BATLLISMOANDTHEYANKEES:THEUNITEDSTATESANDURUGUAY,19031929 By JAMESCHARLESKNARR BachelorofArts,2002 FurmanUniversity Greenville,SouthCarolina MasterofArts,2004 SouthernIllinoisUniversity Carbondale,Illinois SubmittedtotheGraduateFacultyof AddRanCollegeofLiberalArts TexasChristianUniversity inpartialfulfillmentoftherequirements forthedegreeof DoctorofPhilosophy May2009

PREFACE Inthepreparationandcompletionofthiswork,Imustacknowledgefourgroupsof people.First,IthankthefineemployeesattheOrganizationofAmericanStates(OAS),which partiallyfundedtheresearchforthisdissertation.PaulinaSavageandDerekTavaresatHarvard UniversitysLASPAU,whichadministerstheOASgrants,aidedmethroughthemorassofred tapeandmadesuremygrantwentsmoothly.AttheOASofficeofHumanDevelopment,Julieta MaronipatientlyhelpedmenavigatethevarioustrialsoftheOASgrantwritingprocress, overlookedmyomissions,andultimatelyassuredthattheorganizationwouldfundmytravel. Second,thevariousarchivistsIencounteredbothinUruguayandintheUnitedStates derservemyhighestesteemandappreciation.InUruguay,AliciaCasasdeBarrnandherstaff attheArchivoGeneraldelaNacinandlvaroCorbachoattheArchivoHistricoDiplomtico graciouslyaidedagratefulyanquiinviewingallthenecessarydiplomaticandpersonalpapers thatMontevideooffered.IntheUnitedStates,GaryDeKreyandJeffSauveoftheNorwegian AmericanHistoricalAssociation(NAHA)graciouslypreparedtheNicolayGrevstadPapersformy perusalandmadesuremybriefstayinNorthfieldwasbothproductiveandenjoyable.Finally, EvelynCherpakattheNavalHistoricalCollectionaidedmeingettingmaterialsonAdmiral WilliamCaperton. Third,Ineedtonotetheassistanceofthemembersofmycommitteebothduringmy courseworkandmydissertation.Dr.ClaytonBrownsemphasisonbigideasand contextualizationturnedwhatcouldhavebeenafocusednarrativeintosomethingbetter.Dr. DonCoerversopendoorandhispatiencewithmyconstantdiatribesonallmattersespecially ii

atseveninthemorningdespitehisadministrativedutiesdeservepraise.Dr.PeterSzoks willingnesstohelpmeinformulatingconceptsandorganizingmythoughtskeptmeontopof mygame.Finally,myadvisorDr.MarkGilderhusspatiencewithmycantankerouspersonality andhisenlighteningandbawdytaleshelpedmerealizethatthereismoretolifethangraduate school,thedissertation,andacademia. Onthattopic,thegreatestdebtgoestomywonderfulwifeMary,whomIwedwhile commencingtheprojectbeforeyou.Shetraipsedovertwocontinentsandtosixarchivesand spententiredaysboredoutofhermindwhile,onoccasion,reproducingdocuments.Even whennotcopyingsources,shelistenedtomycomplaintsmoreoftenthannotaboutthe abovementionedpeopleandgenerouslyservedasasoundingboardwhenIneededhelp organizingandcontextualizingmythoughts.WithoutMary,Iwouldhavedelayedthisworkand submitteditinasubstandardform.

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TABLEOFCONTENTS I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. Introduction..........................................1 TheBeginningsofUSUruguayanRelations(18281906)..................11 TheVisitofElihuRoot(1906)................................57 Goods,Ideas,andPeople(19061914)...........................78 TheUnitedStatesandUruguayinWorldWarI(19141919)..............129 TheUnitedStatesandUruguayinthe1920s.......................193 Conclusion..........................................245 Bibliography.........................................253

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Chapter1Introduction InAugust1912,acabalofUSreformersundertheguiseoftheProgressivePartymetin

ChicagotonominateexPresidentTheodoreRooseveltfortheWhiteHouse.Whiletheparty certainlydidnotattractallProgressives,itdidcoalescemostoftheerasreformadvocates.As thepartyprincipallyservedapoliticalend,onecanviewitsplatform,therefore,asthemost concreteandimportantexpressionofpoliticalProgressivismintheUnitedStatesintheearly twentiethcentury.Thestatementbeganbynotingthatthepartywasbornofthenations senseofjustice...tomaintainthegovernmentofthepeople,bythepeopleandforthe people.Thepreambleassertedtheroleofthestate,atleastinpart,inprotectingthe populace,notingthecountrysresources,itsbusinesses,itsintuitions,anditsinhabitants shouldbeutilized...inwhatevermannerwillbestpromotethegeneralinterest.Among otherplanks,theplatformattackedcorruptadministrations,assertedthesupremacyofthe federalgovernmentbybringingundereffectivenationaljurisdictionthoseproblemswhich haveexpandedbeyondthereachoftheindividualstates,advocatedworkerandelderly protections,arguedforbetterroadsandwaterways,articulatedprotectionoftheenvironment, andavowedmoregovernmentoversightofbusiness.1 Justoverayearlaterontheothersideofthehemisphere,UruguayanPresidentJos

BatlleyOrdoezpublishedaneditorialinhispersonalnewspaperElDadefendinghisongoing reformmovement,Batllismo,againstcritics.BatllecalledBatllismoanideologicalforce,a nationaltendency,amilitantfactionofconstructiveprinciplesbasedonprinciplesevolved

KirkH.PorterandDavidBruceJohnson,ed.,NationalPartyPlatforms,18401956(Urbana:TheUniversityof IllinoisPress,1956),175183.
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fromthoughtanduniversaljustice.Morespecifically,heequateditalogicalappealwhose premiseswerelibertyandjustice;anaspirationofallwhosufferandallwhofeeltherealityof good;redemptionfortheoppressedofthefactoryandthehome.Hecontinuedthatit providedrestforthosethatlivetowork;respectandprotectionforthelessfortunateandfor thepoor;rightsforalltobread,tohappiness,toculture,tolove,andtolife,toprogress,to equality,andtowealth.BatllealsopointedtosometangibleresultsthatadecadeofBatllista governancebrought:governmentofideas,roads,bridges,colonies,primaryschools, preparatoryschools,parks,physicaleducation,nationalindustries,nationalpersonalityinthe economicandintellectualworld,[and]democracywithoutconstitutionalautocrats.2 Thetwoliberalmovements,bothofwhichdominatedthepoliticalandsocialdiscourse

intheirrespectivestatesintheearlytwentiethcentury,sharedimportantsimilarities.Attheir cores,bothUnitedStatesProgressivesandUruguayanBatllistasfeltthatthestateshould assumetheleadingroleinprotectingthecitizenryandinenablingittoreachitsfullest potential.Insodoing,bothpoliticallytargetedheretoforeunderrepresentedgroupswomen, workers,students,andconsumerswhileregularizingthelivesofthestatescitizensthrough thecontrolofvices:alcohol,forexample.Insodoing,bothsoughteffectivedemocracyby enfranchisingasmuchofthepopulationaspossible,especiallywomen.Moreover,bothlooked tointernalimprovementsasaneffectivemeanstointegratethecountrysideintoincreasingly urbanizedcountries. Ofcourse,ProgressivesandBatllistasdifferedinsomerespects.ManyProgressives,

mostimportantly,lookedtofaithtoundergirdtheirreformswhileanticlericalBatllistassought
2

Elbatllismo,ElDa(Montevideo),30September1913.

change,atleastpartially,tounderminethepowerandthewealthofthedominantCatholic Church.Moreover,USProgressivestendedtobemuchlesseconomicallynationalisticthan theirUruguayanliberalcounterparts.Forinstance,whileProgressivessoughttoregulate exploitativeindustrytoprotectUSworkersandconsumers,Batllefeltthatthestatesindustrial controlwouldbetterservetheUruguayanpopulace.Finally,Batllistasrarelyconcerned themselveswithsuchProgressiveissuesascivilservicereformandgovernmentcorruption. HistorianshavedevotedsignificantinkwhiletryingtoexplaintheoriginsofUS

ProgressivismbutalmostallpositthatthemovementreactedtosomecombinationofGilded AgecorruptionsinUSsociety.RichardHofstadter,forone,proposesthatProgressivessought torestoretheeconomicindividualismandpoliticaldemocracythattherobberbarons destroyedinthelate1800s.RichardWiebeassertsthatProgressivessoughtanew bureaucraticsystemtoorderthechangesthatresultedfromthepostCivilWarera.John ChambersstressesthatProgressivismrepresentedthedominantAmericanresponsetothe sweepingchangescausedbyacceleratingindustrialism,urbanism,andmassimmigration.Nell IrvinPainter,finally,employsaclassbasedlensbutstillpointstothedislocationsoftheGilded Ageasthecatalystforreform.3 Incontrast,historiansoftheUruguayanliberalmovementoffermuchmoredivergent explanationsforBatllismoandgenerallyfallintothreegroups.First,Uruguayanscholarsand oneNorthAmericanhistorianfromthe1940sand1950semphasizedBatllesmiddleclass(or middlesector)idealism.AsitdidinUShistoriography,WorldWarIIledmanyinUruguayto
RichardHofstadter,TheAgeofReform:FromBryantoF.D.R.(NewYork:VantageBooks,1955),5;RichardH. Wiebe,TheSearchforOrder,18771920(NewYork:HillandWang,1967),vii;JohnWhiteclayChambersII,The TyrannyofChange:AmericaintheProgressiveEra,19001917(NewYork:St.MartinsPress,1980),xvii;NellIrvin Painter,StandingatArmageddon:TheUnitedStates,18771919(NewYork:W.W.Norton&Company,1987).
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praiseBatllejustasUShistoriansextolledAndrewJacksonastheepitomeofthepeoples inherentdesireforliberty,democracy,andfreedom.1940sand1950sscholarsofthe UruguayanmovementassertthatBatlleandhismovementrepresentedanidiosyncratic Uruguayanimpulsetowardsdemocracy,freedom,andprogress.AuthorsincludingEnrique RodrguezFabregat,JustinoZavalaMuniz,ArturoArdao,andJohnJohnsoncreditBatllefor makingUruguaythemodelofLatinAmericandemocracy.Subsequenthistorianstermthisthe obradeBatlleschoolofUruguayanhistoriography.4 Startinginthe1960s,NorthAmericanscounteredthisconceptionofBatlle.BothMilton VangerandArthurWhitakerwroteintheageoftheimperialpresidencyandpointtoBatlles politicalastutenesstoexplainthecourseofthereforms.Vanger,whowrotemoreonBatllismo thananotherotherEnglishlanguagehistorian,concludedthatBatllessuccesslayinhisuseof theColoradopoliticalorganizationandtradition.Similarly,Whitakerarguesthatthese reformsoccurredbecauseBatllehadtoheightenhisdependencyon[theColoradoPartys]left wingtomaintainhimselfinpower.5 AfterUruguayandemocracyfellintheearly1970s,historianspointedtolongstanding institutionalfactorstoexplainBatllismo.Mostnotably,FranciscoPanizzaarguesthatthe historicalweaknessoftheinstitutionalforces,especiallyinaplaceonthefringesoftheSpanish

EnriqueRodrguezFebregat,BatlleyOrdez:ElReformador(BuenosAires:EditorialClaridad,1942);Justino ZavalaMuniz,Batlle:HroeCivil(MexicoCity:FondodeCulturaEconmica,1945);ArturoArdao,BatlleyOrdez yelPositivismoFilosfico(Montevideo:Nmero,1951);JohnJohnson,PoliticalChangeinLatinAmerica:The EmergenceoftheMiddleSectors(Stanford,California:StanfordUniversityPress,1958). MiltonVanger,JoseBatlleyOrdonez:TheCreatorofHisTimes(Cambridge,Massachusetts:HarvardUniversity Press,1963),viii;ArthurP.Whitaker,TheUnitedStatesandtheSouthernCone:Argentina,Chile,andUruguay (Cambridge,Massachusetts:HarvardUniversityPress,1976),109.

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colonialsystemlikeUruguay,allowedfortheriseofalternativeandfarreachingpolitical movements;Batllismomerelyfilledthatvacuum.6 GiventherichsimilaritiesbetweenProgressivismandBatllismo,thisdissertation

supportsamuchlessprominentargument.AttheveryendofRamnRuzscontroversialstudy oftheconcurrentMexicanRevolution,TheGreatRebellion,theauthorassertsthatthefirst yearsofthetwentiethcenturywereanageofreform,ofWesternmiddleclassprogressives whowantedtowipecleanthetarnishaccumulatedbycapitalismduringtheageofrobber barons,torestorefreecompetition,andtoeliminatethesinsofmonopoly.Inmakingthis statement,RuznotesthatthiswasthegistofWoodrowWilsonsbeliefsandtheRadical partyinArgentinaandJoseBatlleyOrdoezinUruguay...hadtakentheircuefromlike beliefs.RuzisnotaloneinassertingthatthatMexicanRevolutionparalleledother contemporaryrevolutions;JohnMasonHartfindsthatMexicowentthroughthesame convulsionsforthesamereasonreactionsagainstforeigneconomicimperialismasdidin Iranin1905,Chinain1911,andRussiain1905.Moreover,Whitakerobservessimilarsocial progressivemovementsinBritainunderDavidLloydGeorgeandinFranceunderGeorges Clemenceau.AccordingtoWhitaker,sweepingchangeforthebenefitofthecommonpeople wasintheaironbothsidesoftheAtlantic.7 Clearly,giventhecongruitiesintimeandcourse,globaleconomicfactorsbest substantiatethesimilaritiesbetweenUSProgressivismandUruguayanBatllismo.Inother
6

FranciscoPanizza,Uruguay,BatllismoyDespues:Pacheco,MilitaresyTupamarosenlaCrisisdelUruguayBatllista (Montevideo:EdicionesdelaBandaOriental,1990).

RamnRuz,TheGreatRebellion:Mexico,19051924(NewYork:W.W.Norton&Company,1980),419;John MasonHart,RevolutionaryMexico:TheComingandProcessoftheMexicanRevolution(Berkeley:Universityof CaliforniaPress,1987),187234;Whitaker,108.

words,bothmovementsreactedtotheriseofglobalindustrialismandthestrainsthatitputon theproducers,whosoughtgovernmentinterventiontorightthewrongs.Inthecaseofthe UnitedStates,unbridledindustrialization,generallyofthedomesticvariety,inthelate nineteenthcenturymeantthatpeoplelookedtothestatetoprotectworkers,consumers,and theenvironment.InUruguay,liberalslookedtothestatetoovercomethechallengesthat European,especiallyBritish,industrializationbroughttoUruguaysexportorientedeconomy. Regardless,diplomatichistorianshavegreatlyignoredtheeffectsofintersection

betweenthetwomovementsinforeignrelations;relegatingUSUruguayanrelationstoasides, afterthoughts,andaddendums.Indeed,asUruguayanhistorianAnaMaraRodrguezAyaguer wrotein1994,thehistoryofourrelationswiththeUnitedStates...hasbeenlittlevisited. ImportantsurveysofUSLatinAmericanrelations,forexamplethosebySamuelFlaggBemis, JohnLloydMecham,LarsSchoultz,aswellasDonCoerverandLindaHallgenerallyunder representorvirtuallyignoreUSUruguayaninteractionespeciallyintheperiodbeforeWorld WarII,insteadfocusingonUSinterventions,ultimatums,andgunboatdiplomacyinthe WesternHemisphere,noneofwhichexistedinUSUruguayanrelations.EvenArthur Whitakers1976study,TheUnitedStatesandtheSouthernCone:Argentina,Chile,and Uruguay,despiteitstitle,relegatesUSrelationswithUruguaytotheshadowsespeciallybefore WorldWarI.Equally,theonlysubstantialworkonBatllistaeraforeignpolicy,DanteTurcattis 1981work,ElEquilibrioDificil,doeselucidateUruguayanexternalrelations,especiallywellinits discussionofWorldWarIandthereafter,butdoesnotuseUSsourcesnorUruguayan

diplomaticdocuments,relyingalmostexclusivelyonUruguayannewspapersandcongressional debates.8 Thisdissertationrectifiesthatchasmbyarguingthattheideologicaltiesbetween

