuits have a lot of protective circuitry along with circuitry to reduce noise. In fact, it is a safety regulation that any power-conversion circuits use a transformer to isolate the input from the output. This prevents overload of the circuit and user injury by isolating the components from any spikes on the input line. For this thesis, however, such a low power level is being used that a circuit this complex would require more power than is available, and it would therefore be very inefficient and possibly not function. In that case, it is necessary to use a simple design. The simplest design that can be used is a peak detector or half wave peak rectifier. This circuit requires only a capacitor and a diode to function. The schematic is shown in Figure 3.1. The explanation of how this circuit works is quite simple. The AC wave has two halves, one positive and one negative. On the positive half, the diode turns on and current flows, charging the capacitor. On the negative half of the wave, the diode is off such that no current is flowing in either direction. Now, the capacitor has voltage built up which is equal to the peak of the AC signal, hence the name. Without the load on the circuit, the voltage would hold indefinitely on the capacitor and look like a DC signal, assuming ideal components. With the load, however, the output voltage decreases during the negative cycle of the AC input, shown in Figure 3.2. This figure shows the voltage decreases exponentially. This is due to the RC time constant. The voltage decreases in relation to the inverse of the resistance of the load, R, multiplied by the capacitance C. This circuit produces a lot of ripple, or noise, on the output DC of the signal. With more circuitry, that ripple can be reduced. The next topology presented in Figure 3.3 is a full-wave rectifier. Whereas the previous circuit only captures the positive cycle of the signal, here both halves of the input are captured in the capacitor. From this figure, we see that in the positive half of 9

the cycle, D1 is on, D2 is off and charge is stored on the capacitor. But, during the negative half, the diodes are reversed, D2 is on and D1 is off. The capacitor doesnt discharge nearly as much as in the previous circuit, so the output has much less noise, as shown in Figure 3.4. It produces a cleaner DC signal than the half-wave rectifier, but the circuit itself is much more complicated with the introduction of a transformer. This essentially rules this topology out for this research because of the space needed to implement it. There are other topologies for charge pumps but they will not be covered here. The others are more complex and all involve transformers, like the full-wave rectifier, and therefore take up more room than there is real estate for in this project. Instead, the circuit that was chosen to be used will now be presented. The charge pump circuit is made of stages of voltage doublers. This circuit is called a voltage doubler because in theory, the voltage that is received on the output is twice that at the input. The schematic in Figure 3.5 represents one stage of the circuit. The RF wave is rectified by D2 and C2 in the positive half of the cycle, and then by D1 and C1 in the negative cycle. But, during the positive half-cycle, the voltage stored on C1 from the negative half-cycle is transferred to C2. Thus, the voltage on C2 is roughly two times the peak voltage of the RF source minus the turn-on voltage of the diode, hence the name voltage doubler. The most interesting feature of this circuit is that by connecting these stages in series, we can essentially stack them, like stacking batteries to get more voltage at the output. One might ask, after the first stage, how can this circuit get more voltage with more stages because the output of the stage is DC? Well, the answer is that the output is not exactly DC. It is essentially

10

Charging System

Figure - 3

11

1.5 Charging Profile

Figure -4

Working of project with circuit diagram

12

1.6 Description
1.6.1 The Phone The design aspect of this project is focused on the receiving side. For this stage of research, of which the goal is to prove that the wireless battery charger idea is feasible, it was decided to incorporate the energy harvesting circuitry and antenna in some sort of base station or charging stand. It is necessary to hide the components for demonstration purposes. This being the case, two phones were chosen that have accessories currently available to use as our charging stands. The Nokia 3570 was the first phone that was received for the research. This phone comes standard with a battery and an AC/DC travel charger. The battery included with the phone has a voltage range from 3.2V - when the phone shuts off - to 3.9V when fully charged. This battery only takes about 2 hours to charge when plugged into the wall through the travel charger supplied with the phone. This charger has an unloaded, unregulated direct current (DC) output voltage of 9.2V. When connected to the phone, the charging voltage goes to the battery voltage, approximately 3.6V, and then slowly increases until it saturates at 3.9V. This charger regulates the current to around 350mA. The other phone that was chosen is the Motorola V60i. This phone has many of the same features as the Nokia above, and it also comes standard with its own battery and travel charger. The battery for this phone is a 3.6V battery like the Nokia battery. The travel charger shown is quite different from its Nokia counterpart. First of all, there are 3 pins going to the phone, not just the 2 needed for power and ground. Two of these pins are at a ground potential, and the other one is 6.09V higher than the other two. This is very close to the regulated voltage of 5.9V seen by the phone during charging. It runs at 400mA, a little higher than the Nokia charger.

13

1.6.2 Stand Before starting the design of the circuitry for charging the phones, it is beneficial to know the space available for the board. The Nokia DCV-15 desktop stand and Motorola SYN8610 hands free speakerphone have commercially available accessories for holding the phones. The Nokia stand, Figure 2.1, is used additionally for synchronization purposes between the phone and a personal computer. It does incorporate a circuit board that connects to the phone for charging. This board is simply a bridge from the phone to the PC, using a switch. The power supply plugs into the back of the stand underneath, and its jack is also located on the printed circuit board. Since there is a lot of wasted space inside that can be used for the energy harvesting board and antenna, all that is needed to do is to tap into this existing board to supply the power for the phone. This facilitates replacing the existing board with a newly designed printed circuit board. This would be difficult because the jack the phone plugs into, on the existing board, is difficult to replace. It appears to be a proprietary device available only from Nokia. Thankfully, there is enough room in the stand for both boards to exist, along with the antenna. For the Motorola phone, there is a similar product available, but it is not really a stand. The Motorola SYN8610, Figure 2.8, is a hands-free speakerphone that accommodates the phone. This device also allows the user to charge the phone while the phone is in the stand. It is similar to the Nokia stand in that there is a printed circuit board that connects the power from the wall to the phone through the stand itself. This allows for the same option as the Nokia stand to just tap into the existing board to power the phone from our printed circuit board. However, because there is not as much space in this stand as in the Nokia stand, to use this accessory, it was necessary to hollow out the inside to make room for the energy harvesting circuitry. This meant removing the speakerphone functionality. Whereas the Nokia phones desktop stand could still be used to connect to the PC, this item will no longer perform its original function

14

1.7 Antenna
The most straightforward option for the receiving antenna is to use an existing antenna that can be obtained commercially. This idea was explored along with fabricating a new antenna. As can be seen from Figures 3.1 and 3.2, there is a coaxial connector to connect to the antenna. For the initial research, a quarterwave whip antenna was used for all the testing purposes. This antenna is similar to that used on car radios. It is called a quarter-wave antenna because it is designed so that its length is approximately one quarter of the wavelength of the signal. This means that for a 915MHz signal, with a wavelength equal 32cm, a quarter-wave antenna would have an 8cm length. The main dilemma in using this type of an antenna is that it requires a rather large ground plane in order to work properly. This is fine for car radios that can be grounded to the frame of the car. But, for this project, the ground plane needed to receive enough of a signal to power the charging circuit is larger than the form factors of the charging stands chosen to house the circuits. A picture of the quarterwave whip antenna The largecopper plate is the ground plane. The antenna is attached to the copper, with an SMA connector on the under side of the ground plane. This type of connector uses a simple screw mechanism allowing for easy connectivity with other circuits and test equipment. The cord is connected on the other side to the BNC connector of the board. As you can see, this ground plane is rather large, too large to be used inside the stand for a cellular phone.

