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Axvii. M.cioszvx
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The first archeological findings of Chinese ware in Samarra, Iraq, took place in
19111913 and were quite a sensation. Samarra was the capital of the Abbasid Ca-
liphate and flourished between 834 and 883, which is the late Tang period. Howev-
er, in Fustat, Egypt, in the 1930s many fragments of Chinese porcelain ware were
found, which back then could not be properly qualified in chronological order.
Only comparison to the properly dated findings from the Chinese tombs allowed
proving, that the pieces from Fustat and Samarra actually came from Tang manu-
factures producing yue type of porcelain. The next excavation teams that worked
in Fustat (Fustat-C site) in 196972 made a discovery of a new type of porcelain
that was similar to the ones from Samarra. Except for yue celadons, there were also
shards/whole wares of the following types: qingbai, ding, sancai, Cizhou porcelain,
and blue-white from Yuan and Ming times. Gyllensvrd
1
stated that in general, one
may say, the Chinese ceramics identified among all of these pieces (in Fustat), had
some characteristic designs and shapes. The fact that they were not popular among
the ones used in China as well as among the export wares made for the customers
in other parts of the world, indicates that they were made in China especially for
the Fustat customers.
Gyllensvrd
2
in his first part of the report from Fustat describes the following
ware, dividing them into two groups:
1. Those that arrived in Fustat between late 9
th
to 1169 being the year of burns
and ruin for the city. The wares include: yue, porcelain from Tang and Five
Dynasties, ying qing (qing bai), ding;
1
Gyllensvrd (1973: 92).
2
Gyllensvrd (1973: 9293).
32 Axvii. M.cioszvx
2. Northern celadon, longquan, cizhou, and porcelain from Yuan and Ming Dy-
nasties.
Before we learn more about the Fustat finds and their characteristics, we should
know what their short story was in the country of their origin.
During the Tang Dynasty period celadons prospered and began to be produced
in a greater number, hence some people wrongly associate this time period as the
beginning of celadons and porcelain in general. The authors of the Illustrated
Dictionary of Old Ceramics
3
state that during Sui and Tang times local manufac-
tures prospered better and the technology was relatively well developed. Among
the famous places where the celadon porcelain was produced were: Yueyao (),
Wuzhouyao (), Ouyao (), Yuezhouyao (), Hongzhouyao (
), Shouzhouyao (), Changshayao (), and other. The celadon
wares of the yueyao type were compared by the poets to the thousand peaks (that)
have been despoiled of their bright color
4
, tender lotus leaves full of dewdrops,
and even to ancient moss-eaten bronze mirrors.
5
The praised by poets yue celadons were made in Zhejiang. Pei Guanhui
6
be-
lieves that the beginnings of yue celadons reach to the Eastern Han Dynasty, Six
Dynasties is their evolution, and the time between Tang and beginnings of Song is
the peak of their development, however, in the late Northern Song Dynasty aslow
process of fading away occurred. The other names given to yue by some authorities
with whom Gompertz
7
and the author of this article do not agree with are: proto
yue and green ceramics (to describe celadons from the times before Tang Dynas-
ty). It has to be clarified that there is a difference between Han low temperature
lead glaze ware and yue that is fired in high temperature and has aceladon glaze.
Pei Guanghui
8
characterizes shapes, colors of the glazes, and bodies of the yue
celadons from the Eastern Han Dynasty in the following words: During the East-
ern Han Dynasty the following shapes were introduced: bowls, small tea cups, pans,
guan type of jars, cups with ears, hu type of jars with flared mouths, bells, vessels for
brush washing, vessels in the shapes of tigers, water containers of yu type, incense
burners, and other. The decorations were: relief lines, waves, knockers, heads and
3
Feng (2002: 52).
4
It is afragment of the poem by Lu Guimeng () titled: (Mise Yue Qi); Mise
(type) of Yue Vessels. Translated by Bushell, quoted in Gompertz (1980: 35).
5
Both fragments are quotations from the poem by Xu Yin () titled: (Gong
Yu Mise Cha Zhan); More (Than) aTribute of aSmall Mise Tea Cup. Translated by Bushell, quoted
in Gompertz (1980: 35).
6
Pei (2002: 14).
7
Gompertz (1980: 35 [footnote]). To my mind as well this kind of distinction seems absolutely
redundant, since the yue celadons present asmooth development process from the beginning of their
existence to the peak of their production.
8
Pei (2002: 14).
33 Cvi.uows iw Cuiw., Tuviv FUs:.: Fiwus, .wu Ixi:.:iows iw :uv Isi.xic Woviu
legs of beasts, and so on. The bodies were solid and elegant in white-gray color.
The even color of the glaze was light green and while touching was like a glass
substance. Bodies were integrated with glazes and the fall off was very rare. As
to the glaze application, it was, except for rare cases of huge vessels, done by the
immersion in glaze, which caused that it did not reach the bottom of the exterior
parts of the body.
The famous yue celadons from Tang times come from Shanglin Hu ().