ProgressivesandBatllistas,eveninthe1920sasbothgroupspoliticalpotencyabated,ledtoa mutuallybeneficialrelationshipbetweentheUnitedStates,orthegranrepblicadelNorte (greatrepublicoftheNorth)astheBatllistascalledit,andUruguaybuiltonpolitical, intellectual,andeconomicinteractions.USpolicymakers,reformers,andmerchantssoughtto expandtheirinfluenceintheRiverPlateregioninthesedecades.Insodoing,theyfound willingalliesintheUruguayanBatllistas,whosoughttofreeUruguayfromitstraditionalneo colonialrelationshipwithArgentina,Brazil,andBritain,andthereforetousetheUSasamodel ofmodernityandprotectorofUruguayaninterests.9 Tomakethisargument,Iusethreeresourcesextensively.First,Iemploythediplomatic

andconsularcommunicationsoftheUnitedStates.TheNationalArchivesandRecords Administration(NARA)havemicrofilmedsomeofthese,butamajorityexistsonlyaspaper
AnaMaraRodrguezAyaguer,Batllismoeinteresesextranjeros:elcasodelaI.T.&T.,inElUruguaydelosAos Trienta:EnfoquesyProblemas,ed.GerardoCaetano(Montevideo:EdicionesdelaBandaOriental,1994),19; SamuelFlaggBemis,TheLatinAmericanPolicyoftheUnitedStates:AnHistoricalInterpretation(NewYork: Harcourt,BraceandCo.,1943);JohnLloydMecham,ASurveyofUnitedStatesLatinAmericanRelations(New York:HoughtonMifflinCompany,1965);LarsSchoultz,BeneaththeUnitedStates:AHistoryofUSPolicytoward LatinAmerica(Cambridge,Massachusetts:HarvardUniversityPress,1998);DonM.CoerverandLindaB.Hall, TangledDestinies:LatinAmericaandtheUnitedStates(Albuquerque:TheUniversityofNewMexicoPress,1999); DanteTurcatti,ElEquilibrioDifcil:PolticaExteriordelBatllismo(Montevideo:CentroLatinoamericanode EconomaHumana,1981).SomemorechronologicallyorgeographicallyfocusedsurveysofUSLatinAmerican relationsgiveslightlymoreagencytotheroleofUruguayinUSpolicyandviceversa.SeeJohnLloydMecham,The UnitedStatesandInterAmericanSecurity,18891960(Austin:UniversityofTexasofPress,1961)andMark Gilderhus,PanAmericanVisions:WoodrowWilsonintheWesternHemisphere,19131921(Tucson:TheUniversity ofArizonaPress,1986). ThisisnotthefirststudyofUSLatinAmericanrelationstoassertthatcomparableideologiessignificantly enhanceddiplomaticamity.ThomasSchoonoverdemonstratesthatideologyalsobroughtcloserrelations betweenRepublicansintheUSandReformaliberalsinMexicointhe1860s.SeeThomasSchoonover,Dollarsover Dominion:TheTriumphofLiberalisminMexicanUnitedStatesRelations,18611867(BatonRouge:LouisianaState UniversityPress,1978).
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copiesintheDecimalFileoftheStateDepartment(RecordGroup59).Second,Iutilizethe diplomaticandconsularrecordsofUruguay,specificallythoserelatingtorelationswiththe UnitedStates,whichtheUruguayangovernmenthousesattheArchivoGeneraldelaNacin (AGN)andtheForeignMinistrysArchivoHistricoDiplomtico(AHD).Finally,Batlles newspaper,ElDa,servedbothtonarrateeventsbutalsoarticulateopinionsandideology. Otherthanthesethreeimportantsources,IhaveutilizedUSandUruguayannewspapersaswell asmanuscriptscollectionsattheLibraryofCongress,theNorwegianAmericanHistorical Association,andtheNavalHistoricalCollection. Inmanyrespects,thisargumentcountersdominantviewsoftheUSsLatinAmerican

policyintheearlytwentiethcenturyperiodasforcefulandarrogant,viz.RooseveltesqeBig Stickdiplomacy.WhiletheUnitedStatesdidovertlyinterveneinCostaRica,Cuba,the DominicanRepublic,Guatemala,Haiti,Honduras,Mexico,Nicaragua,andPanamaduringthe periodunderstudy,sucheventsoccurredwithintheCaribbeanSeaandultimatelytoprotect themilitaryadvantagesofanisthmiancanal.USrelationswithSouthAmerica,Uruguay included,provedmuchmoredocileandamicable.Assuch,tobrushthehistoryofUSLatin AmericanrelationsinthisperiodasoneoftheBigStickgrosslyoversimplifiesthatstory,as thisdissertationwillshow. Rather,USUruguayanrelationsdevelopedratherharmoniouslyuntil1929.Chapter2

discussesrelationsbeforeElihuRoots1906visit.ThedistancebetweentheUSandUruguayas wellastheBritishneocolonyintheRiverPlateminimizedinteractioninthisperiod.Granted, theUnitedStatesappointeditsfirstdiplomatin1867Uruguaywaiteduntil1900tosendan envoytoWashingtonbuttheUSministerinMontevideorepresentedhiscountryinfrontof 8

boththeUruguayanandParaguayangovernmentuntil1914.Likewise,commercialinteraction remainedsmall,especiallyincomparisontoBritisheconomicactivity,evenaftertheUSsenta commercialcommissionin1885.Nevertheless,astheeditorialsandstoriesinElDashow,the faroffUnitedStatesservedasamodelfortheliberalnewspapereditor,Batlle,andhis admirationfortheUSonlyincreasedafterhebecamepresidentin1903. TheUSdidnotofficiallyreciprocatethisadmirationuntil1906,whenSecretaryofState

ElihuRootvisitedMontevideo,thesubjectofchapter3.RootsAugust1906visit,thoughit lastedbutfourdaysandleftnothingtangiblebutforemptyPanAmericanrhetoric,nonetheless greatlyinfluencedUSUruguayanrelations.BymakingapersonalappearanceinMontevideo, RootsignaledtoColoradoliberals,Batlleattheirhead,thattheUnitedStateswaswillingto embraceSouthAmericaandUruguayforthefirsttime. Thereafter,chapter4,coveringtheyearsbetween1906and1914,discussestheeffects

ofRootsvisit.Mostimportantly,RootsvisitcatalyzedUruguayunderClaudioWilliman(1907 1911)and,forhissecondterm,Batlle(19111915)toembraceProgressivereformsinitsstate building.ManyhistorianshavecitedthesecondBatlleadministrationasformingthecoreof thefamedUruguayanwelfarestate.Theyneverthelessoverlookthatmanyofhisideasand expertscamefromtheUnitedStates,especiallyintheareasofeducation,populatingthe interior,andpublicworks.Inallfairness,BatlleborrowedselectivelyfromtheUnitedStates andincorporatedideasfromothermodernstates,includingSwitzerland,France,and England.Nonetheless,thisideologicalsamplingfromtheUnitedStatespermeatedtheperiod. Atthesametime,USeconomicinterestsmovedintoUruguayandtradebetweenthestates increasedinabsoluteterms,butneitherinvestmentnortradecouldoutpacetheBritish. 9

Finally,duringthisperiod,UStourists,somequitefamousincludingTheodoreRooseveltand WilliamJenningsBryan,visitedtheSouthAmericanstateandoftenreturnedtoNorthAmerica andpropagatedavisionofamodernandprogressiveUruguayanpolity. USUruguayanrelationsduringWorldWarI,thesubjectofchapter5,representthe

peakofdiplomaticaffairsbetweenthetwostatesduringtheperiodunderstudy.Duringthe war,UruguayanPanAmericanismdovetailednicelywiththeLatinAmericanpolicyofWoodrow Wilson(19131921).Assuch,UruguayunderForeignMinisterBaltasarBrum,aprominent Batllista,staunchlysupportedtheUSpositioninbothneutrality(19141917)andwar(1917 1918).ThoughUruguaydidnotdeclarewar,whichwouldhavelegallysubjecteditsfrontiersto Germanattack,itdidbreakrelationswithGermanyinOctober1917.Thereafter,the governmentleasedeightabscondedGermanpacketvesselstotheUSsEmergencyFleet Corporationforwartimeuse.Ultimately,Iargue,thisUruguayanactionresultedfromthe unfoundedfearoftheGermancolonyinsouthernBrazil.Evenso,whentheUSwonthewar,it supportedanUruguayanseatatVersaillesandUruguayandelegates,inturn,supportedthe Wilsoniancollectivesecuritypositionsthere.Duringthewar,UScommercesupplantedthe British,asitdidthroughoutSouthAmerica,andUSbasedreformismcontinued,especiallyin theareasofantialcoholism,education,andengineering. Afterthewar,relationsdeclinedthroughoutthe1920s,thesubjectofchapter6.

Relationsstartedoffwell,withthe1919namingofJacoboVarelaAcevedo,amanof considerablediplomaticskillandproUSsympathies,tothelegationinWashingtonaswellas theDecember1920MontevideovisitofSecretaryofStateBainbridgeColby.Shortlythereafter, though,relationsdeterioratedforthreereasons.First,aconservativemoodhungoverthe 10

UnitedStatesandYankeesnolongersawBatllesreformsasforwardthinkingbutinsteadas socialistorradical.Second,BatllebegantolosecontroloftheColoradoPartyandthe Uruguayanstate,allowingantiNorthAmericangroups,suchastheBlancosandCommunists,to articulateantiYankeerhetoricandtopassmeasuresWashingtonopposed,suchasthe recognitionofSovietRussia.Third,astheUSsupplantedBritainastheprincipaleconomic powerinUruguay,itanditsfirmsbecamethetargetofrabidnationalism,ashadtheBritish beforethewar.Assuch,relationsdeterioratedsignificantly;antiNorthAmericanriotsin1927 overtheSaccoandVanzettiexecutionexemplifytheproblems.Reformcontinuedbutina modifiedform.Veryoften,nonstateactorsinthefeministandprohibitioniststrugglesfrom theUStookupthemantle,butfoundtheirUruguayancompatriotswearyofUSsupport.Atthe endofthedecade,bothsidesattemptedrapprochementthroughthe1927UStourbyan Uruguayansoccersideandthe1928visitofPresidentelectHerbertHoover;nonethelessthese effortsfailed,resultinginriotsandmisunderstandings.Finally,inOctober1929,twoevents changedthecourseofUSUruguayanrelations:thedeathofBatlleanddayslaterthecrashof theNewYorkStockExchange.Thisdissertation,thus,endsthere. ButfortheratherstraightforwardchapteronRoots1906visit,thereaderwill

encounterthreethemesofinteractionpolitical,economic,andintellectualthroughoutthe dissertation.Thefirsttwoneedlittleelucidation,aspoliticalandeconomicinteractionshave remainedthehallmarksofforeignrelationshistorysincetheinceptionofthefield.Idefine intellectualinteractionasthesharingofideas,ideologies,andworldviews,afacetthat diplomatichistoriansoverlooktoooften.Asfactswarrant,certainthemestakeprecedencein eachchapterthoughallthreeappear.Forexample,chapterthree,whichdiscussestheperiod 11

between1906and1914,limitspoliticalinteractionwhileenhancingcommercialandespecially intellectualinteraction.Thesubsequentchapter,coveringWorldWarI,confinesintellectual borrowingtoafewepisodeswhilefocusingoneconomicandmostespeciallypoliticalthemes; WorldWarI,afterall,representedamajorpoliticalandeconomiceventthatovershadowed mostallelsebetween1914and1919.Nevertheless,inallchapters,theonecoveringtheRoot visitexcluded,thereaderwillfindallthreethemesastheyframethework. Beforecontinuing,theintroductionneedstoclarifytwolasthousekeepingitems.First,

IusethetermAmerica,unlessindirectcitation,tosignifytheWesternHemisphere.For people,ideas,oritemspertainingtotheUnitedStates,thisstudyusesthetermsNorth AmericanorYankee.Second,forthesamereasonofvariety,Ioftensubstitutetheword OrientalforUruguayan.ThisusageemergesfromtheofficialnameoftheSouthAmerican state,theOrientalRepublicofUruguay(RepblicaOrientaldelUruguay);veryoften Uruguayansdescribethemselvesasorientales.

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Chapter2:TheBeginningsofUSUruguayanRelations(18281906) InDecember1905,theUSDepartmentofCommerceandLaborpublishedareportfrom theNorthAmericanconsulinMontevideo,JohnOHara,regardingtheminisculetradebetween theUnitedStatesandUruguay.OHarawrotethatonecanexplainsuchdeficienttradeina verybriefsentencefailuretostudymarketconditionsand[the]absenceofpermanent representatives.Whiletheconsulfocusedontrade,hisprincipalfunctioninUruguay,onecan extrapolateasimilarconclusiontoexplainlimitedinteractiontoallfacetsofUSUruguayan relationsbefore1906social,diplomatic,andindeedcommercialthesubjectofthischapter.1 ThedistancebetweenUruguayandtheUnitedStatesaswellastheBritisheconomic andculturalinfluenceintheSouthernConeofSouthAmericaminimizedinteractionbetween WashingtonandMontevideountil1906,theyearSecretaryofStateElihuRootvisitedtheSouth Americancapital.Thisdoesnotmeanthatrelationsbetweenthetwostatesbefore1906did notexist.SomeYankeecommerceflowedtotheRiverPlateandbothstatesexchanged diplomats.Likewise,UruguayanliberalslaboredtounderstandandtoembraceNorthAmerican materialprogress.But,whilebothsidesmadeeffortstoimprovecommercialanddiplomatic relationsattimes,neitherNorthAmericansorUruguayanscouldovercomenineteenthcentury technologicallimitationsondistanceorBritisheconomiccontrolinUruguayuntilearlyinthe twentiethcentury.Evenso,theirinteractionsbefore1906underpinnedandinformedan importantrelationship,especiallyforUruguayanliberals,afterRootsvisit.

U.S.DepartmentofCommerce,BureauofForeignandDomesticCommerce.MonthlyConsularandTrade Reports.Washington:GovernmentPrintingOffice,19051910[hereafterMCTR],no.303,December1905,178.
1

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Tounderstandthisminimalcontact,oneneedssomediscussionofbothUruguayanand UnitedStateshistory.In1828,UruguayobtaineditsindependencefromneitherSpainnor PortugalbothofwhomsettledlandsinthepresentdaycountrybutfromArgentinaand Brazil.TheBritish,specificallyForeignMinisterGeorgeCanning,catalyzedsuchamove,finding thatthepersistentbickeringbetweenRiodeJanieroandBuenosAiresovertheRodelaPlata basinunderminedBritishtradeintheBandaOriental,orEasternShore,oftheUruguayRiver. Thus,in1828,hebrokeredadealtocreateabufferstatethere,themodernRepblicaOriental delUruguay.2 Between1828and1900,Uruguaysforeignrelationsbalancedthreelargerpowers

BrazilandmoreimportantlyBritainandArgentina.Politically,Uruguayfounditselfbeholdento thetwoSouthAmericanstatesthatpersistentlyinterferedwithitsdomesticpolitics.For example,twopoliticalpartiesgraduallyemergedtheBlancosandtheColoradosbecauseof an1836civilwarthatArgentinedictatorJuanManueldeRosasinstigated.Likewise,Rio coercedUruguay,nowunderthepersistentcontrolofthenominallyliberalColorados,to decimateParaguayinwhathistorianscalltheWaroftheTripleAlliance(186570). Economically,UruguayremainedaneocolonialenterpriseoftheBritish.Historian

PeterWinnastutelydemonstratesthealmostomnipotentcommercialcontrolBritish merchants,engineers,anddiplomatsintheOrientalRepublicbetweenindependenceandthe Batlleperiod(19031929),arguingthatby1900UruguaywasEnglands.AccordingtoWinn, theBritishinvestedinUruguayfortheirownsake,improvinginfrastructure,controllingthe railroads,andfoundingbanksnotforUruguayandevelopmentpersaybutfortheadvancement

2

GeorgePendle,Uruguay,3ded.(London:OxfordUniversityPress,1963),1826.