15

It covers almost 50% more area than the stands that were selected for this research. With this in mind, a different type of antenna needs to be researched and tested. Other types of antennas to consider are patches, microstrips, dipoles, and monopoles. The patch antenna has two major problems when being used with a research project like this. The first is that it also needs to be relatively large, on the order of the ground plane for the quarter-wave whip antenna. The second reason is that it is highly directional, meaning that it only radiates, and accepts radiation, in one direction, i.e., it does not have a good coverage area. These reasons rule out this option. A microstrip antenna can be any type of antenna discussed previously, but what makes it unique is that it is painted on to a surface so that it is in the same plane as the printed circuit board. This type of antenna is used mostly on small surfaces such as silicon die to be used by the circuit on the same die. By painted on, what is meant is that on a silicon die it is etched onto the surface, or on a printed circuit board, it is part of a conductive layer. This means that it can be patch, a dipole, or a quarter-wave whip, as long as all the metal is in the same plane. The main problems with this antenna are its gain and its directionality. These types of antennas are appropriate to be used in RFID, but for this project they would be a hindrance. It is possibly an option to explore in future research.

The last two types of antennas, dipole and monopole, are similar in characteristics and structure. The difference is that a monopole has one connection point to the circuit, while a

1.7.1 Voltage limiter. Integrated circuits work only in a limited voltage range, so special protection circuits are used. For commercial ICs this range is e. g. 4.5V the voltage is regulated by an NMOS transistor, controlled by an amplifier. This transistor regulates the maximum voltage indirectly by shortening the current.

1.7.2 Current regulation:

16

The current is measured indirectly by the voltage drop over a small resistor called RSENSER .The voltage drop depends on the current ILOAD and the value of the resistor.

1.7.3 Voltage regulation:

A circuit to limit the output voltage, which is called regulator, is used here. At first, the battery voltage must be divided by an voltage divider which is build of two resistors. This voltage is compared with a stable dc-voltage and the difference is amplified by a loop amplifier

17

CHAPTER - II

18

2.1 Circuit Description

2.1.1 Resistor:
These are current resisting devices.These are made of carbon, metallic wire wound etc. These are read through this acronym BBROYGBVGW. This stands for, Black, Brown, Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Violet, Gray and, White respectively. These colors are printed as lines on the resistor the first and second colors lines indicate the number corresponding to color. The numbers indicated by the colors are shown in table below. The third line indicate the number of zeros, the fourth line indicate the percentage of tolerance of the resistor. BLACK BROWN RED ORANGE 0 1 2 3 YELLOW GREEN BLUE VIOLET 4 5 6 7 GRAY WHITE Gold Silver 8 9 5% 10%

E.g. Red, Red, Black Gold = 22 +/-5%; Red, Red, Brown = 220 ; Red, Red, Red = 2200 ; Red, Red, Orange = 22K ; Red,

Red, Yellow = 220K ; Red, Red, Green = 2.2M ; Red, Red, Yellow = 22 M These are available in various wattages like 1/4W, 1/2 W, 1W, 2W, 5W, 10W, 20W, 50W, 100W, 200W. In electronics most common use are up to 5Watt.Higher the wattages bigger the sizes. The value and wattage of resisters are to be selected as per the applications. The tolerance in variation of the rated value is also selected as per the applications. The resisters are fabricated directly on the IC itself.

19

2.1.2 Diodes:
These devices allow to flow current in only one direction. These devices are also called unidirectional devices. Earlier these devices were made of vacuum tubes, now a days these are semi conductor solid-state devices. These are PN junction devices .The PN means doping of the semi conductor with positive and negative drop electronic valence atoms. The silicon diodes have knee voltage

of 0.7 volts i.e. forward biased voltage drop whereas germanium diodes have 0.3 voltage drop. The different diodes are used for different purposes. The diodes work in forward biased condition or reverse biased conditions. These are available with different current rating, voltage rating, power rating and are used for different applications. The diodes of higher wattages are of bigger sizes. The Symbol of Diode and the ideal curves of diodes are shown below.

Current Voltage Diode Symbol ideal curve

Current Forward Region Break Down Voltage Voltage Knee Voltage =0.7V Reverse Region Figure -3

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2.1.3 Diode Characteristics : Diodes are of different types like Photodiode, Varactor diode, Schotkey Diode, PIN diode, Zener Diode etc.

2.1.4

Zener Diode:
Small signal and rectifier diodes are never operated in the

break down region because this may damage them. The zener diode is made to operate in breakdown region, sometimes called breakdown diode. The zener diode is the back bone of voltage regulators, circuits that hold the load voltage almost constant despite large changes in the line voltage and load resistance.

Symbol of Zener Diode

2.1.5 Light Emitting Diode:

In a forward biased diode, free electrons cross the junction and fall in to holes. As these electrons fall from a higher to a lower energy level, they radiate energy. In ordinary diodes this energy goes off in the form of heat. But in the light emitting diode (LED) the energy radiates as light. LEDs that radiate red, green, yellow, blue, orange or infrared are manufactured by using elements like gallium, arsenic, and phosphorous. LEDs that produce visible radiations are useful with instruments, calculators etc. The infrared LED finds application in burglar systems and other areas requiring invisible radiations. The seven segment displays uses 7 LEDs.