Materials which were used for making them as well as the glaze were the same as
described above. However differences can be seen in shapes and designs. Long,
stretched bottoms, decoration made with amold or incised, and alarge variety of
decoration motives are characteristic features. The most popular design was lotus
flower, usually cut or formed in relief petals along the exterior sides of vessels. Other
decorations include: dragons with clouds and waves (carved or formed in relief ),
butterflies, phoenixes, parrots, birds, fish, or begonias. There are some plain vessels,
for which the only decoration are loop handles, flaring mouth in vases, or achick-
en-head sprout in the early ware from Six Dynasties times. As Gompertz
9
states,
large numbers of Shanglin Hu wares were exported to Persia and Egypt, where
shards and even complete vessels were excavated. During the times of Tang and Five
Dynasties there were so-called miseci (; secret color porcelain) produced.
Shang Xiangtao
10
explains the term miseci in the following words: During the
Tang and Five Dynasties times, among the yueyao celadons the most appreciated
by people are miseci. Why miseci? The traditional historical sources from Tang,
Five Dynasties, and Song include many records. There is one version previously
quite popular: During the Five Dynasties times the ruler of Wuyue Qian Miao,
ordered firing of porcelain for the special use of kings lineage named Qian, which
was supposed to serve as a tribute from the central plains to the court. Ordinary
people could not use it, therefore this kind of yueyao porcelain was named miseci
(secret color porcelain). However, many academic circles and specialists in their
scientific works object: mise existed already during Tang times and were not formed
in Wuyue from Qian linage initiative! So, actually confused people debate over the
question why mise is acolor for nearly 1100 years and each of them defends his/
her own views. In April 1987 in Shanxi province an archeologist found 16 pieces of
yueyao celadons at one of the Fufeng prefectures temple. At the same time, in the
records of consecrated utensils at the temple it was clearly stated, that this group of
porcelain vessels were miseci. Two pieces from this miseci group were yellow-green
and the other greenish translucent and shining glaze. The found miseci were the
9
Gompertz (1980: 50).
10
Shang (2003: 123).
34 Axvii. M.cioszvx
cast iron evidence that explained the endless disputes in the field of ceramics, at the
same time explaining that during the Tang times there were miseci manufactures,
which reached the peak of production in Five Dynasties times. Therefore, it can
be seen that within a very long time people knew little about their true colors
partially because of the mi word, meaning secret. In reality mise indicate
rare yueyao celadons of delicate and charming greenish-blue glaze. Miseci originally
indicated yueyao celadons of the highest quality from the Tang Dynasty times.
The finest Shanglin Hu wares were made from the Five Dynasties to early Song
times and the tribute in in form of Wuyue porcelain lasted till at least 1068.
11

When Wuyue center was falling slowly into decline, a simultaneous process of
transferring manufactures to Kaifeng vicinity and Lonquan occurred. After that
Wuyue kilns were degraded to small, regional factories. According to Gompertz
12
,
there is a group of yue ware being a transitional form between Tang/Song which
cannot be classified as Shanglin Hu or other ware. In the Western countries and
Japan they are usually assigned to the yue ware from Zhejiang province, possibly
early longquan ware made in early Song times. The characteristic features of these
wares include light grey body (lighter than Shanglin Hu wares) and firing, as in
case of typical yue ware on three small lumps or acircular ring. Gompertz
13
adds,
giving adetailed description of this interesting kind of wares: The form and dec-
oration show Tang derivation, being split up and divided horizontally except on
some specimens which seem to be of later date. The vases nearly always have two
small loops on the shoulder beside the neck; their bodies are often divided into
panels, usually five in number as in Tang wares. () the grey ware is among the
most graceful of early Chinese porcelains; its elegance of form is complemented
by a pale bluish or greyish-green glaze, so that some pieces have an almost white
appearance. There is one more kind of ware similar to Shanglin Hu. It was made in
Huangyan and is one of the finest among yue ware. Their thin porcellanous bodies
are very hard and covered with moss-green glaze. The typical forms are covered
boxes, bowls, dishes, urns, and cups decorated exquisitely by incision with the floral
or animal motives of peonies, chrysanthemums, lilies, lotuses, parrots, Mandarin
ducks, and phoenixes.
14
Yue celadons production faded away during the Northern Song Dynasty times.
According to Pei Guanghui
15
the most important reason for it was competition
form the new centers such as Ruyao (), Guanyao () in Bianjing (),
11
Gompertz (1980: 62).
12
Gompertz (1980: 62).
13
Gompertz (1980: 66).
14
Gompertz (1980: 68).
15
Pei (2002: 32).
35 Cvi.uows iw Cuiw., Tuviv FUs:.: Fiwus, .wu Ixi:.:iows iw :uv Isi.xic Woviu
Diaoyao (), or Dingyao (). Yue celadons did not present the same splen-
dor as before. They became unified, the bodies were uncompleted with many im-
purities and air bubbles, the well-known and characteristic shades of green and
blue colors of the glaze were not found any more. Potters did not improve their
skills anymore and that lead to abandonment of production of these once famous
celadons.