14

ofBritishcommercialinterests,especiallyJohnBullsmeatindustry.Britishloans,forexample, subsidizedrailroadsthatconnectedEnglishestanciastothecoast,notdevelopmentalloansfor irrigationprojectsthatwouldbenefitUruguayansgenerally.Nevertheless,Winnnotes,an Anglophileeliteemergedinthe1870sand1880sthatembracedBritishprogress.Bythe 1890s,someoftheseelitesincludingnewspapermanJosBatlleyOrdoezbegantoquestion theinformalempiretheBritishbuiltinUruguay.Evenso,Uruguayantradeanddiplomacy,like thatofallSouthernConestates,generallyorienteditselftoEuropeandnotNorthAmerica throughthenineteenthcentury.3 WhiletheBritishestablishedafootholdintheSouthernCone,Washingtonpolicymakers

focusedNorthAmericanforeignpolicyonaneastwestaxis,notanorthsouthaxis,largely surrenderingUruguayandtheremainderoftheRiverPlateregiontoLondon.Throughout NorthAmericanhistory,mostofthekeydiplomaticincidentsinvolvedEuropeandAsia.The LatinAmericanpolicyoftheUnitedStates,whilerelevantandarguablyattimesbriefly paramount,rarelyextendedsouthoftheCaribbeanbeforeWorldWarI. Onecanpointtothreeprinciplesreasonsforsuchanarrowgeographicviewonthe partyofWashingtonpolicymakersinthenineteenthcentury.First,theUnitedStateswasan emergingnation.Lackingindustrialmightoranexpansiveeconomy,Washingtonpolicymakers, tourists,missionaries,andmerchantsfocusedonalimitedareaoftheworldEurope,the CaribbeanincludingMexico,andAsia.Putsimply,politicalelitesinWashingtonsawtheUnited Statesbeforeindustrializationasaweakpowerandassuredthatitseconomicandpolitical needsrarelyextendedbeyondtheseregions.Second,intheageofsail,tradewindsfavored
PeterWinn,BritishInformalEmpireinUruguayintheNineteenthCenturyPastandPresent73(November 1976):113.
3

15

shipsarrivingtotheRodelaPlataregionfromEurope.ThecurrentsandwindspushedUS shipsinwardtotheCaribbeanandnotdirectlysouth.Meanwhile,otherAtlantictradewinds andcurrentspushedshipsfromEuropetothesouthwest,towardtheSouthernConeofSouth America.Evenwiththeadventofthesteamage,whichbeganinearnestinthe1870s,coal remainedanexpensetoohighforYankeemerchantsinthewoolandcattletrade,especiallyas suchgoodsexistedinsomequantitiesintheUnitedStatesalready.Third,theBritishhad alreadyestablishedsuchaneconomicandpoliticalfootholdinUruguaythataweakerUnited Statesofferedlittleornocompetition. ThisisnottosaythatStateDepartmentclerksfailedtomentionUruguay,thatNewYork merchantshadnotimaginedhowUruguayantradecouldbenefitthem,orthatUruguayan politicalelitesinMontevideodidnotenvisiontheUnitedStatesasacounterbalanceagainstthe British.Nonetheless,untilElihuRootsvisitin1906,suchdreamsprovedephemeral.

TheUnitedStatesandUruguayinthe1800s TheUnitedStatesslowlyestablishedrelationswithUruguaythroughthenineteenth century.ANorthAmericanconsulresidedinMontevideoasearlyas1821butdiplomatic relationsdidnotbeginofficiallyinMontevideountil1867.ThatOctober,PresidentAndrew Johnson(18659)accreditedhisministerresidenttoArgentina,CivilWargeneralAlexander Asboth,toserveinthesamecapacityinUruguay.Evenso,Asbothandhissuccessorsremained residentinBuenosAiresforthenextthreeyears,demonstratingtheemergingbutstillminor importanceofUruguay.By1870,relationsimprovedasthelegationmovedtoMontevideo. 16

Nonetheless,WashingtonalsoaccreditedthisofficertoParaguayandlefthisstatusasthe lowestpossiblelevelforadiplomatministerresident.Thatsameyear,Washingtonfirst placedaconsulinColonia,aformersmugglingportacrosstheUruguayRiverfromArgentina.In 1890,PresidentBenjaminHarrisonupgradedtheministerresidentstitletoenvoy extraordinaryandministerplenipotentiary,butthepositionwouldstillserveAmerican interestsinbothUruguayandParaguayuntil1914.4 PolicymakersintheOrientalRepubliclikewiseonlyslowlybuiltuprelationswiththe UnitedStatesinthenineteenthcentury.In1834,PresidentFructuosoRiveraestablisheda ConsulateGeneralinNewYorkCity,namingNorthAmericanJohnLewisDarbytothepost initially.TheConsulGeneralservedasUruguaysprincipaldiplomaticrepresentativeuntil Montevideoraisedtheconsulatetoalegationin1883,buttheForeignMinisterinMontevideo failedtonameaministerinthelegationsfirstyears.Instead,chargsdaffaires,thefirstbeing EnriqueEstrzulas,ranthelegation.MaximoTajesnamedthefirstministerresidentin1889 butthelegationoddlyremainedinNewYorkCityuntil1900.Thus,onecanconcludethat policymakersinMontevideothroughoutthenineteenthcenturyfocusedoncommercial relations,leavingtheirlegationinthecommercialcapitaloftheUnitedStates,ratherthanin thediplomaticseatinWashington.5
AlexanderAsbothtoWilliamSeward,15October1867,DepartmentofState,DiplomaticDespatchesfrom MinisterstoParaguayandUruguay,MicrocopyM128,RecordGroup59,NationalArchivesandRecords Administration[hereafterDD/Uruguay],roll3;SeeDepartmentofState,DespatchesfromU.S.Consulsin Montevideo,Uruguay,MicrocopyM71,RecordGroup59,NationalArchivesandRecordsAdministration[hereafter CD/Montevideo]andDepartmentofStates,DespatchesfromU.S.ConsulsinColonia,Uruguay,MicrocopyT556, RecordGroup59,NationalArchivesandRecordsAdministration. JohnLewisDarbytoLouisMcLane,18June1834,DepartmentofState,NotesfromtheUruguayanLegationinthe UnitedStatestotheDepartmentofState,microcopyT804,RecordGroup59,NationalArchivesandRecords Administration,roll1[hereafterNUL];ManuelHerrerayObestoSecretaryofState,18January1883,NUL; MaximoTajestoSecretaryofState,12November1889,NUL;JuanCuestastoJohnHay,2June1900,NUL.
5 4

17

DespitelimiteddiplomaticinteractionintheGildedAge,anindustrializingUnitedStates didattempttostrengthenrelationswithUruguayatleastonce.In1884,Congressauthorized theSecretaryofStatetosendacommercialfactfindingmissiontosomenationsinCentraland SouthAmerica.Suchmissionsoccurredwithincreasingfrequencyinthelate1800sasNorth Americanfactoriesnecessitatedtheopeningofmarketsinwhichtoselltheirgoods,according toWalterLaFebersseminalstudyoftheperiod.Inthiscase,threecommissionersleftthe UnitedStatesinlate1884andvisitedMexico,Guatemala,Peru,andChilebymid1885. FinishingtheirdutiesonthewestcoastofSouthAmericaearly,theyarrivedintheRiverPlatein earlyJune1885.ThoughtheyinitiallymeanttoleaveUruguayandArgentinaofftheitinerary, theymissedthesteamerforNewYork,allowingthemtwoweekstovisitwithpoliticaland commercialleadersinbothcountriestoavoidoffendingthesensitivitiesoftheseRepublics.6 TheirreportaboutNorthAmericantradewithUruguayofferedadepressingassessment

ofcurrentcommercebutauguredforabrighterfuture.Itnotedthatbusinesswithallthree RiverPlatecountriesArgentina,Uruguay,andParaguaywaslamentablyinsignificant,and lessthanitwasahalfacenturyagoowingtonoregularsteamconnectionwhateverwith theUnitedStates.Thecommissionersdidwritethat,whilefortytosixtysteamersarriveor departmonthlytoandfromEurope,nonewenttotheUnitedStates,excepttheoccasional vesselthatoffloadeditscargoinNewYorkbeforebringingYankeeproductstoEurope. Likewise,NorthAmericangoodsarrivedintheRiverPlateonlyrarelyandthenonEuropean

WalterLaFeber,TheNewEmpire:AnInterpretationofAmericanExpansion,18601898(Ithaca,NewYork:Cornell UniversityPress,1963);WilliamE.CurtistotheSecretaryofState,12June1885,RecordsoftheUSCommissionto CentralandSouthAmerica,microcopyT908.NationalArchivesandRecordsAdministration.

18

ships.Thus,thecommissionersassert,thecitizensoftheRiverPlatecountryonlyseetheStars andStripesonmenofwarortheoccasionalspeciallycharteredvessel.7 ThecommissionersmeetingwithAnglophilePresidentMaximinoSantoson2June1885

offeredhopeforthefutureofUSUruguayanrelations.Thecommissionerskeenlyrelatedthat manyUruguayansreferredtotheUnitedStatesasthegrandrepublicandonalmostevery discussionpointtheOrientalleaderconcededtoWashingtonsrequests,includingcloser relations,atreatyofamityandcommerce,acommonPanAmericansilvercoinforeasier commercialtransactions,andaPanAmericanConferencetoresistEuropeaninterferencein Americanaffairs.Nevertheless,Santosrefusedtodiscussareciprocalcommercialtreatyuntil theNorthAmericanCongressloweredthewooltariff.Likewise,whileSantoswelcomedthe creationofasteamshiplinetotheUnitedStates,communicatingthathehadcontractedwitha FrenchcompanytoimproveMontevideosharbor,hisgovernmentwasnotinafinancial conditiontosubsidizeit.Despitetheseassertionsofamityandhopesforgreatertrade, throughthe1880sBritishmercantileholdontheOrientalRepublicremainedintactthough Uruguaydidattendtheplanned188990PanAmericanConferenceinWashington.8 TheCuestasYears(18991903) Evenso,duringthelate1890s,politicalelitesinUruguaybegantoreviewthisBritish

political,economic,anddiplomatichegemonyintheircountry.Duringthe1890s,adistinct
7 8

Ibid. Ibid;WinndiscussesSantossadmirationforBritainonpage115.

19

subsetofexportorientedColoradoliberalsbasedinMontevideobeganquestioningthe progressofUruguayunderBritishneocolonialtutelage.Ledbynewspapereditorand politicianJosBatlleyOrdoez,theseliberalssawintheBritishcommercialdominancethe seedsofUruguayandisorderanddestitution.TheywitnessedBritishlandconsolidationinthe countrysideBatllesfatherwasavictimandaneconomicinfrastructurethatsupported BritisheconomicimperialismwithoutprovidingforUruguayansocialandinternaldevelopment. Manyoftheseliberals,lattertermedBatllistasaftertheirleader,thereforebegantolookto modernizeUruguaywithoutJohnBullandbeganadmiringthesocialprogressthattheUnited Statesatleastoutwardlyenjoyed.9 Atthesametime,thePresidencyofJuanLindolfoCuestas(18991903)slightlyaltered

theminimalistdynamicofUSUruguayanrelations.Cuestas,thoughcertainlynotaBatllista, likewisesoughttousetheUnitedStatestocounterbalanceBritishdiplomaticandmilitary mightinUruguayaswellastoassureUruguayanneutralityduringanyinterLatinAmerican dispute,especiallyonebetweenArgentinaandBrazil.Cuestas,inshort,servedastransitional figureashecamefromtheoldproBritisheliteyetrecognizedtheharmBritishcommercial interestshadcausedhiscountry.PeterWinn,forexample,callshimaputativeAnglophile.10 Diplomatically,CuestasmovedrelationsclosertotheUnitedStates.InJanuary1900,he appointedhissonofthesamenametothepostofMinisterResident.InOctober,heconfirmed Uruguayanparticipationinthe1901PanAmericanConference.Insodoing,heraisedMinister ResidenttoaMinisterPlenipotentiaryandEnvoyExtraordinary,accordinghimthesame diplomaticstatusashisYankeecounterpartinMontevideo.Ayearlater,MinisterCuestas
9

Winn,12425. Winn,115.

10

20

movedthelegationtoWashingtonDC,establishingthefirstUruguayandiplomaticpostinthe UScapital.WhilePresidentCuestasrationalizedthisrapidupgradeinthediplomaticserviceto enablehissontoserveatthePanAmericanConference,NorthAmericanMinisterWilliam FinchinMontevideopraisedCuestasforthemoveandofferedanotherrationale.Hewroteto WashingtonthatthedecisionbyCuestaswasgratifyingtomeonaccountofthemeddlesome interferenceonthepartofChileandtheproSpanishelementsinUruguay,bothofwhich soughttodistanceUruguayfromtheimperialistUnitedStates.11 Militarilytoo,CuestassoughtclosertiestotheUnitedStates.Ononehand,Cuestas soughttostrengthenhisnationsdefensesthroughthetrainingofnavalofficersintheUnited States.InMay1900,hisgovernmentinquiredaboutthepossibilityofsendingoneUruguayan studenttoWestPointandonetoAnnapolis.Twoyearslater,inApril1902,Cuestas recommendedEduardoMarioSaez,ayoungmanofgoodfamilyaccordingtoMinisterFinch, toAnnapolis.SaezwentontoasuccessfulcareerintheUruguayanNavy,servingasUruguayan navalattachinWashingtoninthe1910s.12 Likewise,CuestastwicesoughtmoretangiblemilitaryrelationswiththeUnitedStates, namelytheinsertionofYankeewarshipsinMontevideotodiscourageinternationalordomestic intrigue.ThefirstsuchinstanceoccurredinAugust1901.Thatyear,adiplomaticdispute betweenArgentinaandChilethreatenedtoinvolveUruguay.ThoughCuestassoughttokeep Uruguayneutral,hefearedthathecouldnot,especiallyifArgentina,Chile,orBrazilmade demands.Assuch,herequestedofFinchthemoralsupportofsomenationofthemagnitude

WilliamFinchtoHay,15September1900,DD/Uruguay,roll12;FinchtoHay,18October1900,DD/Uruguay,roll 12.
12

11

FinchtoHay,16May1900,DD/Uruguay,roll12;FinchtoHay,24April1902,DD/Uruguay,roll14.

21

andequipmentoftheUnitedStates...[to]maintainapolicyofimpartialneutrality. Specifically,heaskedFinchiftheUSwouldguaranteeUruguayanneutralityand,inthecaseof unduedemandsonthepartofChile,Argentina,orBrazil,thatUSshipsandtheUSlegation wouldflytheUruguayanflagasasymbolofprotectionandrespect.Cuestasspecifically lookedtotheUnitedStates,insteadofBritainoranotherstate,becauseithadnoterritorial ambitionsintheSouthernConeandsuchactionswouldnotcostWashingtononedollar. ThoughtheStateDepartmentrepliedinthenegativeinSeptember1901,citingthe positioninwhichsuchanattitude,ifformallyassumed,mightplacetheUnitedStatesvisvis theSouthernConepowers,CuestascontinuedtoprodforYankeenavalsupport.Cuestasthen askedforamoralguaranteebymaintaining[inUruguayanwaters]twoorthreeshipsfrom thestrongandfriendlygovernmentoftheUnitedStates.Finchsupportedsuchamovebut, apparentlyfearingitsrejectioninWashington,mailedadispatchmarkedpersonalto SecretaryofStateJohnHaytwodayslater.Inthis,FinchandbyproxyCuestasplayedthe Englishcard.FinchwrotethatCuestasinformedhimthatEnglandsfootholdisstrongenough andhehopestherewillbenonecessityofstrengtheningitbyputting[Uruguay]under additionalobligations.Evenso,Finchwrites,CuestasprefersEnglandtoFranceandwill accepttheformersofferiftheGovernmentoftheUnitedStatesisindisposedtolendahand. Thatday,BatllesantiCuestasnewspaper,ElDa,assertedthatagentsofCuestasmetwith retiredAdmiralWinfieldSchley,USN,theninMontevideo,earlierintheyeartosecureaNorth Americanprotectorate.Withthisproposedprotectorate,theauthorofthearticleassuredhis readers,Cuestasmayhavehopedtomaintainhisstabilityingovernment...aperpetuation similartoPorfirioDazsinMexico.WhetherCuestassplayingtheEnglishcardorSchleys 22

influenceprevailed,WashingtondidsendashipinFebruary1902.On17February,Cuestas boardedtheUSSIowa,onashortlayoverinMontevideo,andmetCaptainThomasPerry, expressinghispreferencefortheUnitedStates.Bythistime,theArgentineChileansituation haddiffuseditselfandtalkofprotectingUruguayanneutralityhadabated.13 Nevertheless,potentialinternaldisturbancesledCuestasonceagaintoseekNorth AmericannavalinterventioninMarch1903andthistimeWashingtonacquiescedquickly.Prior tothatmonthspresidentialelection,historicallyviolentoccasionsintheOrientalRepublic, CuestasrequestedofMinisterFinchaUSmanofwarasasilentwitnesstothetransferof power.FinchaugmentedCuestassrequesttoWashingtonbyoverstatingthatthereisno governmentinSouthorCentralAmericawhosefriendshipfortheUnitedStatesismoresincere thanthatofUruguayandbyreportingthatthegovernmentsofEngland,Italy,Franceand Argentinascheduledtohaveshipsonhandthatday.Threedaysafterthisappeal,Cuestas askedthatFinchreiteratetherequest,whichthediplomatdidbytelegraphandbymail.This time,FinchpressedtheissuebynotingthatCuestasbelievedthataUSvesselwouldbeasafe andsurepreventativeofwhat...isfearedwillhappeninMarch.FinchconvincedWashington quicklythistimeandon8February,theUSSNewark,flagshipoftheSouthAtlanticSquadron underthecommandofAdmiralGeorgeWatsonSumner,arrivedatMontevideo.Sumner remainedaroundfortheuneventfulelectionandgreetedCuestasssuccessoronhisfirstdayin office.14

FinchtoHay,9December1901,DD/Uruguay,roll14;FinchtoHay(personal),11December1901,DD/Uruguay, vol,14;LaCuestinInternacionalElDa(Montevideo)[hereafterElDa],11December1901;FinchtoHay,18 February1902,DD/Uruguay,roll14. FinchtoHay,24December1902,DD/Uruguay,roll15;FinchtoHay,27December1902,DD/Uruguay,roll15; FinchtoHay,12February1903,DD/Uruguay,roll16;FinchtoHay,2March1903,DD/Uruguay,roll16.