The symbol of LED Figure -4 21

2.2 Transformer:
This are the devices which converts the primary ac voltage to different secondary ac voltages .If the secondary voltage is higher then primary voltage then the transformer is called step up transformer , if the secondary is less then primary voltage then it is called step down transformer , if secondary is same as primary voltage then it is called unity transformer. This unity transformer is also used as isolation transformer . These devices are highly efficient unto 99.9%, i.e. very low power loss. The transformers are required for making dc supply, tuning circuit etc. The current rating of primary and secondary winding determines the SWG gauge 2.2.1 Power supplier: The Power is given to the transformer, which steps down the input voltage to 10 times less i.e. 20 V. 78M05 of the copper wire.

Transformer

Rectifier

Filter

Regulator

Figure -5 Regulated Power Supply This low voltage is fed to bridge rectifier that rectifies the ac waveform to dc waveform with some ripples. These ripples are filtered through capacitance filter and is fed to linear regulator .The output of regulator is further filtered to produce clean DC VOLTAGE.

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2.2.2 Capacitor: This are the storage devices but has in built Resistance thats why the storage voltage does not last for longer period. The use of capacitor is for tuning the circuit, filtering the noise to ground, creating the timing pulse as in our case. The capacitors cannot be fabricated on ICs because of the technical difficulty. The different values of capacitor that are available are 1pf, 2pf, 2.2pf, 100pf, 200pf, 1000pf, 0.001uf, and 0.01uf, 0.1uf, 2uf, 10uf, 22uf, 33uf, 47uf, 56uf, 68uf, 82uf, 100uf, 220uf, 330uf etc. The capacitors are selected based on capacitance and voltage rating. Higher the voltage higher the size of the capacitor. These are available in following types.

2.2.3 Electrolytic Capacitor :

These capacitors have electrolyte as the dielectric between the two plates. These are available with polarity + and -.These are available with vertical mount or horizontal mount configuration.

2.2.4 Paper Capacitor :

These capacitors are available in low range of capacitance. The paper is used as dielectrics media between the two plates.

2.2.5 Mica Capacitor :

These capacitors are also available in low range of capacitance. The mica is used as dielectrics media between the two plates. Disc Capacitor : These are available from 1pF to 1ooooUF.

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2.3 Relay:
These are electromagnetic devices which make or break the contact as per the control voltage. There are solid state relays which do not consume much power for their operation, but are not available in higher current rating. Relays are being substituted by SCRs also called thyrister for on/off control The first Tracking and Data Relay Satellite was launched in 1983 on the Space Shuttle Challenger's first flight, STS-6. The Boeing-built Inertial Upper Stage that was to take the satellite from Challenger's orbit to its ultimate geosynchronous orbit suffered a failure that caused it not to deliver the TDRS to the correct orbit. As a result, it was necessary to command the satellite to use its onboard rocket thrusters to move it into its correct orbit. This expenditure of fuel reduced its capability to remain in an untilted geosynchronous orbit, and this TDRS, in orbit for a long time, has been re-assigned to the part-time mission of supporting communications to Antarctic scientific stations. The second Tracking and Data Relay Satellite was

destroyed in the Space Shutte Challenger's 10th launch when the entire Challenger was destroyed shortly after takeoff in the STS-51-L flight in January 1986. The next five TRW-built TDRSS satellites were successfully launched on other Space Shuttles. Then, three follow-on Boeing-built satellites were launched by Atlas rockets in 2000 and 2002. A NASA Press Release[4] summarized the capabilities of the system as a whole A Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS) is type of communications satellite, that forms part of the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) used by NASA and other United States government agencies for communications to and from independent "User Platforms" such as satellites, balloons, aircraft, and the International Space Station. This system was designed to replace a preexisting worldwide network of ground stations that had supported all of NASA's manned flight missions and unmanned satellites in low-Earth 24

orbits. The primary system design goal was to increase the amount of time that these spacecraft were in communication with the ground and improve the amount of data that could be transferred. These TDRSS satellites are all designed and built to be launched to and function in geosynchronous orbit, 22,300 miles above the surface of the Earth.

Relay Figure -6

25

CHAPTER - III

26

3.1 Introduction To MCS-51 Series

Before the era of microprocessor, circuit were constructed using desecrate logic like various gates, counters, flip-flops, decoders, monostables and registers. Circuit diagram was designed as per the requirement prototype PCB is made interconnecting the logic components as per the design. Testing and debugging was done in the lab. During the testing some modification were required. When the product was tested on the field, some changes are required this requires new design of PCB. To overcome this difficulties scientist and engineer were working on a machine, which could read the set of instruction to do a particular job called PROGRAM, stored in a memory and executes it. The instruction would be simple like ADD, SUBTRACT, AND, OR, INVERT, ROTATE and MOVE. If such a machine could made then, making changes in the design means, making changes in the program, which is comparatively easy. The birth of computer is also a result of such thinking. Because of the advancement in the silicon technology, it was possible to design such a device called microprocessor. The microprocessor will read the instruction stored in Rom, the read only memory, and execute in PROM programmers were used to put the desired program inside the ROM. This process called the programming the ROM, also called burning the program inside the ROM Intel come out first with 8080 microprocessor. This was followed by the 8085, which become vary popular and accepted by industry all over the world. The use of 8085, always follows the use of external ROM like 2764, external RAM 6264, 8bit latch 74LS373, address decoding logic 74LS138, I/O device such as 8155/8255. Serial interface 8251,timers/counters 8253,or discrete logic again the effort were made to put all the standard hardware logic in one chip. As a result of such an effort, Intel comes out with MCS-51 series. It has all the above features, i.e. ROM. RAM, I/O, serial interface. Timers/counters logic 27

built-in chip or embedded in it. Plus enhanced instruction set. This includes bit manipulation instruction, and instruction to multiply and divide 8 bit hexadecimal number. It also has code protection features. When Intel introduced MCS-51 series there were basically three ICs in the series, namely 8031,8051 and8751. 8031 needs external ROM like 2764. 8051 has internal but one time programmable or OTP ROM 8751 has on chip UV erasable ROM 8031 was suitable for production, it is not possible to reprogram 8751 has UV erasable on chip ROM, which requires 20 minutes to erase and it was quit expensive. Atmel made a break through and developed flash version of 8051, called the 89C51 which has built in Flash Rom .in flash version applying proper logic levels at controls pin and just one push at the erase pin can erase program. The process is called flash erasing. With this technique existing program can be erased quickly and new program can be burn. The price of the flash version was also affordable. 89C51 ICs become very popular. It is Hardware and Software compatible with MCS-51 series IC 8051. Quick look at 8085 IC revels that, it has 16 bit for addressing the memory, which can address 64K memory of which some part can be ROM and remaining can be RAM. But total of RAM and ROM can not exceed 64K. MCS-51 series can address 64K ROM, 64K RAM & 256 byte internal RAM. Out of the 64K ROM. Not all the ROM resides on the chip 89C59 has 4k of on chip ROM and rest of the must be physically out side the chip. The 64K RAM is always out side the chip and is called external RAM. Apart from the 64K external RAM, there is 256 byte internal RAM which is always in side the chip & is called internal RAM. Industrial application with moderate complexity can be fitted inside the 4K of ROM. The 256 byte internal RAM is divided into two equal parts of 128 byte each. The upper half, from location 128 to 256 is reserved for special purpose registers & is called SFR area. If program demands extra ROM, one can use higher version, the 89C52 which has on chip 8K ROM. Next higher version is also available. Next higher version is also available. The 89C55 has 20K of on chip ROM. If the program is written in assembly language, 4K ROM of 89C 51 is more then sufficient for most of the application. The AT89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 4 28