The authors
16
of the Illustrated Dictionary of Old Ceramics describe fate of
the Sui, Tang, and Five Dynasties celadons in the following way:
The connection between celadons from Sui, Tang, and Five Dynasties and social
life tightened. Especially vessels of practical use such as: bowls, plates, hu jars, guan
jars, vases, small cups, small cups with ahandle, ink containers, headrests, or other
everyday use utensils became the main stream of production. Among the methods
of decorative motives application there were: traditional cuts, carves, applications,
stamping, and other techniques emphasizing flowers, meandering climbing plants
stems, lotus petals, animals, plants, and everyday scenes with people. Additionally
the high temperature products were decorated on and under glaze, which started
a new way in porcelain decoration. Because of the fact that during Sui, Tang, and
Five Dynasties times porcelain was produced in afull scale, agreat change occurred
in porcelain manufacture distribution. The situation of new rival in the form of
white porcelain form Xinyao (in Hebei Province) toward Yueyao traditional ce-
ladons center fighting for the position of an equal opponent, formed into: in the
south celadons, in the north white porcelain. However, the celadons still had
the leading position in the production of porcelain during that time.
Among yue ware that reached Fustat there are four types of which the most
common are bowls and dishes (in different shapes), cups and stem cups. Jars and
ewers were not that common
17
:
1. Plain glazed,
2. With incised/engraved decoration,
3. With cut and molded decoration along with incised details,
4. With pierced decoration along with incised details.
As to the plain glazed ware, they are characterized in the following manner:
The sherds of vessels without any decoration are not the most frequent among
Yeh yao, but in this group the shapes are more varied. Bowls, dishes, cups, stem-
cups, vases, jars and ewers can be identified, and the difference in technical quality
is considerable. Thus the ware, potting and glaze are all different. The body can be
brownish-grey, more buff-coloured, dark or light grey depending on clay and firing.
The olive-coloured glaze also varies in shades of yellow, brown, green or blue. In
16
Feng (2002: 52).
17
Gyllensvrd (1973: 92).
36 Axvii. M.cioszvx
some cases the glaze is even and smooth without crackling, more often glassy and
minutely crackled, sometimes somewhat uneven.
18

To the yue ware with incised decoration group belong bowls and dishes in dif-
ferent sizes. The interesting fact is that there was only one shard from a jar/ewer
and one from afigurine of aseated lion. The usual colors of the bodies are gray and
pale yellowish brown. The glaze differs in shades from bluish to yellow olive color
and is either smooth without crackling or minutely crackled. In general one may
say that the yue ware with incised decoration found in Fustat present high artistic
and technical quality.
19
Yue with carved and incised design is described by Gyllensvrd
20
as follows:
This group is characterized by adecoration with carved outlines and incised details,
which makes the design appear realistic and three-dimensional. The most common
vessels in the category are again bowls and dishes on spreading foot-rims or on
sunken bases. () The whole interior of the bowls or dishes is covered with one
motif aflower rosette which most probably is aconventionalized peony.
As to yue ware with pierced and incised decoration, Gyllensvrd
21
describes
a representative being a shallow bowl with concave base, spreading foot-rim and
rounded sides. The interior of the object is decorated with incised peony scroll, two
flowers, and feathery leaves, all curved in S-shape. The sides were decorated with
aconventional deeply carved scroll of leaves.
As to the porcelain from Tang and 10
th
century that reached Egypt, Gyllens-
vrd
22
states: The latest excavations at Fostat have brought to light many sherds
of porcelain which undoubtedly should be dated to Tang and the Five Dynasties.
The first find to create asensation was abottle-shaped vase or flask. The fragments
were put together into an almost complete vessel which showed great similarities
with Liao porcelain and which had to be dated to the 10
th
century. In the section
of the excavation area where finds of early Islamic art were made, Chinese porce-
lain was also met with in the same layers. Many sherds, together with glass and
Near Eastern ceramics, wood, bone and even coins which were datable to the 8
th

18
Gyllensvrd (1973: 93). The unevenness of glaze on yue type of porcelain described by
Gyllensvrd is also typical for the earlier celadons (Han-Jin Dynasties). However it is also visible
among the Tang or later ware. Gyllensvrd dates some of the shards as Tang or 10
th
century. Tang
potters mastered gradually the application of glaze. To my mind it is also possible, that the ware made
for the Fustat customers could have been made in acareless manner on purpose. The other possibility
is that some kind of selection process took place (at least at the beginning) and the inferior quality
vessels were sent to Fustat, opposed to the high quality ones for the home market.
19
Gyllensvrd (1973: 96).
20
Gyllensvrd (1973: 99100).
21
Gyllensvrd (1973: 103, compare with plate 11).
22
Gyllensvrd (1973: 104105).
37 Cvi.uows iw Cuiw., Tuviv FUs:.: Fiwus, .wu Ixi:.:iows iw :uv Isi.xic Woviu
and 9
th
centuries came from the sanitarian pits. () with regard to the porcelain
from Tang and the 10
th
century, it is obvious that the shapes and decorations are
of aspecific type, which was not common among that made for the home market.
Again, the customer must have preferred these types.