14

13

23

Inthesetwocases,Cuestassoughtandeventuallyreceivedprotectiveshowsofforce fromtheUnitedStatesandinspring1901,attheLatinAmericanScientificCongress,Cuestas assertivelydefendedtheUnitedStatesagainsttheantiYankeerhetoricofotherLatin Americans.InMarchandApril,MontevideosrenownedTeatroSolshosteddelegatesfromall themajorLatinAmericanstatestodiscussadvancementsintechnology.TheMexicandelegate, Dr.EmilioPimentel,offeredaspeechfullofdisparagingallusionstotheUnitedStateswhich MinisterFinchreportedtheotherdelegatesmetwithenthusiasticapplause,asitindicated publicsentimentinMexicoandUruguaytowardtheUnitedStates.Nevertheless,Cuestastook theinitiativeandsixdayslaterinvitedthedelegatestodinnerathisresidence.Thetoastthat CuestasofferedheresurprisedMinisterFinch.TheNorthAmericandiplomatwrotethat, althoughCuestasfoundhimselfsurroundedbyLatinAmericans...someofwhomhad expressedthemselvesinprettyplaintermsthereverseofcomplimentaryoftheUnitedStates, thepresidentchampionedthefelicityandgoodofAllAmerica,includingtheeldersister,the GreatRepublicoftheUnitedStatesofNorthAmerica.Inthiscase,Cuestaswentoutofhis waytosupporttheUnitedStatesinfrontofreproachfulLatinAmericandiplomats.15 Likewise,CuestassdiplomatsinWashingtonfavoredcloserrelationswiththeUnited States.Cuestassson,Juan,servedhisfatherashisministerresidentandlaterenvoy extraordinaryandministerplenipotentiarytotheUnitedStatesbetween1900and1903.While hereturnedhomeduetohealthproblemsin1903,PresidentCuestaswroteSecretaryofState JohnHayandRooseveltPresidentoftheGreatAmericanNation,towhosegreatdestiniesthe

FinchtoHay,23March1901,DD/Uruguay,roll13;FinchtoHay,4April1901,DD/Uruguay,roll13;Recepcin enlaCasaPresidencial,LaNacin(Montevideo),27March1901.
15

24

futureofallthecountriesofAmericaiscertainlyunited,andreiteratedhisrespectful sympathy.16 Monthslater,hisinterimreplacementinWashington,ChargdAffairesLuisAlbertode Herrera,echoedPresidentsCuestassviewofusingtheUnitedStatesasaprotector.Knowing ashedidthathisMay1903despatchtoMontevideowouldbehislastopportunitytowriteon thesubjectofU.S.UruguayanrelationsbeforehisrecallCuestashavingleftofficeinMarch 1903deHerreraarguedformuchcloserrelationsbetweenthetwocountries.Hecitedthe UnitedStatesmoralinfluenceintheNewWorld.Forhim,itwasalogicalnecessitythat UruguayusetheUnitedStatesasasentrytoprotecttheterritorialintegrityoftheOriental Republic,aservicenootherSouthAmericanRepublicshouldofferUruguay.17 Nevertheless,Cuestasandhissupportersrankedastheexceptions.ManyUruguayans

sawthepostSpanishAmericanWarUnitedStatesasathreat.Thus,whilesomeColorado elitessoughtclosertieswiththeUnitedStates,thegeneralsentimentofnativesinSouth AmericatowardstheUnitedStatesasthereverseoffriendlyorflattering,asMinisterFinch reportedinmid1902.FinchfoundthatCuestaswasfriendlytotheUnitedStates,butmostin UruguayhadnoloveforYankees,preferringthedominationofalmostanygovernment, monarchicalorotherwise,toprospectivetutelagebytheUnitedStates.IntheCuestasyears, oppositioncamefromtwoimportantgroupsinUruguay:liberalintellectualsthat1898Yankee

16 17

FinchtoHay,2March1903,DD/Uruguay,roll16.

LuisdeHerreratoJosRomeu,22May1903,FondoMinisteriodeRelacionesExteriores,Legacinen Washington,ArchivoGeneraldelaNacin(Montevideo),[hereafterMRREE/AGN]caja267,carpeta100.

25

imperialismhaddisenchantedandtheconservativeproSpanishelementinthecountry, whichthesurroundingpowersoftenencouragedintheirantiYankeeattacks.18 ThemostprominentUruguayanintellectualintheCuestasyears,JosEnriqueRod, belongedtothisliberalantiYankeeelement,despitebeingasenatoroftheColoradoParty.In reactiontothe1898SpanishAmericanWar,hefamouslycritiquedNorthAmericanimperial arrogancein1900,inhismodernistdialogueentitledAriel.ForRod,theNorthAmericanquest formaterialgainhasledtoinsufficiencyandemptinessandthusgoodtastehaseludedthe Yankee.Tobefair,RoddidnotcritiqueYankeesasviscerallyastheColdWarLatinAmerican Left,whooftencherrypickedRodsargument,claimedhedid.Forexample,Rodadmires theUnitedStatesanditscitizensinsomerespects,namelytheiruseoflogic,theirindividualism alongsidetheirassociationalism,andtheirthirstforknowledge.Indeed,hewritesthat BenjaminFranklinwasthehighestpointinNorthAmericanmoralitybecauseofhishonesty andhisprudence.Nonetheless,itistrue,RodsprotagonisteffectivelywarnsLatinAmericans againstadoptingtheYankeematerialistmodelandinsteaddesiresforthemtofollowthemodel ofreason...noblesentiment...andthesublimeinstinctforperfectibility.19 Nonetheless,Rod,whilehemayhavespokenofuniversalthemesthathaveresonated toantiYankeeaudiencesinthetwentiethcentury,didnothavetheearofthetwopolitically potentmembersoftheColoradoParty,namelyCuestasorBatlle.Neitherpoliticianfound RodsantiYankeecriticismspoliticallysuitablewhiletheysoughttocurryfavorwiththe UnitedStates.Infact,RodsfallingoutwithBatllenecessitatedhisselfimposedliteraryexile
18 19

FinchtoHay,30July1902,DD/Uruguay,roll15.

JosEnriqueRod,Ariel,trans.MargaretSayersPeden(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,1988),7477,81,83, 98.

26

inFebruary1905sothathecouldcompletehisworkMotivosdeProteo.WhileRoddidreturn toMontevideoandtheUruguayanSenate,heneverheldpoliticalpowercommensuratetohis literarystandingduringhislifetime.20 BesidestheintellectualsthatRodfronted,anotherothergroupinUruguaydistrusted theUnitedStatesandtheproYankeedriftitsawinCuestas:theSpanishcolonythat,through itsMontevideoorgan,theTribuna,tookeveryopportunitytoundermineNorthAmerican advancementsintheOrientalRepublicaftertheSpanishAmericanWar.AsMinisterFinch wrote,TheTribunaexpressesthesentimentsoftheproSpanishelementinMontevideo,never losinganopportunitytomisrepresentthepurposeoftheUnitedStates...especiallythe attitudeoftheUnitedStatestowardSouthAmerica.Indeed,onecanpointtoanumberof timeswhereintheTribunatookeverysuchopeningtoundermineYankeepoliciesduringthe Cuestasadministration.Forexample,inAugust1900,theTribunaeditorialcriticizedthe proposedUnionofAmericanRepublics,asthehegemonyofthegreatAngloAmerican Republicwouldonlybestrengthenedwithoutstrengtheningthepersonalityoftheother Republics.Later,theeditorsofthepaperwarnedSouthAmericansagainstthegreatcolossus oftheNorth,specificallyregardingthepurposeoftheUSSWilmingtonsexpeditionofBolivias AmazonRiver.TheTribunawarnedBoliviansagainstofferingconcessionstotheUnitedStates andthattheUnitedStateshearingtheclamorraisedinAmericabytheabsorptionofCubaand PuertoRicoandtheirconductin[the]Filipinaswanttocontinuetheconquestbutnow througheconomicinfiltrationinsteadofovertimperialism.WhiletheTribunafannedthe flamesoftheproSpanishantiYankeeelement,itreceivedhelpfromtheSpanish,stillsmarting
20

JosEnriqueRod,ElDa,9February1905.

27

fromthe1898territoriallosses.DuringtheaforementionedLatinAmericanScientific ConferenceinMarch1901,someSpanishcitizenssentatelegramtothedelegates, congratulatingthemontheinclusionofonlyLatinstatesattheconference.Theauthors hopedthatthroughresistingtheGasconismofNorthAmericatheCongressmayleadtothe formationofasoleLatinAmericannationality.21 ThisfirmoppositiontotheUnitedStatesafter1898didnotexistsolelyinUruguay,of course.ThepotentialthreatthatYankeesposedtothesovereigntyofLatinAmericanstates elicitedanangryresponsefromLatinAmericansandtheirpoliticalleaders.AsinUruguay, Spanishauthorsexacerbatedthissentiment.Throughouttheregion,publishersprintedRods Arielenoughtomaketheauthoracelebrity.Inotherwords,distrustofthegreedycommercial mindedYankeedidnotlimititselfbyanymeanstotheOrientalRepublic.22 WhileRodsfollowersandtheproSpanishelementlackedthesupportofCuestas, theydideffectivelylimitjusthowmuchrelationscouldimprovebetweentheUnitedStatesand UruguayandunderCuestas,therefore,theydidsoonlymarginally.Ononewingofthe ColoradoParty,CuestassoughttheuseofAmericanmilitaryanddiplomaticstrengthtooffset BritishgainsaswellaspreventArgentineorChileanaggression.Ontheotherwingofthe ColoradoParty,CuestassrivalBatlle,thoughBritishneocolonialismangeredhim,hadnot quiteyetdevelopedaprogramtoreplaceit.NeitherBatllenorCuestassoughtclosersocial ties.Ontheotherhand,amajorityofthecountry,includingvariousfactionsofthefragmented
FinchtoHay,21January1901,DD/Uruguay,roll13;TheProposedAmericanUnion,LaTribuna(Montevideo), 11August1900,inFinchtoHay,20August1900,DD/Uruguay,roll12;TheYankeestowardtheSouth,LaTribuna (Montevideo),16January1901,inFinchtoHay,21January1901,DD/Uruguay,roll13;FinchtoHay,25March 1901,DD/Uruguay,roll13. FredrickPike,TheUnitedStatesandLatinAmerica:MythsandStereotypesofCivilizationandNature(Austin: UniversityofTexasPress,1992),193194.
22 21

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ColoradoParty,distrustedtheUnitedStatesprincipallyoverWashingtons1898imperialist exercise. Justasdiplomaticrelationsimprovedslightly,sodidNorthAmericancommerceunder Cuestas.AccordingtoaUSconsularreport,thetradefiguresfortheperiodofCuestas administrationshowedthatwhiletheUnitedStatesremainedbehindEngland,Germany,and FranceinthevalueofitsexportstoUruguay,itsrateofexportgrowthhadincreasedthirtyone percent,secondonlytothegrowthrateofGermantradeinUruguay.Theauthorofthereport citedagoodoutlookforNorthAmericangoodsespeciallythoseofsteelandironand estimatedthat,atthecurrentrateofgrowth,theUnitedStatesshouldbeabletosoonpass FranceandtakethirdplaceintheUruguayanmarket.23 Despitethismarginalincrease,theBritishstrangleholdontrade,thecrosstradewinds inonlytheearlydaysofsteamships,andthehistoricalEastWestblindsonAmerican worldlinesslimitedAmericaninteractionintheCuestasyears.Forexample,whilethe ProgressiveeraYankeemiddleclass,burnedwithwanderlustandapursetosupportit, embarkedontravelaroundtheworld,Uruguayseemsleftofftheitineraries.Forexample, whileanumberofYankeetravelersvisitedUruguayinthe1910s,fewdidintheCuestasyears. Whentheydid,theirtreatmentofthecountrywassuperficialandoftencondescending.One suchexampleshouldsuffice.FrankCarpenters1901travelogue,SouthAmericaoffersa patronizingviewofthelittlelandofUruguay.Inthetwochaptersdevotedtothenation,as comparedtothefiveforParaguayupriver,Carpenterlamentsthepoliticalinstabilityofthe previousdecadebutlaudsUruguayforitsculture,improvingschools,goodcommunication,
23

MCTR,no.306,March1906,5863.

29

and,mostimportantly,itsagriculturalpotential,notingthelandiswelladaptedtosupporta greatpopulation.Evenso,thebulkofhisdiscussionofUruguaycentersonthebeautiful, cultured,andfashionablydressedwomenwhoattirethemselvesinthelatestfashionsfrom NewYorkandParis.Thus,evenwhilefocusingonthesuperficial,Carpenterdemonstratesthe influenceofNewYorkculturaltrends,tosomeextent.Nonetheless,Carpenterstandsoutas therule,andnottheexception,inthecultivationofaUruguayasrichbutuntappedsourceof bothnaturalandhumanbeautyintheNorthAmericanmind.24 BatllesFirstTerm(19031907) Cuestas,constitutionallyprohibitedfromseekingasecondterm,leftthepresidencyin March1903.WhilehesupportedhisMinisterofGovernmentEduardoMacEachenashis successor,BatlleranaconcertedcampaigntoattractbothColoradosandBlancosintheSenate thebodythatelectedthepresident.TocurrysupportwithBlancosorNationalistsasthey calledthemselves,Batllesprogramcarefullyavoidedoffendinganybody.Leadinguptothe election,hiscampaignshowednoneofhislaterprogressivism,ashepromisedtokeepthe statusquowithonlyanincreaseininternalimprovements.On1March,theSenateelected Batllepresidentwith55votes,eightofwhichwerefromBlancoSenators,thetotalexceeding theconstitutionalmajorityneededbyten.25

FrankCarpenter,SouthAmerica:Social,Industrial,andPolitical(NewYork:TheSaalfieldPublishingCompany, 1901),454,457,46978. MiltonVanger,JosBatlleyOrdoezofUruguay:TheCreatorofHisTimes,19021907(Cambridge, Massachusetts:HarvardUniversityPress,1963),7071;FinchtoHay,2March1903,DD/Uruguay,roll16.

25

24

30

Onceelectedpresident,Batllehadpoliticaldebtstopay.BothJosRomeuandEduardo AcevedoDaz,thoughostensiblyBlancos,supportedBatlleandhereturnedthefavorby sendingRomeutoheadtheForeignMinistryandRomeusfriendAcevedoDaztotheministry inWashington.Clearly,BatllesoughtwithAcevedoDazspostinginNorthAmericatoremove anasyetuntrustworthyallywithapowerfulpenasfaraspossible.Despitebeingtepidfriends ofBatlleinitially,bothRomeuandAcevedoDazablysupportedtheBatllistacausethroughout theirtenures.26 Shortlyaftercomingtopower,BatllefacedaBlancorebellionandlikehispredecessor, soughttousetheUSNavytohisadvantage.TheBlancorebellionbeganon1November1903, lessthansevenmonthsafterBatlletookpower,whendrunkenmembersofaBrazilianarmy brassbandenteredthenorthernbordertownofRivera,partoftheBlancofiefdomin Uruguayaninterior.Batllequicklydispatchedtworegimentsoffederaltroopsbut,bythetime oftheirarrivalinBlancoterritory,theauthoritiesinRiodeJanieroprofuselyapologizedand punishedtheintoxicatedmusiciansoldiers.27 Evenso,thetwofederalregimentsremainedinBlancoterritoryandthisprecipitateda civilwarinlateDecember1903.AccordingtothePeaceofNicoPerez,signedwithBlancos weeksintohisadministration,BatllepledgednottomilitarizeRivera.WhiletheNationalists acceptedtheregimentsinlightoftheforeignthreat,theirpersistenceinBlancoterritory causedBlancostothreatencivilwar.BatlleobligedandreadiedtheColoradosfortheconflict on31December1903.28
26 27 28

Vanger,JosBatlleyOrdoezofUruguay,73,91. Ibid.,9698. Ibid.,100,111.