Kbytes of Flash Programmable and Erasable Read Only Memory (PEROM). The device is manufactured using Atmels high density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry standard MCS-51 instruction set and pinout. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C51 is a powerful microcomputer which provides a highly flexible and cost effective solution to many embedded control applications. The AT89C51 provides the following standard features: 4Kbytes of Flash, 128 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, two 16-bittimer/counters, a five vector two-level interrupt architecture,a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator and clockcircuitry. In addition, the AT89C51 is designed with staticlogic for operation down to zero frequency and supportstwo software selectable power saving modes. The IdleMode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters,serial port and interrupt system to continue functioning.The Power Down Mode saves the RAM contents butfreezes the oscillator disabling all other chip functions untilthe next hardware reset.

29

Overview of 89C51

Figure -7

30

3.2

Pin configuration

output port each pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high-impedance inputs. Port 0 may also be configured to be the multiplexed low order address/data bus during accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode P0 has internal pull up. Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming, and outputs the code bytes during program verification. External pull ups are required during program verification. Port 1Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull ups. The Port 1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs .When 1s are written to Port 1 pins they are pulled high by the internal pull ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull ups. Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash programming and program verification. Port Port 2 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pullups The Port 2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external program memory and during accesses to external data memory that use 16-bit addresses (MOVX) 89C51 is a 40 pin device. Two pins are used for power supply, and require +5V. It has on chip oscillator circuitry to which requires use of external crystal. Normally crystal frequency is around 12MHz. This oscillator is further divided by 12 by internally and considered as clock for machine cycle. Most of the instruction takes one or two machine cycle to execute. For 12MHz crystal, most of the instruction will get executed in one or two microsecond it has one pin called ALE. When program execution is going on. ALE pin will pulse at one sixth of clock frequency. So for 12MHz crystal, ALE pin will pulse at 2MHz.it has one pin called Reset. And it requires active high pulse. Please note that 8085 requires active low reset. After reset program counter becomes 0000 and program execution starts from 0000. It has one pin called PSEN. If external ROM is used then PSEN pin is connected to RD/ of

31

ROM. So we will leave them unconnected in our design. It has one more pin called EA and has to be connected to Vcc, so that 89C51 will start using internal ROM. It has four 8 bit ports port 0, port 1, port 2 and port 3. All the ports pin can be used as input or output with out predefining. Port1, port2 and port3 are internally pulled up through FET. But port0 requires external pull up resister. After reset all the port pins are high. Each port has a place in internal RAM and has a specific address. The address of the port0 is 80 hex, address of the port1 is 90 hex, address for port2 is A0 hex and address for port3is B0 hex. Anything that is written to port 0, reading location A0 hex is same as reading port 2. The port pins are also labeled in dot notation for convenience. Port 0 pins will labeled as port0.0, port0.1, port0.2 and so on. Similarly other port pins will be labeled.

BIT 90 H 91 H 92 H 93 H 94 H 95 H 96 H 97 H RESET 9 BOH B1H B2H B3H B5H B6 H B7 H

ADDRESS P1.0 P1.1 P1.2 P1.3 P1.4 P1.5 P1.6 P1.7 P3.0 P3.1 P3.2 P3.3 P3.4 P3.5 P3.6 P.37 XTL1 XTL2 GND 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 P 0 R (90n) T 1

BIT 40 P39 O 38 (80n) R 37 T 36 35 03 33 32 31 0 29 R 28 P 27 0 26 R 25 T 24 2 22 21

ADDRESS VCC P0.0 P0.1 P0.2 P0.3 P0.4 P0.5 P0.6 P0.7 EA/VP P 30 PSEN P2.7 P2.6 P2.3 P2.4 P2.3 P2.1 P2.0

80H 81H 82 H 83 H 84 H 85H 86H 87H VCC ALE RDOF ROY A7H A6H A5H A4H A3H A1H A0H

10 RXD 11 TXD 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 INTO INT1 TOT T1 WR RD

Table -1

32

All the port pins are said to be Bit addressable. The bit addressable RAM is a new concept. If the RAM location is bit addressable then its in individual bit has unique bit address. Refer to fig. 2 for pin configuration and bit addressable concepts. Bits in the bit addressable RAM can be addressed by their bit address or in the dot notation. The bit address for pin, port 0.0 is 80 hex, port 0.1 is 81 hex, port 0.2 is 82 hex and so on. The bit address for pin port1.0 is 90 hex, port 1.1 is 91hex,port 1.2 is 92hex and so on. Please note bit address and port address are different 80 hex bit address means port P0.0 and 80 hex internal RAM address means port 0 as a complete. There are separate instruction for addressing bit and byte it is the instruction which decides weather bit is addressed or byte is addressed 89C51 has instruction to clear the bit ,set the bit, compliment the bit OR the bit ,AND the bit and conditional jump instruction depending on , the bit is set or clear.