When one looks at shards that are not typical for the local ceramic centers, some
obvious questions arise. One becomes to wonder where the pieces come from, or/
and where they were manufactured. Gyllensvrd
23
tries to answer to these questions
by stating:
All the Yeh ware was undoubtedly produced in Chekiang, and some could have
been made in Ching-t Chen in Kiangsi where this ware has been found. Southern
China was the logical source for the ceramics exported to the Near East in the 9
th

century from ports like Canton, Lung-pien near Hanoi, Chuan-chou and Yeng-
chou. This could also be expected in the case of the porcelain. From recent exca-
vations and investigations of kiln sites in South China, it has been confirmed that
porcelain was made in this part of the country from Tang onwards. In 1966 the
author had the opportunity of visiting several ancient kilns near Ching-t Chen,
including one from Tang. The wasters of two lobed bowls which had become
fused together in the firing, comes from this kiln, and this type of vessel in sugary
ware with bluish tinted glaze, which comes very close those described from Fostat.
All kinds of so-called ying ching or ching pai ware can be picked up at many kilns
in the same area, and obviously most of the early porcelain made for export comes
from Kiangsi. There is every reason to believe that even the porcelain from Tang
and the Five Dynasties made for export, emanated from Southern China.
The ying qing or qingbai (light blue/green or bluish/greenish white) porce-
lains characteristic feature is clear glaze which has light bluish tone that becomes
darker when it is accumulated in intaglio designs. Valenstein
24
notices that they
began to be produced by the 11
th
century and lasted at least till the middle of the
14
th
century. Their bodies are usually translucent, white colored and fine grained.
The designs, showing an interesting relationship to the ding ware and Northern
celadons, were made by incision, combing, carving and (at the end of the Southern
Song Dynasty times) impressed in molds.
25
As to the vicinity of their manufactures
Valenstein
26
writes:
Although they are reported to have been found at kilns as far north as Henan Prov-
ince, qingbai porcelains are basically indigenous to southern China. They have been
found, frequently along with celadons, white-, and/or black-glazed wares, at kiln
sites in almost every province south of the Yangtze River. Jiangxi Province was the
23
Gyllensvrd (1973: 110).
24
Valenstein (1989: 110).
25
Valenstein (1989: 109).
26
Valenstein (1989: 109110).
38 Axvii. M.cioszvx
major source, and it is probable that kilns in the vicinity of Jingdezhen were respon-
sible for the greatest volume and best quality.
Qingbai wares from Song and Yuan Dynasties times were important finds at
Fustat. Gyllensvrd
27
wrote: A vast material was also collected during the latest
excavations (). The most frequent type of vessel identified among the ying ching
sherds is again a variety of bowls, dishes and cups. Only a few sherds can belong
to jars, a box and some kind of a figure, which confirms the impression that the
ceramics imported from China were really used in Egypt. Among the ying ching
sherds are some that have been mended and used again, proving that nothing was
thrown away before it was really necessary. Mending the damaged pieces proves
that the Egyptians greatly admired and valued Chinese porcelain.
Gyllensvrd
28
divides the ying qing ware from Fustat finds into three groups:
1. Plain glazed ware,
2. Ware with incised decoration, sometimes combined with carving,
3. Ware with molded decoration.
All of them are of high quality, both technical and artistic. Characteristic fea-
tures are sugary and thin translucent glaze minutely crackled or without crackling,
in the color of light blue or green.
29
The plain glazed ware shards are not numerous. Gyllensvrd
30
suggests that the
customers in Egypt must have preferred ceramics with some decoration on it. As
to the second group, ying qing with carved and incised decoration, most of them
are decorated with floral designs. Yue wares come with relief decoration made by
carving and incising. All shards are fragments of bowls with rounded sides and
flat bases, typical for this kind of ware. Ying qing with molded decoration are rare
among the Fustat finds.
The other kind of ware that reached Fustat was ding (). The characteristic
features of this type of porcelain are the color from ivory white to other shades of
white (sometimes also other colors
31
) and high quality. The usual decoration mo-
tives are flower scrolls made either by incision/molding or by underglaze painting
with iron compounds that formed one color design and contrasted with the white
background. High quality along the fact that this ware was produced south-west
from Beijing were probably the reasons for which ding ware was the first one that
was in the official imperial use. Ding porcelain influenced other kinds of ware and
were copied by many manufactures.
27
Gyllensvrd (1973: 111).
28
Gyllensvrd (1973: 111).
29
Gyllensvrd (1973: 111).
30
Gyllensvrd (1973: 111).
31
Valenstein (1989: 9899).
39 Cvi.uows iw Cuiw., Tuviv FUs:.: Fiwus, .wu Ixi:.:iows iw :uv Isi.xic Woviu
Gyllensvrd
32
notices that:
Since the Sung period Ting yao has been considered the most sophisticated of all
Sung porcelains, and is the most admired by the Chinese. The finest specimens of
this refined ware were inherited in families, and did not leave China until the pres-
ent century. It is, therefore, understandable that very few Ting vessels of good qual-
ity are to be found among export wares in the Near East or anywhere else. Among
all the thousands of sherds from Fostat, it has been difficult to pick out any real
Ting yao. There are less than ten pieces, and they can be described rather shortly.
During Song Dynasty in comparison with the Tang times China became more
closed and reluctant to accept influence from outside. In such an introvert country
the manufacturers found inspiration in nature, influence of which can be found in
many aspects of the artistic activity.
The celadons created in the times of Song Dynasty are divided into North-
ern and Southern. The most important centers of production in the north were
Yaozhou (), Baofeng (), and Linru (), and in the south Longquan
(). The Northern China willingly copied achievements of the Zhejiang and
neighboring provinces potters.