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WhydidBatlleaccepttheBlancochallenge?HistorianMiltonVangerargues convincinglythat,thoughhedesiredpeace,BatlleneededColoradounity.Hisownelection monthsbeforehaddemonstratedthatpureunadulteratedColoradoliberalismwasimpossible inapoliticalculturethatpermittedBlancostoriseupinrebellion,fighttoastalemate,andgain morepoliticalpowerinordinatewiththeirpopularstrength.Inotherwords,accordingto Vanger,theyoungColorados,thoseideologuesthatlaterwouldseektoremakeUruguay, werespoilingforafight.29 Theygottheirfight.TheBlancogauchosunderfieldcommanderAparacioSaravia provedquiteadeptatwarfare.ManagingthewarfromtheirDirectorateinBuenosAires,the BlancoscapturedtheimportantcentraltownofMinaswithrailconnectionstoMontevideo,a dangerousthreatforBatlleintheearlytwentiethcentury.ColoradoforcesremovedSaravia fromMinasandforcedheavycasualtiesonhimattheBatlleofTupambatothenorthon22 June1904,thebloodiestbattleinthewholebloodyhistoryofUruguayanwars.30 Atthispoint,BatllesoughtNorthAmericanaid.DuringtheafternoonofSunday3April 1904,ForeignMinisterRomeuandhisdaughtersvisitedtheNorthAmericanlegationin Montevideo.Whilesuperficiallyasocialcall,Romeutooktheopportunitytoconversewith FinchonthematterofArgentineinterference.FinchwrotetoWashingtonthattheUruguayan governmentisdistrustfulofArgentina.Romeu,Finchwrote,feltthatArgentinahadtakena blindeyetotheinsurrectionssupplyingandplanningthatwereoccurringwithinitsborder wouldshortlyinterveneunderthepretenseofpeacebutreallywithanotherobject.Romeu wentevenfurtherandleftwithFinchaninternalForeignMinistryconfidentialmemofor
29 30

Ibid.,110. Ibid.,14547.

32

forwardingtoWashington.ThememorandumfoundthatwhileBrazilstrictlyfulfillsdutiesof goodneighborhood...thereismuchconspiracyagainstthetranquilityofUruguayis[sic]in theArgentineRepublic.Inshort,thememorandumfearedanintervention...ofthat RepublicinOrientalaffairs.31 Giventhisdistrust,PresidentBatlleinstructedhisministerinWashington,AcevedoDaz, toseekPresidentRooseveltsaidinsubvertingwhathesawasArgentineanintrigue.On2 August1904,AcevedoDazaskedtheStateDepartmenttomeetwiththepresidentonamatter oftranscendentimportance.Rooseveltconvenedwithhimfourdayslater,on6August. Beforehand,SecretaryofStateJohnHayhaddecidedthatRooseveltwouldlistenbutrefer AcevedoDaztoHay.WhileneithertheStateDepartmentnortheForeignMinistrysfilesrelate eventhesubjectofthatconversation,Batllelaterwrotefromhisdeathbedin1929thatthe missionaimedtoseethepresenceofAmericanshipsandtheinfluence[thegovernmentofthe UnitedStates]waswillingtoexercise...sothat[Argentina]wouldobservetheneutrality requiredofthem.NoYankeecruisersarrivedimmediatelyand,accordingtoHayinalater memo,theSecretarydeclinedAcevedoDazsrequestforcause.32 SuchadenialdidnotdiscourageBatlle.Instead,heembracedatacticthatworkedfor PresidentCuestasin1901thatresultedinthearrivaloftheUSSIowausingMinisterFinch. LaterinAugust1904,BatlleaskedForeignMinisterRomeutorepeattherequestbutthistime throughNorthAmericanministerFinchinMontevideoinsteadofAcevedoDazinWashington.
31 32

FinchtoHay,7April1904,DD/Uruguay,roll17.

EduardoAcevedoDaztoHay,2August1904(telegram),DepartmentofState,DiplomaticInstructionsofthe DepartmentofState,MicrocopyM77,RecordGroup59,NationalArchivesandRecordsAdministration,roll128 [hereafterDI/Uruguay];FrancisB.LoomistoBabcock,2August1904,enclosedinAcevedoDaztoHay,2August 1904(telegram),DI/Uruguay;SucesosInternacionalesde1904,ElDa,11October1929;HaytoAlveeAdee, undated,enclosedinFinchtoHay,23August1904,DD/Uruguay,roll17.

33

On23August1904,FinchcabledattherequestoftheMinisterofForeignRelationsRomeu thatBatllerequestedthemoralinfluenceoftheUnitedStatesbutatthesametimeUruguay doesnotasknorexpecthelp.Romeufeltthatalightdraftshipcouldmakeafriendlytourof observation[from]MontevideotoPaysand...andoffendnobody.Effectively,thisnaval demonstration,Finchfelt,woulddeterneighboringRepublicsfromcontinuingtosupportthe Uruguayanrevolutionists,enablingtheColoradostocrushtherebellion.Toassure WashingtonthatBatlletargetedArgentina,Finchcabledon2SeptemberthatRomeurequests metocable[that]Brazil[is]maintainingsatisfactoryneutrality.33 Asitdidin1901forCuestas,usingFinchsucceededforBatlle.SecretaryHay,apparently nowthatMontevideoclarifiedtherequest,agreedwithFinchinaninternalStateDepartment memoandnotedthatifavesselcouldlookintheresometime,itmightdonoharm.TheUS NavyinformedtheStateDepartmenton24AugustthatnoshipswerenearUruguaybutthat somewouldbeintheSouthAtlanticaround3September.SecondAssistantSecretaryofState AlveyAdeerepliedtoFinchon6SeptemberthattheNavyhadinformedhimthattheUSS TacomawasinMontevideoandthattheNavyDepartmentorderedtheCommanderofthe SouthAtlanticSquadrontoarrivethereshortly.Indeed,accordingtotheNorthAmerican consulatMontevideoJohnHopley,theTacomaunderCommanderR.H.Nicholsondidarriveon 29AugustlessthanaweekafterFinchsrequestandstayeduntil7Septemberbefore

FinchtoHay,23August1904,DD/Uruguay,roll17;FinchtoHay,2September1904(telegram),DD/Uruguay,roll 17.
33

34

departingforRiodeJaniero.BatllestacticworkedandonceagainWashingtonsoughtto expanditsmoralinfluenceintheOrientalRepublicthroughashowoffriendlyforce.34 TheTacomasarrivalworkedsymbolicallybuthadlittleeffectonendingthecivilconflict amonthlater.On12September1904,FinchcabledWashingtontheresultsofthebattleof Masoller(1September1904)Seravia[sic]militaryleaderrevolutiondead.On25 September,announcingthepeacepact,FinchcabledpeaceinUruguay.Thatsameday, AcevedoDazinformedtheStateDepartmentthathehadreceivedbytelegraphthenewsof thesigningofapeacepactbetweenBatlleandtherebelsandAdee,representingHay,replied cordially,thathewasgratified.35 OncetherebellionconcludedandtheBlancosdisappearedasaneffectivepoliticalforce, BatllewentaboutremakingtheRepublicasaprogressive,modernstate.Thedecisivedefeatof theBlancosmeantinBatllesmindthathisliberalandprogressiveethos,theColoradosnow unitedandfirmlybehindhim,couldtranslateintoeffectivepoliticalandsocialprogramsto underminethenegativeeffectsofneocolonialism.Somehistoriansthinkthatthisoccurred duringBatllessecondadministration(191115).Indeedthisistrue,butonecanfindprecursors ofsuchprogressivisminhisfirstadministration.36

HaytoAlveyAdee,undated,enclosedinFinchtoHay,23August1904,DD/Uruguay,roll17;AdeetoFinch,6 September1904,DI/Uruguay;JohnHopleytoLoomis,10September1904,CD/Montevideo,roll15. FinchtoHay,12September1904(telegram),DD/Montevideo,roll17;FinchtoHay,25September1904 (telegram),DD/Uruguay,roll17;AcevedoDaztoHay,25September1904,MRREE/AGNcaja267,carpeta116; AdeetoAcevedoDaz,10October1904,MRREE/AGNCaja267,carpeta116.JohnCharlesChasteencitesSaravias deathastheendofthegauchoerainUruguay.SeeJohnCharlesChasteen,HeroesonHorseback:ALifeandTimes oftheLastGauchoCaudillos(Albuquerque:UniversityofNewMexicoPress,1995). SeeMiltonVanger,TheModelCountry:JosBatlleyOrdoezofUruguay,19071915(Hanover,NewHampshire: UniversityPressofNewEngland,1980).

36 35

34

35

Insodoing,BatllesoughtNorthAmericantechnicalexpertiseandideologicalguidance inhissocial,economic,andtechnicalprogramsbetween1903and1906.Oneneedlookno furtherthanBatllesnewspaperElDa,ofwhichBatllesurrendereddaytodayoperationswhile president.Nonetheless,astheownerofthepaperandoccasionalcontributor,Batlleassured thatElDastoodoutasthemouthpieceoftheBatllistasatleastthroughhis1929death.Thus, throughasurveyofitscontentsbetween1903and1906,onecanunderstandthefoundationof hisprogressivemindset.37 DuringBatllesfirstadministration,ElDarecordedtheattitudeoftheProgressive UnitedStatesonvariousissues,allofwhichinsomewaysmirroredBatlleslaterreforms. WhilethearticlesinElDarangedfromthecuriousandmundaneaspectsofYankeelifetothe politicallyandeconomicallysignificantevents,certainprominentthemesofNorthAmerican social,economic,commercial,political,anddiplomaticlifestoodoutintheBatllistaorgan.In otherwords,thesheerquantityofarticlesinElDacoveringNorthAmericantopics demonstratedthattheBatllistasnotonlyhadaninterestintheUnitedStatesbutalsoa comprehensiveknowledgeofNorthAmericanlife. TwoNorthAmericansubjectsagricultureandreligiondeservementionforthe qualityoftheircontentinElDa,thoughthequantityoftheirarticlesaresurprisinglyfew.Built onnineteenthcenturyLatinAmericanliberalism,Batllespoliticalphilosophydistrustedboth theCatholicChurchandtheruralcaudillosasimpedimentstotrueprogress.Alternativesto underminethesetwoUruguayaninstitutionswouldallowformodernization,inBatllesmind.
Finch,earlyintoBatllesadministration,feltregardinganeditorialinElDathatitreflects[Batlles]position.Its publicationwasdoubtlesslyauthorizedbyhim,iftheoriginalwasnotwrittenbyhim.SeeFinchtoHay,22March 1903,DD/Uruguay,roll16;VangerlikewiseassertsthatthoughBatllecontinued[Pedro]ManiniRosand [Domingo]ArenaasnominaleditorsofElDa,...heneverreallycouldstoprunningElDa.SeeVanger,Jos BatlleyOrdoezofUruguay,73.
37

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Thus,agriculture,asopposedtocattleranching,offeredaneffectivesubstituteforinterior developmentthatcouldundercutthepoweroftheBlancocaudillos.Therefore,inthemidstof thedestructive1904civilwar,onefindsanElDaarticlediscussinghowtheUSDepartmentof Agriculture,unlikeitsEuropeancounterparts,havetransformedthousandsofsquaremilesof Nebraskadesertintoimmenseforestsinonlytenyears.TheYankeeagriculturalengineers completedsuchasurprisingtransformationusingmostlypinetreesbutalsoredcedars,the authornoted.38 Likewise,NorthAmericanreligiouspolicy,specificallytheseparationofchurchand state,servedasaminorbutsignificantsubjectinElDa.UruguayanChargdAffairesin WashingtondeHerreraoccasionallywroteforElDaonparticularissuesundertheheadlineof DesdeWashington.InApril1903,amonthafterBatlletookoffice,hediscussedthereligiosity oftheYankees.Forhim,theUSsfreedomofreligionbywhichhemeansallbrandsof Christianitywasadmirable.AccordingtodeHerrera,lackingastateordainedchurchdidnot leadtothemoraldeclineofcivilization.Onthecontrary,NorthAmericanswereessentially religiousandmoraldespitelackingastatechurch.Ironically,toaccountforit,deHerreracited NorthAmericasreligiousmarketplace.Namely,hearguedthatsincechurcheslackedstate subsidyintheUnitedStates,theycreatedrobustorganizationstosupportthemselves. Surprisingly,thediplomatfound,evenCatholicismhastakenholdoftheYankeenational temperament[]cold,practical,andinaccessibletoseductions,citingtheinfluenceofCatholic populareducationintheUnitedStates.Overall,theliberaldeHerreraarguedthatUruguay

38

ComoseTransformanlosDesiertos,ElDa,12June1904.

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shouldacceptitsnobleexampleintheabsoluteseparationofchurchandstateandto separatecivillawssuchasmatrimonyanddivorcefromCatholictradition.39 OtherNorthAmericanideasoccupiedmuchmorespaceinBatllesnewspaper. Specifically,therapidityofindustrialadvancesimpressedthejournalistspublishedinElDa.For example,aMarch1903authormarveledatthescopeofPittsburghssteelindustryandits luxurioustechnicians,evenashelamentedthepoorworkingconditionsofthelaborers. Likewise,anarticlelaterthatmonthnotedthatwhiletheYankeeeconomyhasoverall advanced,suchimprovementshavenotbeendistributedequally.40 Morethananyindustrialtopic,ProgressiveEracommercialreforms,mostnotablythe Progressivesconsumerprotectionlaws,madenewsinElDa.By1903,theUruguayancharg daffairesinLondonhadconcludedthat,giventhesteepriseinbeefconsumptionintheUnited States,thatnationcouldnotaffordtoexportcattletoEuropeinafewyears.Forthediplomat, then,aslongastheUruguayancattlemenandgovernmentcontinuetoimitatetheconductof theUnitedStatesandsubjecttheexportedmeattoasevereandprolongedinspection, UruguayshouldbeabletoenhanceitsEuropeanmarketshare.41 TheevilsofNorthAmericantrustsandWashingtonsexertionofauthoritytobreak themcaughttheattentionoftheBatllistaliberalsaswell.A1904articlelamentedthatfinancial duplicityoftwoprominentYankeesyndicatesthePennsylvaniaRailroadandthesteel
ForBatllesagnosticandespeciallyantiCatholiccredentials,seeVanger,JosBatlleyOrdoezofUruguay,7, 1701,24950;DesdeWashington,ElDa,12April1903;DesdeWashington,ElDa,13April1903. DesdeWashington:LasfundacionesdePittsburg,ElDa,3March1903;Laprosperidadeconmicadelos EstadosUnidos,ElDa,9March1903. Despitethediplomatsassertion,theUSgovernmentsstandardscouldnothavebeentoohighasCongress, citingpublicoutrage,passedMeatInspectionActthreeyearslater.ElseorSaensdeZumarn,ElDa,15 September1903
41 40 39

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industryleadingtoadisastrousfinancialcrisis.ElDanoticedthefollowingyearwhen JamesR.Garfield,CommissionerofCorporationsintheDepartmentofCommerceandLabor, blamedthedifferencesinstatelegislationincontributingtotheperniciousstateofthingsEl Dastermandadvocatedfederallegislationtodestroythetrusts.42 YankeetechnologicalinnovationalsocaughttheattentionofBatllistaliberals.For example,ElDadevotedanarticletotheinterestingindustryofCharlesMeyer,whousedhis farminUtica,NewYork,tomassproducehydrogenballoonsthatcruisetheskies.Another articlemarveledatthe1905constructionoftheNewYorkHippodrome,amassivedowntown officebuilding.MedicaltechnologylikewisefounditsadvocatesamongtheElDaeditorial board.One1903articleentitledTheCountryofMiraclesnarratedhowan11yearoldNorth Americanblindgirl,LiliaSpitznader,regainedhersightbrieflythroughtheuseofxraysand radiowaves.43 Furthermore,firstwavefeminismreceivedanoticeableamountofnewsprintinBatlles paper.ShortlyafterBatllecametopower,deHerrera,aspartofhisDesdeWashington series,offeredinsightsintothewomenoftheUnitedStatesintheirquestforpoliticalequality. InUruguay,heargued,menhadconfinedwomentomarriageoralifeofvicethroughafalse conceptofhonorandacultofridiculousappearancesthatturnedwomenintocautious entities,absurdlyrestrictedintheirlibertiesofaction,preventingthemfromexecutingtheir intelligence.Conversely,intheUnitedStates,deHerrerafoundcompetent...efficient... andcleverwomenengagedinlaw,dentistry,banking,commercialwriting,government
Lostrustsnorteamericanosen1903,ElDa,7March1904;LostrustsenlosEstadosUnidos,ElDa,13 February1905. UnaIndustriaInterestante,ElDa,21April1903;Enelpasdelasmaravillas,ElDa,8October1903.