The pins of the port 3 have alternate use. 89C51 has built in serial interface two pins are used for this purpose. Serial data will be always received on port pin P3.0, so the port 3.0 is labeled as RXD and serial data will be transmitted on port pin P3.1,so the port 3.1 is labeled as TXD. External interrupt if used will be connected to port pin P3.2 and P3.3. So these pins are labeled as INT0 and INT1 89C51 has two timer/ counter module they can count pulses appearing a port pin P3.4 and P3.5 these pins are labeled T0 and T1 respectively If external ROM or RAM has to be interfaced then port 0 is used as 8 bit multiplexed AD bus. AD0 TO AD7. And port 2 is used as higher order Addressed Bus A8 to A15. the function of pin ALE is same as in 8085, to generate strobe for latching lower order address byte. Port pin P3.6 and P6.7 are connected to WR and RD/ for external RAM. From the practical point of view, we can say that 89C51 has 4K on chip Flash ROM and 256 byte of on chip RAM called internal RAM plus it has two timer/ counter module, serial interface, four 8-bit ports, interrupt handling logic as standard feature. It can also address 64K external RAM , and /or remaining 60K of external ROM. But as many as 80 pins are used to interfacing external memory. As so many 33

pin are lost in interfacing, design using these external memory are not preferred if one needs more RAM one can use serial EEROM , which are more economical, and used 3 lines for interfacing. 89C51 has wonderful features it has multiprocessing mode in this mode, there is one master 89C51 and nos of other slave 89C51 master can communicate with the slave 89C51,sharing the common serial bus, without disturbing other 89C51 even though they are connected to common serial bus. This feature is quite advanced. We just mention that chips in the MCS-51 have multiprocessing capability and is not advised to go into details of it unless person gathers basic skill in programming.

3.3 Interrupts:
We have seen earlier that many times, processor has to respond to event happening real time world. The event may take place at any time. Interrupts handling logic is incorporated inside the chip, for this purpose. In such a case, Processor will suspend current execution of the program, & branch to interrupt service routine. After finishing, it will resume the suspended work. The situation can be seen very frequently, in our every day life. Suppose a person is busy in doing some work, say writing a letter and all of a sudden telephone ring. Then the person will stop writing the book, ans. the telephone, & resume the writing the book. Some time there are 4,5 telephone lines are available. In that case he may have to decide about to priority, in answering the phone. Some times he himself is very busy in imp. meeting,& does not want to get disturbed by the phone calls. All this types of situations exist in microprocessor world also. Those of you who are familiar with 8085 will recall that 8085 can handle 5 different interrupts. 89C51 can also respond to 5 different interrupting lines, equivalent of having 5 telephone lines. Two are external interrupts they are called INT0, INT1 at port pin P3.2 & P3.3 respectively. If these interrupts are activated & enable in software the program will branch to location 0003 & 0013 hex of program memory (ROM). 89C51 have two timers/counter modules. These counters are UPCOUNTERS only. When counting starts, during the course of counting whenever they overflow 34

from FFFF to 0000, timer overflow flag, TF0, TF1 is set, & interrupts are generated. If the interrupts are enable in software then the will branch to location 0000bB hex. and 0001B hex respectively. 89C51 has built in serial interface. Bit RI is set and whenever data is fully shifted out Transmit Interrupt bit TI is set. The RI & TI together generate one interrupt, called serial interrupt. If this interrupt is enabled in software then the program will branch to location 0023 hex. In ROM memory. The interrupt handling logic of 89C51 can be explained with the help of following figure -

Figure 8 The external INT0 and INT1 can be defined as either negative edge triggered or level triggered this means if interrupt is defined as negative edge triggered interrupt will be generated whenever negative edge is detected on INT0 or INT1 line or if interrupt is defined as level triggered then interrupt is active as long as INT0 or INT1 is held low. The bits IT0 interrupt type zero and IT1 interrupt type one will decide whether the interrupt is defined as edge triggered or level triggered. If the byte 0 then corresponding interrupt is level triggered and if the bit is 1 then it is edge

35

triggered. These bits are found in TCON register in the SFR area of the internal RAM and its address is 88hex. EA ----ET2 ES Table -2 Interrupt Enable Register There is interrupt enable register IE. The bits in the register IE will decide which interrupts are active or in built. The MSB it of the IE register is the global enable bit labeled as EA. If this bit is 1 mean interrupt are enabled and if is 0 then all interrupts are disabled. Other bits in the IE register will enable if they are 1 or disable if they are 0, the individual interrupts. The interrupt enable register IE has a place in SFR area and its address is A8 hex. It is a bit addressable register. A leveltriggered interrupt is a class of interrupts where the presence of an unserviced interrupt is indicated by a high level (1), or low level (0), of the interrupt request line. A device wishing to signal an interrupt drives line to its active level, and then holds it at that level until serviced. It ceases asserting the line when the CPU commands it to or otherwise handles the condition that caused it to signal the interrupt. Typically, the processor samples the interrupt input at predefined times during each bus cycle such as state T2 for the Z80 microprocessor. If the interrupt isn't active when the processor samples it, the CPU doesn't see it. One possible use for this type of interrupt is to minimize spurious signals from a noisy interrupt line: a spurious pulse will often be so short that it is not noticed. Multiple devices may share a level-triggered interrupt line if they are designed to. The interrupt line must have a pull-down or pull-up resistor so that when not actively driven it settles to its inactive state. Devices actively assert the line to indicate an outstanding interrupt, but let the line float (do not actively drive it) when not signaling an interrupt. The line is then in its asserted state when any (one or more than one) of the sharing devices is signaling an outstanding interrupt. ET1 EX1 ET0 EX0

36

There is a provision to decide the priority of the interrupt either high or low. The priority can be defined in the register IP, interrupt priority register the address of the register is B8 hex in the SFR area. It is a bit addressable register if lower priority interrupt work is in progress and higher priority interrupt arrives. Then lower priority interrupt work will be suspended processor will branch to higher priority service routine after finishing higher priority work he will resume the execution lower priority interrupt. And after finishing execution of lower priority interrupt the procession will go back to start the execution of main program. If higher priority interrupt is in progress and lower priority interrupt arrive then lower priority interrupt will be Capt. pending till execution of higher priority interrupts ends. After finishing higher priority interrupt processor will start the execution of lower priority interrupt after finishing the same processor will go back to main program. ----PT2 PS PT1 Table -3 PX1 PT0 PX0

Interrupt Priority Register As was mentioned earlier INT0 or INT1 pins will activate the interrupt in two ways. Interrupt can be defined as edge triggered or level triggered. IE0 and IE1 or the two bits which actually cases the interrupts. If interrupts are defined as level triggered then bits IE0 and IE1 will remain set as long as pins INT0 or INT1 are low. If they are defined as level triggered and activated then program will branch the respective vector address in ROM and will start the execution of the service routine. It is then hardwires and /or programs responsibility to see that pin INT0or INT1 who has cased the interrupt goes high so that bit IE0 or IE1 will be cleared if INT0or INT1 is not cleared then program will again enter into the same service routine. Mostly this interrupt are defined as edge triggered mode only. If they are defined as edge triggered then the bit IE0 or IE1 will set whenever negative edge is detected and the bits will automatically get cleared when program branches to respective interrupt service vector. Timer over flow bit TF0 or TF1 will set, whenever counter over flow from FFFF hex to 0000. They will automatically get cleared when program branches to respective interrupt service vector. 37

The bits RI and TI in the serial interface logic will be ORed and will generate one common interrupt. If this interrupt are enabled then program will start execution at ROM address 0023 hex. These bits will not get cleared automatically. Program will find out who has cased the interrupt then will take the appropriate action and program will clear the bit the bits TI and RI are found in serial control resister SCON. The register SCON is found at address 98hex in the SFR area.