The Northern celadons were similar in simplicity and archaic shapes to the Han
and yue ware from the Six Dynasties times. Their quality was lower than yue and
the other characteristic features were loop handles and decorative motives of lotus
petals directed downwards. Northern celadons at the beginning of their existence
were created under abig influence of yue ware, their shapes are analogical, and the
cut designs very similar. The main differences are in glaze colors dark olive for
the Northern ware and pale green or/and young leaves greens for yue ware. Addi-
tionally, Northern celadons were decorated by cuts, not like yue by molding. Yue
foot-rims were more solid and baked in brown color. Concluding from the above
comparison, it is easy to agree with Gompertz
33
, that the Northern celadons are
direct inheritors of yue ware.
The other characteristic features of the Northern celadons were elegant forms,
lines of which were changing from convexity to concavity. Bowls had typical shapes,
often conoidal, were placed on low foots, rarely had rims. Among the other shapes
of vessels there are: small plates, tea cups on stems, lid boxes, cylindrical or pear
shaped slim vases, ovoid, globular vases and jars, incense burners with three or more
feet, lamps, headrests, and sometimes people and animal figurines. The translucent
olive green glaze of the Northern celadons was put sparingly. At the beginning the
Northern wares were not decorated or it was done fragmentarily. However the
32
Gyllensvrd (1973: 117).
33
Gompertz (1980: 108).
40 Axvii. M.cioszvx
typical Northern celadons have relatively dense carved decoration, which lines were
deeper, so that they could present the quasi relief effect and the whole composition
had a more three-dimensional view. Details on the petals or leaves were added
by combing. Molded decorations were introduced later and were mainly used on
bowls, plates, and boxes, but not on the perpendicular surfaces. Designs made in
this way were more complex in comparison with the carved ones, usually presented
dense floral motives and waves, often with conventionalized flowers. Images of
boys, animals or birds, fish or shells were many times put along the decorations,
which were sometimes divided into composition parts. In case of bowls, the outside
parts and the rim were left blank.
The most important representatives of the Northern celadons are the Yaozhou
() wares from agroup of kilns located near Tongchuan () in Shanxi Prov-
ince. This center was built in Tang times and was active during Song Dynasty,
when the big scale production was characterized by a great variety of shapes and
techniques. Yaozhou wares were fired in coal kilns and their bodies were made of
grey clay, which after firing changed colors into the shades of yellowish to olive
brown. During the Jin Dynasty times Yaozhou manufactures also produced beau-
tiful celadons in simple, round shapes with minimal or no decoration, very light,
with whitish body and translucent, light green glaze filled with small air bubbles.
Northern and Southern celadons differ not only in the geographical place of
production but also in decoration. The most important representatives of the
Southern celadons are longquan wares. The name longquan comes from the re-
gion in southwest Zhejiang. Valenstein
34
informs that till this time there were hun-
dreds of kilns discovered in that area. They were localized in afew places, among
which the biggest agglomerations were Dayao () and Jincun (). It proves
that these places must have been the most engaged ones in the celadon production.
Longquan celadons expert, Shi Shaohua
35
, in his publication focused on this type of
ware, notices that the beginnings of their production must be looked for in Three
Kingdoms times. A solid support for this thesis is over five hundred kilns from
this period found in the vicinity of south Zhejiang: close to Longquan, Jinning
(), Yunhe (), Qingtian (), Wencheng () and other places. Shi
Shaohua
36
writes:
In these times celadons from Longquan, even though they were not enough formed,
as in case of yue into asystem of celadon kilns their production was still for the
new coming longquan celadon times only an embryonic and primary form. Even
though they had characteristic for the yue ware features, still, it is auniversal, mutual
34
Valenstein (1989: 99).
35
Shi (2005: 2).
36
Shi (2005: 3).
41 Cvi.uows iw Cuiw., Tuviv FUs:.: Fiwus, .wu Ixi:.:iows iw :uv Isi.xic Woviu
influence that all of the manufactures in the early stage have on each other using
characteristic for the current times features.
Thus, longquan celadons from the Song Dynasty times should be perceived as
the successors of the previous epochs legacy, and not as isolated from their source
of origin wares.
37
This author also thinks, that the fade of yue celadons allowed
for longquan development
38
. In the times of Northern Song Dynasty longquan ce-
ladons were decorated by using translucent green glaze put on the designs carved
in the bodies. One of the kilns found in Jincun in the region of Longquan was able
to fire, as Valenstein
39
states, from 20 to 25 thousand vessels at atime. During the
Southern Dynasty times the typical longquan celadons with characteristic, misty
glaze that reminded polished jade were produced. The bodies of longquan wares
were made of gray clay, sometimes of the quality close to the white, clear porcelain
(in the European sense). The uncovered by the glaze elements of the vessels tinted
into the characteristic red brick color, because they contained iron, which reacted
with oxygen during the process of cooling down. This effect was eagerly used and
usually apair of relief fish or dragon was left uncovered by the glaze, so that after
the firing they could contrast with the green background. An example of such
avessel is made in Yuan Dynasty times, with the decoration of the dragon, flowers
and clouds in the biscuit relief, pan from Sir Percival David Foundation.