42

43

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service,aswellasworkinginpharmacies,hotels,andlibraries.NorthAmericanwomensrights, suchasowningpropertyandbusinesses,chargingrent,andtestifyincourtimpressedthe diplomat.Likewise,deHerreraappreciatedthewomenscivicorganizationsintheUnited States,especiallytheDaughtersoftheAmericanRevolution.Insum,headvocatedthat UruguayfollowthesuggestiveexampleofNorthAmericaandeducateitswomen,sothatthe daywillcomewhenhumanitywillwinthegloriousbattleoverinjustice.44 NorthAmericanwomenandtheirveryoriginalfeminismshowedupelsewhereinEl Da.Theeditorsnoticedthe1903openingofNewYorksMarthaWashingtonHotel,a womensonlyinnthatgaveawomananindependenthomewhenthenecessitiesoflifeor specialcircumstancesobligatedhertorenouncethehome,marriedlife,andthejoysoffamily. TheytitledthisarticleElFeminismoenlosEstadosUnidosorFeminismintheUnitedStates. A1904articlefromNorthAmericanjournalistM.ClevelandMoffett,reprintedfromaFrench newspaper,demonstrateshowlifeisclearlynothappyforAmericanmen.Asfeminists neglectedtheirdomesticdutiesforpokerandcocktailrestaurants,thesewomentreatedmen onlyasbreadwinnersanddivorcesinNewYorkCityincreasedinspectacularproportions. In1905,ElDapublishedabriefstoryaboutSaraJackson,aDearborn,Michiganwomanwho, afterhavinginnumerableboyfriendsoverthecourseofmorethanfortyyears,became annoyedaboutthelackofsincerityofone.Thus,shemovedoutintothecountrysideandlived

DesdeWashington,ElDa,4May1903;DesdeWashington,ElDa,5May1903;DesdeWashington,ElDa, 6May1903.
44

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withafemaleservantwhosejobentaileddealingwithmenonlywhenevernecessaryandleft strictinstructionsthatwomenweretoperformeveryimportantactatherfuneral.45 Anotherminoritygroup,AfricanAmericans,likewiseengenderedmuchcuriosityamong Batllistasbetween1903and1906.DespiteUruguaycontainingfewracialminorities,the treatmentthatAfricanAmericansreceivedintheUnitedStatesoftenbecameacuriosityforits reformers.InMay1903,ElDanotedthat,inadditiontotheproblemsinMoroccoand Macedonia,oneotherworldissuemeritedspecialattention:thequestionofraceinthe UnitedStates.TheauthorofthisarticlelaudedPresidentRooseveltforcontributingwhathe couldtodignifyAfricanAmericansdespitetheattendantpoliticalcosts.Inanotherarticle fromJuly1904,anArgentinevisitortotheSt.LouisWorldsFairwrotetoElDaanddescribed thedisagreeableconditionoftheblackintheUnitedStates,referencingespeciallyJimCrow laws.ASeptember1904articleofferedabiographyofblackreformerBookerT.Washington callinghismovementtrulyadmirableandwhilesociologistsdebateWashingtonseducational philosophythatblacksmaysomedayreachtheintellectualcapacityofwhites,theauthors assuredhisOrientalreadersthatallNorthAmericansuniversallyadmirethefigureofBooker Washingtonandtherespectabilityofhisemancipatorywork.Finally,demonstratingthat UruguayanshadasignificantunderstandingofthedepthoftheracialproblemintheUnited StatesthoughperhapsnotofblackphysiologyElDaprintedanarticleinMarch1904 entitledBlacksandXrays.ItdescribeshowHenryPancoast,citedasaprofessoratthe UniversityofPhiladelphiabutinrealityattheUniversityofPennsylvaniainPhiladelphia,had inadvertentlydiscoveredthatxrayswouldwhitenblackpatientsskin.Thisdiscovery,
ElFeminismoenlosEstadosUnidos,ElDa,4November1903;MujeresYankees,ElDa,17May1904;Un testamentofeminista,ElDa,12February1905.
45

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accordingtotheanonymousjournalist,wouldresolveinaninoffensivemannerthequestion thatsoworriestheYankees.Unfortunately,theauthordidnotknowtheopinionofthe blacksonthisparticularissuebecausemanyofthemearntheirlivingasblacksandknowthat theywoulddieofhungerbytransformingintowhites.46 WhileBatllistasnoticedtheNorthAmericanpreoccupationwithrace,theydidnotseem tocareaboutthedivergencebetweenrichandpoorintheUnitedStates.Instead,theBatllistas focusedverymuchonthepositivesideofYankeeprogressthewealthyhopingtoportray thatRockefellers,Carnegies,andMorgansasidealsmoreoftenthannot.Forexample,the editorstookdelightinnotingthatNorthAmericanmillionaireArcherHuntington,whoselast nametheymisspelledasHurlington,visitedthealmshousesandlibrariesofMontevideoand donatedacollectionofbooksinSeptember1903.AMay1905articlerelatedhowanunnamed wealthymanworthmillionsofdollarsmetandwascurrentlydatingapoorRussianJewin NewYorkandhowhe,andothermenofwealth,abandonedtraditionalreligionformysticism. AJanuary1906articlegaveitsreadersbiographiesofthetwowealthiestpeopleofeachgender intheUnitedStatesHettyGreenandJohnRockefeller.Anarticletwomonthslater demonstratedtheavariceofthecharacterofthegreatestNorthAmericancapitaliststhrough thecrookedbusinessdealingsofRockefellerandRusellSage.Suchnegativeportrayalsofthe USeliteswererareinElDa.Rather,sensationalnarrationsthatappliedtotheYankee moneyedclassattractedtheattentionofElDaseditors;anApril1906storynarratedingreat

46

LacuestionderaicesenlosEstadosUnidosElDa,22May1903;LosNegrosenEstadosUnidos,ElDa,24 July1904;ElnegroBookerT.Washington,ElDa,11Sepember1904;LosnegrosylosrayosX,ElDa,14March 1904.

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depththeplotofPatrickClowetokidnapJohnRockefellerssonforransom,exemplifyingan emergingYankeeenterprise.47 Likewise,whentheYankeeworkingclassappearedinElDa,anditdidsosparingly,the editorstreatedtheproletariatasahurdletoprogressandofferedonlyasmallefforttoview theworldfromthepopularlens.Forexample,aDecember1903articlenotedthatwhilethere weremanystrikesintheUnitedStates,thefocuswasnotonthestrikersortherationale behindthestrikes,butinsteadonJamesFarleysfamouspracticalmethodtoresolvethem rovingbandsofstrikebreakersforhire.AnAugust1904reprintfromFrenchtravelerwriter JulesHuretlamentedthatthepioneerspirithadlefttheUnitedStates.ThoughYankeeshadin almostalltheproblemsofmateriallifehadfoundmechanicalsolutions,inoneareaserving themselvestheystillreliedonoverpriced,undertrained,andlazydomesticservants.Again, Huretdoesnotfocusontheplightofthemaidsandnannies,butinsteadonNorthAmerican wealthswillingnesstokeepthesedomesticservantsarounddespitetheirmanyfaults.Though anUruguayanauthordidnotpenthisarticle,itspublicationinElDanonethelessdemonstrates thatBatllistas,atleastearlyintheirmovement,focusedonmaterialprogress,asUncleSam exemplified,ratherthanproletarianplightintheindustrializedworld.48 NorthAmericaneducationpracticesthereformofwhichinUruguaywouldlaterserve asthefoundationoftheBatllistastatewerepopularsubjectsinElDa.AMay1903,article, forexample,foundthatNorthAmericaneconomicsuccessdidnotemergefromtheaptitudeof
ElmillonarioHurlington,ElDa,9September1903;ElmillonarioHurlington,ElDa,11September1903;Los millonariosnorteamericanos,ElDa,29May1905;EnelMundodeDinero,ElDa,23January1906;Laavaricia delosmidasyanquis,ElDa,21March1906;Losbanditosamericanos,ElDa,14April1906. LashuelgasenlosEstadosUnidos,ElDa,7December1903;ElserviciodomsticoenlosEstadosUnidos,El Da,1August1904.
48 47

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labororcapital,northeUnitedStatessfavorablenaturalwealth,buttheinevitableresultof popularinstructionasitispracticedinthecounty.Amonthlater,deHerreraelaboratedon thisview.FordeHerrera,educationintheUnitedStates,withitsemphasisonphysicalfitness, practicalarts,andindividualismnotonlyallowedmenlikeJohnRockefellerandAndrew Carnegietorisefromthestreetsbutalsowasalaboratoryinwhichthesolidnationalcement isprepared.Here,heinfersthatUSsecondaryeducation,especiallywithitsemphasison patriotichistory,stoodasthefoundationofNorthAmericannationalism.Alaterarticlebyde Herreralamentedthatthoughhehadheardsaidthat[Uruguays]schoolsystemisareflection, adaptedtoUruguay,oftheUSversion,itwasnot.Rather,hefoundthattheUSadministrators havelocalizedYankeeschoolingleavingscholarlydecisionstothestatesandmunicipalities andhaveemphasizedpublicoverprivateeducation,bothtraitshepreferstothecentralistand spiritualsystemthenprevalentinOrientaleducation.Nevertheless,theeditorsofElDa carefullyavoidedseemingtoopartisaninitsadmirationofNorthAmericanscholarlyforms.In aneditorialonthestateofeducationinthecountryoneofmanythatappearedintheBatlle periodtheeditorsarguedthatweshouldnotcopyorputintopracticewithoutthoughtthe mostrenownedmethodsthatareemployedinthemoreadvancedcountriesinthisrespect becauseitnotalwayswhatisusefulandbestforourcountrynorwillitbenefitus,notingthe distinctethnic,climatologicaly,andgeographicfactorsinUruguay.49 BatllistaslikewisemarveledatYankeemilitaryequipmentinElDa.Forexample,in 1903,BatllespaperranalengthyarticleonthebenefitsoftheColtmachinegun,themost modernandperfectmachinegunthathasbeenconstructed,especiallyinlightofitsabilityto
Elobreronorteamericano,ElDa,26May1903;DesdeWashington,ElDa,6June1903;Desde Washington,ElDa,7June1903;LaReformaUniversitaria,ElDa,9April1905.
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firenearlyfivehundredroundsperminute.Moreover,aMarch1904articlecitedthesuccess oftheJapaneseseffectivenessatPortArthurduringtheRussoJapaneseWar,owingprincipally tothedistanceoftheircannonfireandsuggeststhatdistancemorethananyotherfactor influencesacannonseffectiveness.Thus,thearticlesauthormarveledatthepiecewiththe largestfiringdistanceintheworld,thefamous40centimetercannonthatdefendsNewYork CityatRockawayPointthatcansendaprojectileclosetothirtyninekilometers.50 Mostamusingly,advertisementsforNorthAmericanproductsappearedalmostdailyin ElDa.SalesmenofProgressiveErahomeopathicandherbalremediesfoundcustomersin Uruguay.Forexample,onefindsannouncementstrumpetingPhiladelphianDr.Lobbs homeopathiccureformenstruation,whichreestablishesthetissue,expelsthepoisonfrom theblood,reinvigoratestheeffectedorgans,tonestheheart,andstrengthensthebody.New YorksDr.RichardsPillscuredanumberofailments,includingstomachache,bloatedness,gas accumulation,sourness,orheadache.Dr.WilliamsPinkPillsforPalePeople,aCanadian companythatadvertisedthroughitsbranchofficeinSchenectady,NewYork,offeredatablet sizedcureforvariousformsofrheumatism.Oneadvertisementmorethananyothercatches thereaderseyeinasurveyofBatllesElDa:GarfieldTea.Namedforthe1881Presidentof theUnitedStateswithanadthatfeaturesJamesGarfieldssignatureandsilhouette,the Brooklynproduct,ifuseddaily,curedconstipation.Itssisterproduct,GarfieldPowder,claimed

LasarmetralladorasColt,ElDa,15October1903;ElAlcancedelosCaonesModernos,ElDa,25March 1904.
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tohavetheabilitytostymieaheadache.Clearly,Yankeepharmaceuticalcompaniesaimedto dowondersforOrientalsandtheirvariousailments.51 Outsideofitsarticlescontentintheperiod,ElDaalsoservedasthedefactojournalfor theNorthAmericanpopulationofMontevideo.TheforeignpopulationsinthemajorLatin Americancitiesinthelate1800sandearly1900softencreatedtheirownnewspapertoserve theircommunitiesandgenerallypublishedanoverwhelmingmajorityoftheirarticlesina foreignlanguage.Forexample,theMexicanHeraldcateredtothesignificantYankee communityinandaroundMexicoCity.ThelargeBritishpresenceinMontevideo,even, subsidizedtheMontevideoTimes.Evenso,thesmallNorthAmericanpopulationinthe UruguayancapitaldidnotnecessitateitsownEnglishlanguagejournal.Instead,nearlyevery issueofElDacontainedasectiontitledReclamosYankeesorYankeeClassifiedsfrom whichNorthAmericanscouldsellorbartergoodsandservicesamongstMontevideos populace.Inthisrespect,ElDasubstituted,albeitinSpanish,fortheofficialnewspaperof MontevideosYankeecommunity. GiventhisemphasisonNorthAmericanprogressinhisnewspaper,itshouldcomeas nosurprisethat,oncepresidentafter1903,BatlleusedhisdiplomatsintheUnitedStatesto furtherthestatebuildinginmanyoftheareasthattheBatllistaorganemphasized.Thus, between1903and1906,Uruguayandiplomatsaskedforandoftenreceivedvariousaidsin Batllistastatebuilding,specificallyintheareasofeducationandmilitaryaffairs.

AdvertisementsfortheseproductsraninElDadailyoverthecourseofmonthsifnotyears.Specificinstances areasfollows:Dr.Lobbspillson5January1905,Dr.RichardsPillson9October1903,Dr.WilliamssPinkPillsfor PalePeopleon12October1903,andGarfieldTeaon13February1906.TheGarfieldTeaadvertisementfailsto mentionthecompanyshomebase,butitwasinBrooklyn.SeeNewYorkIncorporations,TheNewYorkTimes,3 November1901.