3.4 Timers And Counters

89C51 has 2 on chip, timer/counter modules. They are called TIMER0 AND TIMER1. They are UP counter only. Both the modules are identical in nature. Let us consider TIMER0 as shown in the following figure. This figure will illustrate the working of module clearly.

Figure -9

The two register TL0 &TH0 will form 16 bit counter.TL0 & TH0 are the registers & have place in the SFR area. Their location is 8A hex. & 8C hex. respectively. They are not bit addressable. The counters are used in UP counter mode only. While counting UP, whenever it will overflow from FFFF hex. to 0000, the bit 38

TF0 will set. The switch in the small box will pass the pulses to the counter. Pulses will be passed to counter if out of the AND gate is high. The AND gate has to input, one is bit TR0 & another is connected to the output of the OR gate. The OR gate has again 2 input. One is Inverted GATE0 bit &other is connected to PORT3 Pin P3.2, the INTO. The counter can count the pulses coming from internal oscillator after division by 12 pulses appearing at Port 3 Pin P3.4, the T0.The bit C/T0 will decide this. The bits GATE0, C/T0 of TIMER0 & corresponding bits of TIMER1 the GATE1 & C/T1 are found in register TMOD located at address 89 in the SFR area. This TMOD register is not bit addressable. The bits TR0, TF0 of TIMER0 & corresponding bit TR1 & TF1 of TIMER1 are found in the register TCON locate at address 88 hex. in SFR area. It is a bit addressable register .

GATE TF1

C/T TR1

M1 TF0

M0 TR0

GATE IE1

C/T IT1

M1 IE0

M0 IT0

89H 88H

Table -4 When the pulses will be passed to counter, will depending on the status of bit, GATE0. if the GATE0 bit is cleared i.e. zero then bit TR0 will purely control the counting. Counting will on as long bit TR0 is SET. So if GATE bit is zero, then counting will be purely controlled by software. If GATE bit SET, then counting will be on when Bit TR0 is SET plus port pin P3.2, the INT0 is high. Thus if GATE bit is zero then counting will be purely controlled by software &if GATE bit is one then counting will be controlled by software plus hardware. If we want the bit TF0 to set after counting 2000 pulses. As the counter is counting up only, we must set registers TH0, TL0, initially to a value equal to the hexadecimal F830 hex. Which is equivalent of decimal no. 65536 -2000? So that bit TF0 will set exactly after counting 2000 pluses. If we want the bit to set regularly after setting 2000 pluses, then we must reload the register TH0, TL0 to value equal to the hexadecimal equivalent of no. 65536-2000, WHENEVER THEY BECOME 0000. Usually this is the 1st job of the interrupt service routine to reload TH0, TL0. The above mode is called 16 bit counter mode. This mode is called MODE1.

39

There is one more mode called MODE2, the 8-Bit Auto Reload Mode, which is also used very commonly. In this mode counting is done in register TL0, so it is 8 bit counter mode. After overflow from FF hex. to 00, the TF0 bit is SET. At the same time data in the register TH1 will be automatically get copied or reloaded in to register TL0.The register TH0 set to holds the auto reload count. This will ensure that interrupt will arrive exactly after same time interval. All other logic will remain same.

Figure -10

The bits M0 & M1 in the TMOD register will set the mode. If both the bits are 0 then MODE0 is selected. If exactly same as MODE1, except counting is done 13 bit instead of 16 bit. If the bits are 0 1 then MODE 1, the 16 bit counter mode is selected. This mode we have seen above. If the bits are 1 0 then MODE2, the 8-Bit AUTORELOAD mode is selected. If this bits are 1 then MODE3, special mode is selected. In this mode TIMER1 is temporally halted. TL0 & TH0 are used as separate 8 bit counters. Counting logic for TL0 is same as in case of MODE2. But all control bits of TIMER1 are now diverted for counting of 8- Bit into TH0. This mode is not used in practice very much because of the involved complexity.

40

3.5 Circuit description

A microcontroller (sometimes abbreviated C, uC or MCU) is a small computer on a single integrated circuit containing a processor core, memory, and programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form of NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often included on chip, as well as a typically small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in contrast to the microprocessors used in personal computers or other general purpose applications. Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls, office machines, appliances, power tools, and toys. By reducing the size and cost compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output devices, microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even more devices and processes. Mixed signal microcontrollers are common, integrating analog components needed to control non-digital electronic systems. Some microcontrollers may use Four-bit words and operate at clock rate frequencies as low as 4 kHz, for low power consumption (milliwatts or microwatts). They will generally have the ability to retain functionality while waiting for an event such as a button press or other interrupt; power consumption while sleeping (CPU clock and most peripherals off) may be just nanowatts, making many of them well suited for long lasting battery applications. Other microcontrollers may serve performancecritical roles, where they may need to act more like a digital signal processor (DSP), with higher clock speeds and power consumption. In microcontroller used is 89C51 whose ports are configured as I/P and output ports. The pins of input and output ports and both indicator assemble. The ports P1 is configured as input port and P0 as output port. P1 is from pin 1 and pin8 of ICR. Pin 18 and 19 are connected to crystal pin 40 and pin 20 are connected +5V and ground respectively pin9 is connected to reset switch though R and C combination and +5V. Port P0 is having pin 39 to pin32 as P0.0 to P0.7 in sequence order.

41

The interface IC1 and IC3 are connected to ports P1 and P0 respectively. The I/P of IC1 i.e. pin 2 and pin 9 to which sensors can be connected. The pins of IC3 i.e. pin 18 to pin11 are output pins. The output from P0.1 is fed to relay driver which sends the command to delay the stored number to communication system. The output from P0.2 is fed to relay which remove the connection from cradle. The command is also fed to the circuit which starts the play of recorded message. Microcontroller programs must

Figure 11 fit in the available on-chip program memory, since it would be costly to provide a system with external, expandable, memory. Compilers and assemblers are used to convert high-level language and assembler language codes into a compact machine code for storage in the microcontroller's memory. Depending on the device, the program memory may be permanent, read-only memory that can only be programmed at the factory, or program memory may be field-alterable flash or erasable read-only memory.