One of the characteristics by which one can easily distinguish Northern cel-
adons from the Southern ones are simple, undimming the decorations shapes. The
glazes of the ware from Longquan and other Southern celadons were put in many
layers, which made them thick and filled with small air bubbles hence they were less
translucent and mistier. The most popular colors were pale greenish blue and blue
green. When the potters from the south wanted to emphasize the decoration which
was the glaze itself, they made sparse or no motives. Among the small amount of
decorations there were: relief pairs of fish, dragons, clouds, or lotus petals. The
effect was better seen on the smooth, formed surfaces, stressed by the characteristic
puckers made in the champlev technique or formed in a mold. Decorations of
the referring to the ancient bronze vessels are mainly geometric motives or animal
masks. The main shapes and types of the vessels from the south are usually: cal-
ligraphy utensils (such as ink rubbing stones), incense burners, vases, plates, urns,
resembling the made of nephrite cong tubes, and bronze vessels such as zun, gu, li
or ding. Celadons from Longquan were admired not only in China, but also in the
other countries of the world.
37
Shi (2005: 3).
38
Shi (2005: 3).
39
Valenstein (1989: 99).
42 Axvii. M.cioszvx
It is worth mentioning that not only during Song, but also Yuan and Ming
Dynasties times agreat number of ware was exported to the neighboring countries,
as well as to the Near East. Among the ware that reached Fustat, according to Gyl-
lensvrds report
40
, there are:
1. Northern celadon, plain ware,
2. Northern celadon with incised designs,
3. Northern Song longquan celadon with incised designs,
4. Northern Song longquan celadon with carved lotus petals,
5. Southern Song longquan ware,
6. Dishes, bowls, and cups with vertically fluted sides,
7. Plain wares of Southern Song longquan,
8. Yuan and Early Ming longquan celadon,
9. Ming longquan yao.
As to the first group, Gyllensvrd classifies them as Northern celadon. They are
shards of four bowls, all of them of high quality. One bowl has dark gray body and
smooth, not crackled glaze in greenish blue color. The other interesting shard has
awhite slip
41
and glaze in olive color.
Group two, Northern celadon with incised designs, is represented by bowls in
different sizes. The decoration itself is close to the ding and ying qing ware, the glaze
is olive colored and the body dark grey.
A few shards with scrolled floral design, that belong to bowls and an ewer, rep-
resent the group number three longquan celadon with incised designs. Details are
combed or dotted and the glaze is in bluish green color similar to longquan. As to
the ewer, only apiece of asmall ornament from the shoulder is preserved. It is in
the shape of lingzhi and the body is grey, covered with bluish green glaze.
As to the Northern Song longquan celadon with carved lotus petals Gyllens-
vrd
42
characterizes them as follows:
We have traced a link between Northern Celadon from Shensi and Honan and
early Lung-chun ware with incised floral design. There is also another parallel in
the decoration of the early Yeh yao and celadon found in the south. In Part I of
this report I gave a detailed description of bowls, dishes, ewers and vases in Yeh
yao and white porcelain which were decorated on the exterior with carved lotus
petals (). The shards found at Fostat prove that the lotus petal design of aspecial
type was popular in the Islamic world. The petals are carved in high relief with an
40
Gyllensvrd (1975: 93117).
41
The use of slip in case of Chinese Northern celadon ware was not common simply because the
clay was of good quality and it did not require any other covering, except for glaze alone, to hide the
body color or its impurities. The dark body color and the use of slip might indicate that the ware was
not made in the usual for Northern celadon manufacture and could be an imitation.
42
Gyllensvrd (1975: 99100).
43 Cvi.uows iw Cuiw., Tuviv FUs:.: Fiwus, .wu Ixi:.:iows iw :uv Isi.xic Woviu
accentuated midrib on the board petals. These are in two whorls, the outer partly
overlapping the inner. This type of sharply cut petal creates the impression of an
open lotus chalice. It is not surprising to find the same pattern on early Lung-chun
bowls and dishes made for the Islamic world. Among the Lung-chun sherds found
in Fostat there is one group with carved board petals which should be dated to
Northern Song.
In case of the Southern Song longquan ware found in Fustat the most common
shape that predominate is a bowl with lotus petals design placed on the exterior
sides. The other is a shallow bowl with rounded, conical sides and thin foot-rim,
often beveled.
43

The Fustat finds tell us that probably after the phase of sending example
goods, there appeared another one that was supposed to satisfy the specific need for
aspecific kind of ware. An example of such apractice is described by Gyllensvrd
44
:
During the closer examination of all the fragments from lotus bowls found in Fostat
it became obvious that the greatest quantity belonged to bowls of a much larger
size than those common in Chinese and Western collections. About 75% could be
determined as belonging to vessels measuring between 160240 mm. in diameter,
220 mm. being the most usual. This is again an example of the Islamic customers
desire for larger vessels than those used in China.
As to the dishes, bowls and cups with vertically fluted sides the most frequent
design of the longquan porcelain found in Fustat are lotus petals. They were put
on the exterior sides of the vessels and sometimes they resemble chrysanthemum
flowers with the characteristic narrow petals that become rounded at the top. This
characteristic design was very popular not only on Northern celadon, but also on
ying qing and ding ware.