51

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AfterthedefeatoftheBlancos,BatllesoughttoremaketheUruguayanschoolsystem. InJanuary1905,MinisterAcevedoDaztransmittedtoMontevideothecurriculumofthe WashingtonDCsecondaryschools,emphasizingtheirliberalartscurriculum.Theinformation soimpressedtheBatllistasthatElDaprintedthedispatchinApril1905withtheintroduction thatitisanotabledocumentthatalltheintelligentmenwillappreciateitsexactvalor.Later inJanuary1905,AcevedoDazaskedforprimaryandsecondaryschooltextbooksandcurricula fromtheStateDepartmentwiththedesiretocontributetotheprogressofpublicinstruction inUruguay.Laterthatyear,heinformedSecretaryofStateHaythattheOrientalRepublicwas lookingtohireYankeestorunnewsecondaryandpostsecondaryprogramsinagronomy, veterinarymedicine,commerce,andarchitecture.ByJune1905,AcevedoDazcouldreportto MontevideothattwoNorthAmericanshadacceptedtwoofthosepostsLotusCoffmanof Salem,IndianawouldheadthesecondaryeducationschoolandUHSmithofBloomington, Indianswouldleadthecommercialschool.52 Inmilitaryaffairs,Batllesoughttoenhancetheprestigeandeffectivenessofthe Uruguayanarmedforces,especiallyinlightofthecountrysprecariousgeographicposition betweenArgentinaandBrazil.Again,BatllelookedtotheUnitedStates.EvenbeforeBatlle cametopower,studyatAnnapolisattractedatleastonewealthyUruguayanEduardoSaez, whoaskedtoattendtheacademyin1902asalreadynoted.AfterBatllesascendency,closer militaryrelationsreceivedofficialsanctionasthenewpresidentsoughtmilitaryweaponryand expertisefromNorthAmerica.Forexample,inSeptember1903,theUruguayanConsulGeneral purchasedriflesandcannonfromtheSpringfieldArmory.InJune1905,AcevedoDazaskedof
DeEduardoAcevedoDaz,ElDa,16April1905;AcevedoDaztoHay,11January1905,NUL;AcevedoDazto Hay,23May1905,NUL;AcevedoDaztoAdee,11July1905,NUL.
52

47

theStateDepartmentaplanofstudyfortheNavalAcademyinAnnapolisaswellasallthereis regardingtorpedoesandsubmarinesthatcanbesent.InJuly1906,theConsulGeneralin WashingtonhadforwardedsometwentysevenpublicationsregardingAnnapolis,fiveregarding WestPoint,andthreeconcerningtheUSHydrologicOfficethatcanbeconsultedwhenthe opportunityarrivestofound[Uruguays]NavalCollege,accordingtothechargdaffaires, PedroRequeaBermudez.53 PerhapsnoNorthAmericantopicreceivedgreaterattentioninElDathanUSforeign policy,specificallythe1904RooseveltCorollarytotheMonroeDoctrine.PresidentRoosevelt announcedthecorollaryinhisDecember1904annualmessagetoCongress.Insodoing,he citedthe1902arrivalofEuropeannaviesonthecoastofVenezuelaasathreattointer Americansecurity.VenezuelahaddefaultedonitsforeigndebtandvariousEuropeanstates intimatedthattheywouldsendflotillastocollectonthatdebt.ForRoosevelt,sucha propositionunderminedUSsecurity,especiallyinlightoftheforthcomingopeningofthe PanamaCanal,whichallowedWashingtontomaintainatwooceannavyandincreaseitsAsian commerce.Thus,inhis1904annualmessage,RooseveltassertedthattheUnitedStatesonly desires...toseetheneighboringcountriesstable,orderly,andprosperous.Astatethat showsthatitknowshowtoactwithreasonableefficiencyanddecencyinsocialandpolitical matters,ifitkeepsorderandpayobligations,itneedfearnointerferencefromtheUnited States.Nonetheless,astatethatcannotmeetitsobligationwould,accordingtoRoosevelt,

FinchtoHay,24April1902,DD/Uruguay,roll14;FinchtoHay,24September1903,DD/Uruguay,roll16; AcevedoDaztoFrancisLoomis,13June1905,NUL;PedroRequenaBermudeztoRomeu,23July1906, MRREE/AGN,Caja270,carpeta185.

53

48

forcetheUnitedStates,howeverreluctantly...totheexerciseofaninternationalpolicy power.54 Inimmediateterms,theRooseveltCorollaryshouldnothaveaffectedUruguay. ObviouslyaimedattheYankeesphereofinfluenceintheCaribbeantopreservethefuture PanamaCanal,thenunderconstruction,RooseveltdidnotfocusitontheSouthernConeof SouthAmericabutinsteadonthoseareaswashedbytheCaribbeanSea.Furthermore, UruguayunderBatlledidasufficientjobofpayingitsbills,thusfulfillingRooseveltsprincipal conditionofnoninterference:stable,orderly,andprosperous.Forexample,theUruguayan CongresspassedanewdebtrepaymentlawinJanuary1906thatrequiredthegovernmentto devotetwentyfourpercentofitscustomsreceiptstodebtrepayment.Despitethelaw,the Batlleadministrationinfactdevotedamuchlargersum74.5percentofcustomsdutiesto thedebt.Evenso,thelawforbadeanyforeigninterferencewhateverinthemanagementof theCustomsHousesoftheRepublic.Onthesurface,thisprovisoseemstoreacttoPresident RooseveltsstatementbutthiswasacommonarticleinsimilarUruguayanlegislationthat predated1904,namelyindebtlawsof1891and1896.55 Nevertheless,afterhis1906returnfromhisassignmentinWashington,Minister AcevedoDazpennedaseriesofsevenlongessaysonthemeritsoftheoriginaldoctrineand theRooseveltCorollaryunderthepennameMugwump,areferencetoGildedAgeRepublicans whosupportedtheDemocraticcandidateGroverClevelandin1884andthusearneda reputationforneutrality.Indeed,AcevedoDazdebatesthemeritsofDragoDoctrine,which theArgentineForeignMinisterpromulgatedtwoyearsbeforeRooseveltsCorollaryinresponse
54 55

MessageofthePresidentoftheUnitedStates,inHouseDoc.1,58Cong.,3sess.,serial4780,xli. Ibid.;EdwardOBrientoElihuRoot,16March1906,DD/Uruguay,roll19.

49

tothesameVenezuelancrisis.TheDragoDoctrinestatedthatnonation,includingEuropean andNorthAmericanstates,hadtherighttointerfereintheaffairsofanothertocollectmonies. Indeed,inAcevedoDazssevenarticles,therespectedintellectualliveduptothe mugwumpmonikerandfindsmeritwithboththeoriginalMonroeDoctrineandtheDrago Doctrine.Forexample,hefindsPresidentMonroes1823pronouncementanagreeablehope fortheweakrepublicsatthetimeand,whileitfailedtoprotectthemintwoinstancesin 1848duringtheYucatanCasteWarandin1831regardingtheMalvinasIslandstheUnited States,AcevedoDazasserts,neveraimedtoapplyitinallstrictnessandrigor.Likewise, whilehefindsthatRooseveltCorollaryisaspiritentirelyadversetothewellunderstood interestsofSouthAmerica,AcevedoDazdoescomplimentitsprogenitor,callingRoosevelt morallyandintellectually...amanofundeniabledistinction,andamanofgreatspirit. Nonetheless,forthediplomat,thesoundpracticesoftheDragoDoctrineconsultsthetrue interestsoftheMonroeDoctrineandisthenecessarycomplementtotheMonroeDoctrine asoriginallypromulgated,especiallyitsnoninterferenceprinciple.56 Thus,whilepoliticiansinUruguaypaidsignificantattentiontotheUnitedStates, Washingtondidnotreciprocateimmediately.Thisinattentiondidnotresultfromlackofeffort onthepartofministersresidentinMontevideo.TheattitudeofMcKinleyappointeeWilliam Finch(18981905),alreadydiscussedatlength,demonstratesthathewasasympathetic diplomatbutonewhowasatthesametimereactiveandnotproactive.

LaDoctrinaMonroe,Adams,Roosevelt,ElDa,5May1906;LaDoctrinaMonroe,Adams,Roosevelt,ElDa,6 May1906;LaDoctrinaMonroe,Adams,Roosevelt,ElDa,8May1906;LaDoctrinaMonroe,Adams, Roosevelt,ElDa,10May1906;LaDoctrinaMonroe,Adams,Roosevelt,ElDa,12May1906;LaDoctrina Monroe,Adams,Roosevelt,ElDa,13May1906;LaDoctrinaMonroe,Adams,Roosevelt,ElDa,16May1906.

56

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UponinhabitingtheWhiteHouseonhisownaccordinMarch1905andcitingapopular mandatefromthe1904election,Rooseveltshookupthediplomaticcorps,replacingmany McKinleyappointeeswithhisownassertivemen.FinchssuccessorasMinistertoUruguayand Paraguay,GeneralEdwardOBrien,broughtthatRoughRiderbravadooftheNewDiplomacyto theoffice.OBrien,fromPlattsburg,NewYork,servedasfederalCommissionerofNavigation underPresidentBenjaminHarrison(18891893)and,in1893,MayorWilliamStrongappointed himCommissionerofDocksandFerriesoftheCityofNewYork,animportantpostasit administeredallofGothamswaterbornetraffic.Inthesepositions,hehadearneda reputationasaneffectiveadministrator.Indeed,beforeAcevedoDazreturnedfromhis assignmentinWashington,hewroteRomeuthatOBrienwasaculturedpersonofgeneral illustration.57 ArrivinginJune1905,thenewministersawwithBatlleanopportunitytodisplace EuropeansandestablishagreaterYankeepresenceinUruguay.Theemerginginfluenceofthe GermanEmpire,itseems,morethananyotherstatecatalyzedOBriensactivity.Forexample, shortlyintohistenure,evenasOBrienreportedthatUruguayansresentedtheGerman commercialaggressionintotheRodelaPlataregion,henonethelessexpressedhisopinion thatalargeimmigrationintothiscountryfromNorthernEuropeshouldbeverywelcome.58 Evenso,quicklythespecterofapowerfulGermanpresenceinUruguayscaredOBrien. Inthisrespect,OBrienconcurredwithmanyintheStatesDepartmentandindeedPresident RooseveltthattheprinciplethreattoLatinAmericaemanatedfromBerlin.Proofemergedas
NewDockCommissioner,NewYorkTimes,22March1895;PresidentShakesupourDiplomaticCorps,New YorkTimes,7March1905;AcevedoDaztoRomeu,12March1905,MRREE/AGN,caja268,carpeta124.
58 57

OBrientoRoot,15July1905,DD/Uruguay,roll18.

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earlyas1902,whentheGermanNavyblockadedtheVenezuelancoasttoforceVenezuelato repayitsforeigndebt.WhiletheRooseveltadministrationwasabletogettheGermanvessels toreturntoEuropeandpromulgatedtheRooseveltCorollarytodefendtheAmericas,any furtherGermaninvestmentandpoliticalconnectionsmighthaveforcedRoosevelttoputhis politicalpronouncementsintoforce. Thus,OBriensoughttocounterthedangertoAmericansecuritythatanincreasing GermanpresenceinLatinAmericanbrought.AsearlyasSeptember1905,hepointedtothe factthattheGermanImperialGovernmentisgivingremarkableattentiontothecountries embracingthesouthernpartofSouthAmerica.Throughsteamshipsubsidies,commercial treaties,lavishdiplomaticparties,andacceptingSouthAmericanstudentsintoGermanmilitary academies,OBrienregrettedtheKaiserscarefullypreparedplanfortheexploitationofthe region.59 OBrien,throughanimpressivequantityofdiplomaticdinnersofhisown,wasableto reportthatdespitetheGermaneffortsBatllistasstillheldYankeesinhighregard.Forexample, afteranOctober1905privatedinnerwithBatlle,hiswife,andkeycabinetmembers,OBrien wrotethatthePresidentandhisCabinetwereparticularlyhappyintheirreferencesto PresidentRooseveltandhisGovernment.Likewise,inDecember1905,OBrienreportedthat, unlikeArgentina,thefeelinginUruguayvisvistheMonroeDoctrinewasprettyfreefrom anyseriousdoubtinexpressionsoffriendship.60

OBrientoRoot,27September1905,DD/Uruguay,roll18;OBrientoRoot,28October1905,DD/Uruguay,vol 18;OBrientoRoot,5December1905,DD/Uruguay,roll18;OBrientoRoot,26January1906,DD/Uruguay,roll19.
60 59

OBrientoRoot,23October1905,DD/Uruguay,roll18;OBrientoRoot,2December1905,DD/Uruguay,roll18.

52

WiththisamityinmindandinresponsetothisEuropeanthreat,OBrienproposeda moreactiveUSpolicyinUruguay.Forexample,asearlyasAugust1905,heregrettedthe absenceofUnitedStatescapitalandenterpriseintheRiverPlatecountriesandsuggested thattheUSestablishafastmailsteamer,thisprojectsimportancebeingonlysecondin importancetotheIsthmianCanal.HealsosuggestedthattheWarDepartmentofferseatsin itsmilitaryacademies,ashadtheGermans.61 Morethanallelse,OBriensuggestedthatWashingtonproactivelytaketheleadin stabilizingtheSouthAmericanstatesoftheSouthernCone.InadispatchfromNovember1905, OBrienstatedthattheimmediatecauseofinstabilityintheRodelaPlataregionwasthe lackofproperinternationalregulationsbetweencontiguousstates,namelytheplanningof revolutioninborderingstatesandthecovertsupportofthembyneighboringgovernments.As such,OBriensuggestedthattheUnitedStatesorganizeaconferencetoestablishprocedureto arbitratesuchdisputessuchinfringements,notcoincidentallySecretaryofStateElihuRoots preferredmethodsofinternationaladjudication.WhileOBrienonlyproposedsucha conferenceinformally,hewrotethatthesuggestionseemedtoimpress[ForeignMinister Romeu]deeply.62 WhileneitherFinchsorOBriensdispatchescausedasensationintheState Department,thepoliticalandeconomicstabilityofBatllesfirsttermafterthe1904conclusion ofthecivilwardidcauseNorthAmericanmerchantstonoticeUruguay.Indeed,by1905,some Yankeetradersovercometheir1903viewofUruguaythatLuisAlbertodeHerreralamentedhe foundintheUnitedStates,asperpetuallyanarchistic,dilapidated,anddespotic.Indeed,
61 62

OBrientoRoot,30August1905,DD/Uruguay,roll18;OBrientoRoot,28October1905,DD/Uruguay,roll18. OBrientoRoot,17November1905,DD/Uruguay,roll18.Emphasisinoriginal.

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underBatlleUStradewithUruguayincreasedasmerchantssoughtnewmarketsforthe increasingindustrialoutputofNorthAmericanfactories.63 Forexample,NorthAmericanconsulJohnOHara,whotookuphisdutiesinMontevideo inJune1905,wenttogreatpainsbetween1905and1906toportrayUruguayasstable, prosperous,andwaitingforUSinvestment.In1906,hereportedthatUruguayhadentered uponaneraofgeneralprosperity...destinedtocontinueformanyyearstocome.OHara thuscitedopportunitiesforNorthAmericantradeintheareasofconstruction,secondaryand postsecondaryschoolsupplies,shoes,andpreservedfoodstuffs.Likewise,OHarafoundthat, inmanyrespects,Uruguayansareprosperousandanxioustobuy[Yankeeproducts],andare especiallyfriendlytoAmericans.64 ManyNorthAmericannewspaperstooknoticeofthesereportsandencouragedUS firmstoinvestinUruguay.TheWashingtonPostofferedaJanuary1906articlesthatbuilton ConsulOHarasreportonconstructiontoencourageNorthAmericancapitalistsseeking opportunitiesinUruguay.Othernewspapers,includingtheBostonAdvertiser,theNewYork JournalofCommerceandCommercialBulletin,NewYorkEveningPost,andtheNewYork EveningTelegramlikewiseprintedarticlesthatusedtheconsularreportstoportrayUruguayas amodelofstabilitybymid1906.Thus,whenfalserumorsspreadinUSdailiesinMarch1906 thattheSouthAmericancountrywasonceagainabloodbath,Orientaldiplomatsin

63 64

DesdeWashington,ElDa,6June1903.

MCTR,no.309,June1906,21;MCTR,no.301,October1905,188;MCTR,no.304,January1906,150;MCTR,no. 309,June1906,2224;MCTR,May1906,no.308,155.

54

WashingtonfranticlyandsuccessfullycorrectedthegossiptopreserveUruguayscommercial andpoliticalreputationusingtheNorthAmericanbroadsheets.65 Nevertheless,despitesomeincreasedcommercialgrowthforUSfirmsbetween1903 and1906,UncleSamsmerchantssufferedinUruguayrelativetotheirEuropeancounterparts. Bymid1906,ConsulOHarareportedthatUSimportsintoUruguaystoodinvaluebehindtotal importsofEngland,Germany,andFrance,beingonlyslightlylargerthanimportsinvaluefrom Argentina.Evenworse,theUnitedStateswasonlyUruguaysseventhbestexportcustomerin mid1906,afterFrance,Belgium,Germany,Argentina,Brazil,andEngland.Toaccountforsuch apoorshowingofUSmerchants,ConsulOHaracitedpoorsteamshipservicebetweenthetwo countries,lackofYankeebanks,onlyafewNorthAmericanmercantilehousesinUruguay,and unwillingnessofNorthAmericanbankstograntsufficientcredittoUruguayanmerchants.66 Evenso,inthegradualgrowthinU.S.Uruguayanrelationsbefore1906,onecan indentifyoneconstant:withperhapstheexceptionsofthe1885visitoftheCommercial CommissionorOBriensposturing,Montevideo,ratherthanWashington,catalyzedcloser relations.U.S.policywasgenerallyreactiveand,whileYankeepolicymakerssawopportunities inaidingUruguay,specificallytounderminetheBritishneocolonythere,Washingtonmade littlepositiveefforttodoso.EvenOBriensloftyplansoftenfellondeafearsinWashington. Likewise,AmericantravelersoftenlefttheOrientalRepublicofftheiritinerariesbetween1900 and1906,preventinganintellectualconstructionofthecountryintheUnitedStates.
FordiscussionsofUruguaysstabilityin1906,see[Untitled],Advertiser(Boston),13April1906;Remarkable StridesofProgressinUruguay,JournalofCommerceandCommercialBulletin(NewYork),16May1906; Uruguay'sFinances,NewYorkEveningPost,20July1906;and"UruguayHasNewEraofProgress,NewYork EveningTelegram,23July1906.ForsuccessfuleffortsbyUruguayandiplomatstodissuaderumorsofinsurrection inMarch1906,seeQuietinUruguay,WashingtonPost,6March1906;UruguaynotinTrouble,Argus(Rock Island,Illinois),12March1906;UruguayRevolutionCollapses,NewYorkTribune,9March1906,amongothers.
66 65

MCTR,no.325,October1907,90;MCTR,May1906,no.308,155.