42

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF 89C51S

Figure -12

43

CHAPTER IV

44

4.1 Pcb layout

Front side

Figure 13

45

REAR SIDE

Figure 14

46

4.2 Preparation Of The PCB 4.2.1 Schematic Preparation

Schematic is a circuit that is drawn either with the help of software or by

manually on paper with standard symbols. If the circuit is big and complicated then multi layer schematic is made otherwise single layer schematic is made . The schematic is drawn with colored pen to indicate the different layers , power lines , signal lines and ground lines.

4.2.2 Artwork Preparation

After making the schematic on a paper, same is duplicated on transparent acrylic plastic sheet . This circuit is called artwork . The artwork is made either bigger or smaller or same size of the desired PCB .The artwork is drawn with different color tapes to identify the signal lines, power lines and ground lines . The artwork should be proper without leaving any connection or making any excess connection or shorts .

4.2.3 Film Making

The artwork is reduced or enlarged or made of same size of the PCB on the film through the camera . The camera produces both the positive and negative films . These films are used to made PCB .

4.2.4 Etching of copper cladded board

The films are put on copper cladded board and the board is exposed to light. The time of exposure depends on many factors. After the exposure of the board it is rinsed in the etching solution. During this etching operation the exposed copper gets dissolved in the solution whereas unexposed copper remains intact with the

47

board .This unexposed copper in turn makes the pattern what we see on PCB. The board is then washed in water with gentle brush .

4.2.5 Drilling of holes

The PCB is now ready for drilling operation .The holes are now drilled at all places wherever the components are to be put .The size of the drills should not be either more then the required or less then the required . If the hole is large the it will be difficult to solder and lot of lead will be consumed. If the hole is small then component will not be inserted easily.

4.2.6 Tinning of pcb

The PCB is tinned after putting the mask on PCB .This is done to insulate the patterns and avoid any short. The mask covers the areas where the soldering is to be done.

4.3 PCB Testing

With a PCB and antenna in each stand, testing was done to show that the phones were able to be turned on by power provided by the energy harvesting circuit. The two phones placed in their stands for testing are shown in Figure 7.5. Tests were also performed to get the unconnected voltage reading. The previous board, using the quarter-wave whip, was able to produce ~90V DC unloaded, but this board with the monopole antenna can only produce about ~45V DC. This confirms the point brought up in the previous sections about the antenna not being able to perform as well as the off-the-shelf counterpart. However, considering this voltage is about half of the original voltage, the phone is still able to turn itself on to show that the power is being supplied. And in tests that were performed with direct connections to the battery terminals, this board and antenna combo performed almost as well as with the quarterwave whip antenna. Previously, the board was able to charge at about 5-6 mV per second, resulting in about 2 hour charging time from 3.2 V to 3.9 V. Here it was about 4 mV per second, resulting in about 3 hour charging time. In previous research, the battery charged at about 2 mV per second. That is almost 6 hours charging time, so we have almost cut the charging time in half

48

PCB is checked for all interconnections through multimeter , whether the tracks are broken or short at any place , thereby correction is done through soldering. With a PCB and antenna in each stand, testing was done to show that the phones were able to be turned on by power provided by the energy harvesting circuit. The two phones placed in their stands for testing are shown in Figure 7.5. Tests were also performed to get the unconnectedvoltage reading. The previous board, using the quarter-wave whip, was able to produce ~90V DC unloaded, but this board with the monopole antenna can only produce about ~45V DC. This confirms the point brought up in the previous sections about the antenna not being able to perform as well as the off-the-shelf counterpart. However, considering this voltage is about half of the original voltage, the phone is still able to turn itself on to show that the power is being supplied. And in tests that were performed with direct connections to the battery terminals, this board and antenna combo performed almost as well as with the quarter-wave whip antenna. Previously, the board was able to charge at about 5-6 mV per second, resulting in about 2 hour charging time from 3.2 V to 3.9 V. Here it was about 4 mV per second, resulting in about 3 hour charging time. In previous research, the battery charged at about 2 mV per second. That is almost 6 hours charging time, so we have almost cut the charging time in half

4.3.1 Assembling Of The Unit

Components are assembled in proper direction and avoid the touching of the components to one another. Heat sink is to be put wherever required with CTC liquid. with a heat sink compound After assembling the components , they are soldered and thereafter cleaned

49

Seperator.

7805

+5

47ohm
1N 4148
L A S E R

7905

I /P

+5
10K

100K 1 0 4
10K 10K
_ +

47pF

8 2 0 K

8 2 0 K

47pF

+ _

+ _

-5
39K
47K

22K
102
47K

102

1 0 4
10K

+
1 3 2
+ _

8 5

22K
L M 386

39K

+
473
1 0 o h m

spk

6= +5V
4=

Figure 15

50

Mixer
+5V

1uf

16 2 1 3 1uf 4 5 7 13

6 15

1uf
+5V 10K

20

P 1 .0 P 1 .1 R e la y s

1uf

10K

12 10 33pf 12M H Z 33pf

1 0 P 3 .0 1 1 P 3 .1 18 19 40 31 10uf

26

21
9

P IN 2 P IN 3

10K

m o b ile fro n t v ie w

U
1uf

+5V

16 2 1 3 1uf 4 5 7 13

6 15 12 10

1uf
+5V

1k

1uf

548

548

P IN 2 P IN 3

Figure -16

51

CHAPTER V

52

5.1 Functional Components COMPONENT LIST

SN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 COMPONENT IC Base IC Base IC1 IC2 & IC3 Crystal Relay Regulator IC Regulator IC Transistor Resistor Capacitor TYPE 40 PIN 20 PIN 89C51 74245 11.0592 MHz 12v D.C. 7805 7812 BC547 10k,1/4W 4.7k,1/4W 1k,1/4W 33pf 7000 microF/25v 47 microF/50v 100 microF/25v Red Micro 1N4007 QUANTITY 1 2 1 2 1 5 1 1 5 20 5 1 2 1 1 1 10 5 1 15

12 13 14

LED Switch Diode

18 19

Transformer Lead Wire

6-0-6/750mA 6-0-6/250mA Table - 5

1 1 1

The approximate costing in the purchasing of all the related ICs and related circuitry equipment which is used in the total project is about the Rs 6000 in our cost because there are we need to purchase each and every thing and also the related programming cost .