45
As to other designs, there also are dishes with apair of
applied fish adesign that was later on willingly copied in the Islamic world.
Plain wares of Southern Song lonquan, as Gyllensvrd
46
notices, were mainly
made for the domestic use and for this reason they have not been found among the
shards excavated in Fustat. However some pieces could be classified as Southern
Song longquan ware. The group is containing of several bowls, avase, potiche jar,
box and cover, dish, and acup. The characteristic features are: body in the shades
of gray from light to dark and thickly applied glazes in the shades from grayish
blue, through bluish green to grayish green, sometimes finely crackled.
Yuan and early Ming longquan celadons are characterized by Gyllensvrd
47
in
the following manner:
43
Gyllensvrd (1975: 101).
44
Gyllensvrd (1975: 102).
45
Gyllensvrd (1975: 105).
46
Gyllensvrd (1975: 107).
47
Gyllensvrd (1975: 110).
44 Axvii. M.cioszvx
It is still impossible to draw a distinct border-line between the lotus or chrysan-
themum bowls and dishes from Southern Sung and those from Yan. Especially
regarding the export wares for the Islamic world, the shapes and patterns accepted
during Southern Sung did not change under anew dynasty but instead continued.
() The main types are big dishes, trays and bowls richly decorated, but also some
characteristic shapes without any decoration at all.
Among the group of the Ming longquan ware presented by Gyllensvrd
48
, there
are dishes and bowls. Most of them have rounded sides and flower shaped or fo-
liated, raised lip. He gives the following overall impression of the Ming longquan
celadons: Except for the big dishes and bowls described, there were comparatively
few types of Ming celadon vessels found at Fostat. Big jars, vases or incense-burners
with high relief patterns are not among the sherds I studied. Stem-cups, tripods
and other typical Chinese shapes are not represented either, and the brown-spotted
so-called tobi-seji is missing. Again, it proves that the Egyptian Islamic custom-
ers were not interested in these kinds of ware. Their preference was concentrated
around big dishes, bowls or simple bowls with decoration made by molding or
stamping.
49

As it was mentioned above, the Chinese porcelain and ceramics were subjects
of numerous influence and imitation in the outside countries. Authors of En-
cyclopedia of World Art
50
indicate that the Chinese wares transported via land
or sea influenced potters in the Islamic countries, which led to the fact that they
improved their own techniques. It happened mainly in 9
th
, 12
th
, and 15
th
centuries.
Due to the lack of kaolin clay in the Islamic countries, it was impossible to create
there real porcelain in the Chinese style.
The potters from the Islamic countries at the beginning decorated their vessels
mainly using lead glazes in different colors, so that they could meet the growing
demand for imitated porcelain and other ceramics from China that according to
the Arabic historians reached Bagdad around year 800.
51
Fragments of Chinese
vessels together with various Iraqi wares made using experimental techniques were
found in Samarra, north to Bagdad. They were for example vessels partially covered
with lead glaze, firstly decorated with sgraffito technique along with spots and flow
lines of glazes in such colors as: green, yellow-brown, and purple. They imitated
the Chinese sancai wares; some with white tin glazes, undecorated had the same
bursting shape as the Chinese porcelain cups. Some of them were painted on glaze
48
Gyllensvrd (1975: 115116).
49
Gyllensvrd (1975: 115116).
50
Encyclopedia of World Art (1964: 248).
51
Encyclopedia of World Art (1964: 248).
45 Cvi.uows iw Cuiw., Tuviv FUs:.: Fiwus, .wu Ixi:.:iows iw :uv Isi.xic Woviu
with the motives of ribbon, palm tree with plaits in blue, green, violet colors, and
some painted on glaze with luster colors.
52

Concluding the above mentioned information, in the so-called Muslim World
the sancai wares were mostly copied in 9
th
and 10
th
century and soon celadons in
Egypt. In the Fatimid rule period (9691171) there was so-called ceramic renais-
sance. Preparation of siliceous alkaline glazes caused that it was possible to use
colors other than white and translucent green. Such colors as turquoise, honey
brown, and manganese violet were used from there on. Colors and shapes of the
Chinese wares were imitated and by increasing the amount of quartz as well as the
admixture of white clay in the bodies the effect of whitening was obtained. The
Egyptian potters since the second half of the 10
th
century eagerly imitated not
only shapes, but also colors of the finest celadons and other Chinese porcelain.
The bodies were decorated by cutting or modeling in forms and presented designs
known from the imported vessels from China.
The authors of Encyclopedia of World Art
53
say, that despite the fact that the
Chinese wares since the beginning of their existence on the Middle East market,
influenced the technique and less than that the shapes of vessels, the Chinese dec-
orative motives were rarely imitated. It was not before the year 1300, when China
and Iran were under the rule of Mongols, that the traditional motives of dragon,
phoenix, lotus, and clouds were put along with the traditional motives known in
the Islamic art. An even vaster wave of copying of the Chinese designs and colors
happened in the second half of the 14
th
century, when the main export good was
the blue-white porcelain.
During the Mamluk rule period (14
th
-15
th
century) colors and designs (includ-
ing the Chinese motives of dragon, lotus petals, fish), cracks, decorations cut under
glaze or grooving modeled in forms filled with glaze, were imitated in Egypt.