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CHAPTER VI

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6.1 Implementation Future Enhancement:

The Wireless Transmission of Electrical Energy Using Schumann ResonanceIt has been proven that electrical energy can be propagated around the world between the surface of the Earth and the ionosphere at extreme low frequencies in what is known as the Schumann Cavity. The Schumann cavity surrounds the Earth between ground level and extends upward to a maximum 80 kilometers. Experiments to date have shown that electromagnetic waves of extreme low frequencies in the range of 8 Hz, the fundamental Schumann Resonance frequency, propagate with little attenuation around the planet within the Schumann Cavity.

6.1.1 Background
Although it was not until 1954-1959 when experimental measurements were made of the frequency that is propagated in the resonant cavity surrounding the Earth, recent analysis shows that it was Nikola Tesla who, in 1899, first noticed the existence of stationary waves in the Schumann cavity. Tesla's experimental measurements of the wave length and frequency involved closely match Schumann's theoretical calculations. Some of these observations were made in 1899 while Tesla was monitoring the electromagnetic radiations due to lightning discharges in a thunderstorm which passed over his Colorado Springs laboratory and then moved more than 200 miles eastward across the plains. In his Colorado Springs Notes, Tesla noted that these stationary waves "... can be produced with an oscillator," and added in parenthesis, "This is of immense importance." 6 The importance of his observations is due to the support they lend to the prime objective of the Colorado Springs laboratory. The intent of the experiments and the laboratory Tesla had constructed was to prove that wireless transmission of electrical power was possible.

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6.2 Advantages: Inductive charging carries a far lower risk of electrical shock, when compared with conductive charging, because there are no exposed conductors. The ability to fully enclose the charging connection also makes the approach attractive where water impermeability is required; for instance, inductive charging is used for implanted medical devices that require periodic or even constant external power, and for electric hygiene devices, such as toothbrushes and shavers, that are frequently used near or even in water. Inductive charging makes charging mobile devices more convenient; rather than having to connect a power cable, the device can be placed on a charge Its provide more battery backup Power theft protection. It provide emergency power Less infrastructure cost

6.3 Disadvantage:
One disadvantage of inductive charging is its lower efficiency and increased ohmic (resistive) heating in comparison to direct contact. Implementations using lower frequencies or older drive technologies charge more slowly and generate heat for most portable electronics the technology is nonetheless commonly used in some electric toothbrushes and wet/dry electric shavers, partly for the advantage that the battery contacts can be completely sealed to prevent exposure to water. Inductive charging also requires drive electronics and coils that increase manufacturing complexity and cost The goal of this thesis is to determine if is possible to capture enough power in a cellular phone in order to charge the battery. The requirements for the system to be presented are that it be incorporated into a base station and the operating frequency is set. The design of the board and choice of antenna for the stand are the focal point of the experiments that are to be performed. In order to prove the concept, power needs to be supplied to the energy harvesting circuit by an external transmitter. This 57

transmitter will send a signal at the set frequency. Our test system will then receive this signal through the energy harvesting circuit. This circuit is the fundamental design problem of this thesis. This circuit will convert the received signal into DC voltage to charge the battery. The RF transmitter, the analysis of the cellular phones to be used, and the modification of cellular phone stands to accommodate the circuitry to be designed are elements of the research covered in this section. A set of experiments will be conducted to demonstrate the feasibility of wirelessly charging a cellular phone battery.

6.4 Application:
This research project is primarily empirical. There are many variables in the system that can change the voltage that is developed. The stage capacitors need to be optimized. The number of stages needs to be determined that, combined with the capacitor values for each stage, will result in a sufficiently high voltage level to turn on the phone and charge the phones battery. Also, a capacitor can be used across the output as a filter to provide a flat DC signal and store charge. The value of that capacitance also needs to be determined. There really are no fixed parameters for any of these values. The only specified value for any element in this research is the frequency that is being transmitted to the station. This frequency is to be 915MHz. As discussed in the previous chapter, there have been projects completed to lay the foundation for this research. One of these projects involved the charging of a cellular phone battery directly from a charge pump. The results of this experiment were sufficient to provide a starting point. The previous project used the same charge pump we have chosen, i.e., stages of voltage doublers. Wireless mobile charging Electrical and Electronic device can charge wireless We can use in ruler area

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Conclusions:
An fully integrated inductive charging system was presented in this paper. There are no external components required except the antenna for charging. The charge current for the battery was 4 mA. For the reader and the antenna standard components has been used Implementing this charging system in smart-cards high performance devices with various applications become possible. By the use of rechargeable accumulators, the lifetime of the card is not limited to the capacity of the battery as it was with active cards and primary batteries. The most important result is that I successfully proved that the concept of charging a cellular phone battery while in a phone using wireless RF energy harvesting is feasible. We were able to get enough power to turn the phone on. This is an important result because it shows that the circuit that was designed, simulated, and tested throughout this research can be used to accomplish our ultimate goal. Because of this result, future work in this area can be expected. It is probable that with more focus placed on the antenna, and, as energy harvesting technology becomes more advanced, this work will be successful at achieving a commercial product. The ultimate goal, of course, is to get everything in the phone and use ambient RF energy to charge the battery. In this thesis, we have laid the foundation for this work to continue by accomplishing the following goals: We were able to charge the battery directly faster than had been done previously; we were able to power the phone using an RF signal transmitted to the phone and stand; we provided simulated and empirical data that can be used as a reference for future work in the area; and we were able to condense the circuitry down to a sufficiently small size to conceal the charging circuitry and antenna within a commercially available stand. Involved in achieving these goals were the modeling of the circuit in a program suitable for simulating high frequency circuits, the design of a testing board and procedure for verifying the simulation results, and finally creation of a board and antenna combination that would be small enough to be contained within a 59

commercially available stand, yet be able to show that indeed we are able to power the phone.

Reference:
Sabate, J. A., Kustera, D. and Sridhar, S., Cell-Phone Battery Charger Miniaturization. IEEE Journal 2000. Mi, Minhong, Personal Interview. 2003 http://www.seas.upenn.edu/~jan/spice/spi...rview.html http://we.home.agilent.com/cgibin/bvpub/agilent/Product/cp_ProductCompariso http://www.seas.upenn.edu/~jan/spice/spic e.overview.html Wireless battery charging system using radio frequency energy harvesting by Daniel W. Harrist, BS, University of Pittsburgh www.electronicstoday.com www.ecoupled.com www.fultoninnovation.com Ftom wikipidea Different site www.pcb.desinging.in/ www.refrence.wirelessbaterry.in Through wireless communication book transmitter and receiver block study from different ref book Data sheet related to 89C51 through site on google search From the book of Millman halkias Dr.Simon haykin Shedra and smith Boylestad

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