54
The
ceramic bodies were mainly made of quartz and white clay. It should be pointed out
that using the native materials forced the necessity of making the bodies thicker in
order to prevent fractures. The fractures of the shards are rough; they present using
quartz paste with the addition of clay in different colors. However, the glazes, due
to the use of clay for bodies in bad quality, are mainly clouded with tin and put in
thick layers, which allowed hiding this defect. The colors of glazes are from light
green, olive, through dark green tones to dark turquoise. It should be noted that the
tin glazes colored with copper compounds are the fundamental imitation element
toward the Chinese celadons.
52
Encyclopedia of World Art (1964: 248).
53
Encyclopedia of World Art (1964: 250).
54
An example here could be a cup from Cairo, Egypt from 13
th
-15
th
century, modeled in form,
currently in Louvre, photographed in: Soustiel (1985: 128).
46 Axvii. M.cioszvx
Celadons were imitated in Iran in the 14
th
century. The Iranian potters eagerly
copied the longquan wares using the popular motive of relief fish placed on cups.
An example could be a cup from Kerman in Iran from the first half of the 14
th

century with decoration of celadon glaze and three relief fish.
55
Another example
is a small cup with the relief decoration of one fish, originated from Iran, made
in late 14
th
or 15
th
century.
56
An interesting thing is that the Iranian potters not
only imitated the Chinese ware, but also the Indian ones. An example of such an
astonishing mixture done by the Safavid potters using the Indian shape and Chi-
nese celadon glaze is the jar probably from Isfahan.
57
The Iranian wares present
analogy to the imported there Chinese vessels, not only in respect of materials,
but also the characteristic for the Northern celadons decoration cut in the bodies
and next covered with athick layer of translucent glaze. The most popular motives
that were used are: animals, arabesque floral plaits, and inscriptions. Sometimes,
for the translucency effect, they perforated the walls of a vessel and filled them
with fluid glaze. It is worth mentioning that this method (called in China:
decoration of unhusked rice) was intercepted by the Chinese who have
been using it in decorating the blue-white porcelain from the Ming Dynasty times
till now.
From the first finds in Samarra, through Fustat-C site excavations till the ones
being done at this time, Chinese porcelain proves to be present in different cul-
tures. Chinese celadons were not only a subject of constant admiration from the
famous poets to connoisseurs and everyday users in the place of their origin, but
also abroad. The beauty of designs, glaze colors, and shapes inspired the Islamic
potters to first imitate and then try to mix it with the local ware. The exported
wares knew no borders long before we got used to it.
B:n::ocvzvnv
Canby 1999 = Sheila R Canby, The Golden Age of Persian Art 15011722, London: British
Museum Press, 1999.
Encyclopedia of World Art 1964 = Encyclopedia of World Art, vol. III, New York: McGraw-Hill,
1964.
Fehvri 1973 = Gza Fehvri, Islamic Pottery. A Comprehensive Study Based on the Barlow
Collection, London: Faber and Faber Limited, 1973.
Feng 2002 = Xianming Feng (ed.), Zhongguo gu taoci tu dian (Il-
lustrated Dictionary of Ancient Chinese Ceramics), Beijing : Wenwu chuban she
, 2002.
55
Presented in: Fehvri (1973: leaf 68, illustration 163 a, b, and the description on page 125).
56
Illustrated in: Grube (1976: 279).
57
Printed in: Canby (1999:157).
47 Cvi.uows iw Cuiw., Tuviv FUs:.: Fiwus, .wu Ixi:.:iows iw :uv Isi.xic Woviu
Gompertz 1980 = Gompertz G.St.G.M., Chinese Celadon Wares, London: Faber & Faber, 1980.
Grube 1976, Ernst J. Grube, Islamic Pottery of the Eight to Fifteenth Century in the Keir Collec-
tion, London: Faber and Faber Limited, 1976.
Gyllensvrd 1973 = Bo Gyllensvrd, Recent Finds of Chinese Ceramics at Fostat. I, Bulletin
of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, no. 45, 1973, pp. 91171.
Gyllensvrd 1975 = Bo Gyllensvrd, Recent Finds of Chinese Ceramics at Fostat. II, Bulletin
of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, no 47, 1975, pp. 93117.
Pei 2002 = Guanghui Pei , Zhongguo gudai ming ci jianshang daxi.
(Compendium and Appreciation of Famous Ancient Chinese Porcelain) Yue zhou
qingci, fuzhou: Fujian meishu chuban she. , : , 2002.
Shang 2003 = Xiangtao Shang , Zhongguo gaogu qingci jian cang
(Collecting and Appreciation of Elegant and Simple Chinese Celadons). Tianjin :
Baihua wenyi chuban she , 2003.
Shi 2005 = Shaohua Shi , Longquan qingci shangxi (Appreciation of
Longquan Celadons). Beijing : Xueyuan chuban she , 2005.
Soustiel 1985 = Jean Soustiel = La cramique islamique, Paris: Office du Livre S.A., Fribourg
(Suisse), 1985.
Valenstein 1989 = Suzanne G. Valenstein, A Handbook of Chinese Ceramics, The Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York: H. N. Abrams, 1989.