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Nonetheless,whilemanyinUruguaydidnotsupportsuchamove,keyUruguayan policymakersafter1900soughtcloserrelationswiththeUnitedStates.PresidentJuanLinfoldo Cuestas(18991903)soughttheusetheUnitedStatestocounterbalanceBritainandother SouthAmericanstates,evenriskinghisLatinAmericancredentialstodoso.PresidentJos BatlleyOrdoez(19037)didsoaswell,thoughhewentfurther.Batlleembracedmanyofthe social,economic,andtechnologicaladvancesoftheUnitedStatesandfeltthatincorporating themonthenorthernshoreoftheRodelaPlatawouldcountertheproblemsthatbeinga smallstateposed.NorthAmericanpolicymakersfinallyreciprocatedthisgoodwillin1906.In Augustofthatyear,relationsbetweenthetwostatesdrasticallyimprovedwhenSecretaryof StateElihuRootvisitedMontevideothesubjectofthenextchapter.

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Chapter3:TheVisitofElihuRoot(1906) On10August1906,Montevideanoswokeuptofindtheircityfestoonedforthearrival ofUSSecretaryofStateElihuRoot.Thenationallegislaturehadalreadydeclareditaholiday. ThemunicipaladministrationadornedtheportandtheshipspresentwiththeStarsandStripes. PresidentJosBatlleyOrdoezsnewspaper,ElDa,devoteditsentirefrontpagetotheYankee cabinetofficer,includingatributarypoemofwelcome.Finally,afterafogrelateddelay,over thehorizonthepopulacecouldseetheUSSCharlestonanditsYankeeandBrazilianescorts churningintoMontevideoharbor,bellowingsteamastheysoughttomakeuptimelostinthe poorweather.AftertheRootpartystransfertotheIngeniero,alighterboatthatcould navigatetheshallowerinnerbay,thetransportvesselsteamedtowardthedocks.At1:30pm, workersmooredthecrafttodrylandwhereUruguayanForeignMinisterJosRomeustood waitingforhisNorthAmericancounterpart.Finally,justasthefogbroke,Root,hiswife,his daughter,hisson,andNorthAmericanMinisterEdwardOBrienemergedfromtheshipto triumphalmusicandenthusiasticapplause.Atthatmoment,USUruguayanrelationschanged fromindifferencetoengagement.1 ThoughitlastedonlyfourdaysandMontevideoservedasbutonestoponawhirlwind

tourthroughSouthAmerica,Rootsvisittothecitymarkedawatershedmomentinrelations betweenUruguayandtheUnitedStates.Previously,BatllistaliberalsintheColoradoPartyhad embracedtheUnitedStatesasaprogressivestateworthyofemulation,especiallyinthe politicalandeconomicspheres.EvenWashingtonsrecentarrogantandimperialistactions

Mr.ElihuRoot:SuLlegadaaMontevideo,ElDa(Montevideo)[hereafterElDia],11August1906.

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againstsmallstatesintheCaribbeanandCentralAmericadidnotsourBatllistas,livinglikewise inasmallstate,towardtheNorthernColossus.Nevertheless,otherthanafewtokengestures generallyfromtheYankeeministerinMontevideo,theUnitedStatesneverreturnedsuch affinityuntilSecretaryRootenteredthecapitalinAugust1906.Inotherwords,Rootsvisit symbolizedthesymbioticrelationshipofamitythattheColoradosdesperatelysoughtintheir marchtowardmodernity. BackgroundandPreparations ElihuRoottookacircuitousroutetotheStateDepartment.Bornandbredinupstate

NewYork,RootmadeanameforhimselfbydefendingGildedAgeindustrialbaronsand politicalhacksinNewYorkCity.Indeed,hefirstforayedintonationalpoliticsasthesolicitor whodefendedWilliamBossTweedoncorruptionchargesintheearly1870s.Despitethe politicalunpopularityofsuchadefense,RootmadeanameforhimselfattheNewYorkbaras aneffectiveorganizerandmanager.Assuch,PresidentWilliamMcKinley(18971901)called RoottoWashingtontoserveasSecretaryofWarin1899basedonthesesupervisoryabilities. TheWarDepartmentdesperatelyneededorganizationinlightoflogisticalandpersonnel failuresinsuppressingthePhilippineInsurrection.Usinghisdeftskills,Rootrestructuredthe armyandbroughttheuprisingundercontrol.Heresignedthepositionin1904,citinghisdesire tocontinuehislucrativelawpracticeinGotham.2

RichardC.Leopold,ElihuRootandtheConservativeTradition(Boston:Little,Brown,andCompany,1954),12,24, 44.
2

58

Evenso,RootsabsencefromWashingtonofficialdomdidnotlastlong.Lessthanayear

later,hisgoodfriendPresidentTheodoreRoosevelt(19011909)askedhimtoassumethehead ofanotherexecutivedepartmentinneedofastableleadertheDepartmentofState.The famousSecretaryofStateJohnHay,amanwhodefinedNorthAmericanforeignpolicysince theSpanishAmericanWar,diedsuddenlyinJuly1905.RooseveltconvincedRoot,aftermuch vacillation,toreturntoWashington,thistimeasthenationschiefdiplomat.3 AsSecretaryofState,Rootembracedaforeignpolicyofpeacefularbitrationof

internationaldisputes.Forexample,headvocatedthesigningofmediationtreatieswithas manystatesaspossible.Likewise,hedesiredthattheworldsleadersattendlargeinternational conferencesforglobalarbitrationagreements.The1907HagueConference,whichRoot supported,standsoutasoneofhislastinglegacies.4 ThisforeignpolicyformulationappealedtomanyLatinAmericanleadersintheageof theBigStick.InaneraofassertiveinterventionsinCuba,PuertoRico,andPanamaaswellas forcefulpronouncementssuchastheRooseveltCorollary,Rootscallforpeacefularbitration betweenequalsstruckapositivechordwithLatinAmericanpolicymakers.Indeed,evenifonly rhetoric,Rootsappealsfornegotiation,mediation,andtrustsoundedmuchbetterthanthe coercionoftheBigStick. Moreover,astheUnitedStatesprincipalforeignpolicymaker,Rootmadepositive inroadswithLatinAmericandiplomatsinWashington.WhilemanythoughnotallofRoots predecessorsandcontemporariesdenigratedLatinAmericansaslazy,immature,andbackward, Rootsawthemasequals.Forexample,heassociatedhimselfwiththeBureauofAmerican
3 4

Ibid.,4749. Ibid.,5357.

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RepublicstoencourageincreasedUSLatinAmericaninteractions.Notsurprisingly,shortly afterhisreturnfromSouthAmericanin1906,hepersonallyconvincedAndrewCarnegietofund anewheadquartersfortheorganizationneartheWhiteHouseinWashington,DC.Root likewisemademorethanthecursoryappearanceatWashingtonfunctionsthatLatinAmerican legationshosted.5 Atoneofthesefunctionsinthesummerof1906,RootpromisedtotraveltoBrazil.

WhilediningwithLatinAmericandiplomats,BrazilianAmbassadorJoaquimNabuco,perhaps theclosestconfidantoftheSecretaryofStateintheWashingtondiplomaticcorps,unofficially expressedhisdesiretohaveRootattendtheThirdPanAmericanConferenceattheBrazilian capitalRiodeJanieroinJuly1906.Rootdidnothesitatetoaccepttheoffer.6 WhydidRootagreetoattendtheThirdPanAmericanConference?Historianshave

positedtworeasonsidealismandthepromotionofcommerce.Mostscholarswritingbefore 1970emphasizeRootsidealismtotreatLatinAmericansasequalsandtorectifythedistrustan aggressivepost1898foreignpolicycreatedasthedeterminingfactorinhisgoodwillsojourn. TheyarguethathewishedtoshowLatinAmericansthatallUSpolicymakersdidnotadvocate thehaughtyuseoftheBigStick.Morerecently,NewLefthistorianshaveattachedmuchmore emphasistoRootsdesiretoopenupSouthAmericatoYankeegoodsandbreakthevirtual Britishmonopoly.JackDavisarguesthattherecanbelittledoubtthatRootsprincipalinterest inSouthAmericawasaneconomicone.Likewise,MexicanhistorianMaradelRosario RodrguezDazfindsthatRootsidealismrepresentedameans,notanend.Shearguesthat

PhilipJessup,ElihuRoot,vol.2,18451909(NewYork:Dodd,Mead,&Company,1938),486;ElihuRootto AndrewCarnegie,4December1906,container187,part2,ElihuRootPapers,LibraryofCongress,Manuscript Division[hereafterRootMSS].
6 5

Jessup,474.

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RootswillingnesstotreatLatinAmericansasequals,whileadmirable,nonethelessmaskedthe omnipresentYankeedesiretoopenmarkets.7 WhilehistorianscannotignoretheroleoftradeintheformulationofNorthAmerican foreignpolicy,itseemsRootsgoodwillprincipallycatalyzedhismission.Oneneednotlook fartherthanaletterhepennedtoSenatorPitchforkBenTillmanofSouthCarolinain December1905.HewrotethefamouslegislatorthattheSouthAmericansnowhateus, largelybecausetheythinkwedespisethemandtrytobullythem.Hecontinued,Ireallylike themandIintendtoshowit.Theirfriendship,Rootwrote,isreallyimportanttotheUnited States,andIthinkthebestwaytosecureitistotreatthemlikegentlemen.Heconcluded,if youwanttomakeamanyourfriend,itdoesnotpaytotreathimlikeayellowdog.Indeed, Rootfeltthatbypayingasocialcalltoeachofthesecountries,hecouldundotheanimosityof theBigStick.8 RootsacceptanceoftheBrazilianinvitationwasuniqueinNorthAmericanhistoryfor

tworeasons.Ononehand,nosittingUSSecretaryofStatehadeverleftthecountryonofficial business.Goingbacktothe1860s,secretariesonoccasiontookvacationstotheCaribbeanor Canada.NoStateDepartmentchief,though,everlefttheUnitedStatesonexecutivebusiness. Ontheotherhand,giventhespeedoftransportandoceancurrents,evenabrieftriptoRio necessitatedthatRootbeawayfromhisofficeforatleastatleasttwoweeks.Anydiversion

Intothegoodwilltourcamp,onecanciteJimmieMerrillKeele,TheAttitudeandPolicyofElihuRoottoward LatinAmerica(M.A.thesis,OklahomaAgriculturalandTechnicalCollege,1948);JoyceM.Gayden,TheLatin AmericanPolicyofElihuRoot,18991909(Ph.D.diss.,UniversityofSouthCarolina,1941);andLejeuneCummins, TheOriginandDevelopmentofElihuRootsLatinAmericanDiplomacy(Ph.D.diss.,UniversityofCaliforniaat Berkeley,1964).ForNewLeftviews,seeJackDavis,TheLatinAmericanPolicyofElihuRoot(Ph.D.diss., UniversityofIllinois,1956),49andMaradelRosarioRodrguezDaz,ElihuRootylapolticaestadounidenseen AmricaLatinayelCaribe,18991908(Michoacn:UniversidadMichoacanadeSanNicolsdeHidalgo,Institutode investigacionesHistricas,2006),27.
8 7

RoottoBenjaminTillman,13December1905,container186,part1,RootMSS.

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fromplanstoattendbrieflytheconferencewouldrequireatleastamonthawayfrom Washington. Notsurprisingly,LatinAmericansdivertedRoot.AssoonasrumorsofRootsacceptance

ofNabucosofferswirledthroughofficialWashington,nearlyeveryLatinAmericanchancery invitedRoottostopbrieflyattheircapital.Forallthesestates,havingthisUSSecretaryofState makeastatevisitcouldincreaseprestigeand,theleadershoped,decreasepressurefromthe UnitedStatestointerveneininternalaffairs.Thus,inamatterofdays,theStateDepartment receivedinvitationsfromtherepresentativesofalmosteveryindependentSouthAmerican nationfortheSecretarytovisit.9 UruguaydidnotdifferfrommanyofitsLatinAmericanneighborsinthisrespect.Upon

hearingofRootswillingnesstotraveltoSouthAmericainearlyDecember1905,USMinister EdwardOBrieninMontevideoencouragedRoottomaketheshortjourneyfromRioto Montevideo.EverreadytoincreaseUSinfluenceinUruguayattheexpenseoftheEuropeans, OBrientelegraphedhisbossthathefounditmostimportantthatRootvisitbothMontevideo andBuenosAires,indeedthatourrelationsrequiresuchavisit.Heelaboratedfurtherina writtendispatchthatavisitbytheSecretaryofStatewouldfreethemindofthepeoplefrom thewronginterpretationsgiventheMonroeDoctrine.IntheRiverPlate,anareacontaining peopleofahighorderofintelligence,OBrienfeltthatRootmoreoverwoulddoubtlesslybe accordedamostcordialwelcome.10

RootapparentlydidnotreceiveaninvitationfromVenezuela.HeregretfullydeclinedinvitationsfromBoliviaand Paraguay,owingtotheircapitalsdistancefromthecoast;Davis,56. EdwardOBrientoRoot(telegram),6December1905,DepartmentofState,DiplomaticDespatchesfrom MinisterstoParaguayandUruguay,MicrocopyM128,RecordGroup59,NationalArchivesandRecords Administration[hereafterDD/Uruguay],roll18;OBrientoRoot,6December1905,DD/Uruguay,roll18.
10 9

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Nonetheless,theUruguayangovernmentunderBatllevacillatedininvitingRootand onlydidsoinMarch1906inlightofitscontinualdiplomaticconflictwithitswesternneighbor. Surely,theBatlleadministrationsoughttohaveRootvisitbutitdidnotwanttooffendthe ArgentinegovernmentunderManuelQuintana,whichitfeltwouldviewwithsuspicionany attempttointroduceformallyafourthpartyintoRiverPlateaffairs.TheArgentines, nonetheless,tookadvantageofthesituationand,whiletellingBatllethattheywere consideringsuchaninvitation,quietlyinvitedRootinearlyMarch1906,preventingUruguay fromclaimingtheinitiative.Immediatelyupondiscoveringthisruseon11March1906,an angryForeignMinisterRomeuauthorizedchargdaffairesPedroRequenaBermdeztoinvite RootimmediatelytoMontevideo.On15March,RomeureportedtoOBrienthatRoothad acceptedtheUruguayangovernmentsinvitationtovisitMontevideo.11 Almostimmediately,OBrienwentaboutplanningRootsstayinMontevideowithnear recklessabandon.Forone,OBrieninsistedthatRootalsovisitParaguay,specificallyIguaz Falls,andhadarrangedwiththemanageroftheCentralUruguayanRailwayforthatpurpose. OBrienplannedRootseverywakingminuteintheUruguayancapitalwithbanquets,sight seeing,receptions,andgalaballs.UnfortunatelyfortheSecretaryofState,OBrienlackeda suitablehabitationforhisbossandhisentouragebutoffereduptheUSlegation,wherehe thoughtRootwouldfinditfarmorecomfortablethananyhotelinthecity,owingtothe legationsheatingandlocationperfectlyfreefromnoisesandotherdisagreeable surroundings.SuchplanningcausedRoottostirabit.ByearlyApril,hetelegraphedOBrien nottoschedulehistimesofully,articulatingtotheminister,forheavenssake,donttrytodo
OBrientoRoot,12March1906,DD/Uruguay,roll19;OBrientoRoot,16March1906,DD/Uruguay,roll19.

11

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anymorethanyouhaveproposed.Withthesewords,OBriendemurredandplannedlittle furtherforRootsvisit.12 AsOBrienplotted,Batllesofficialsmadeeveryefforttopleasetheirnotedvisitor.In May,theyinformedOBrienthattheywishedtoplaceanewlyfurnishedhouseatRoots disposal.Bytheendofthatmonth,thoughtheBatllistashadyettofindhimsuitable accommodations,theyhadprocuredthemostmodernEuropeantouringcarcosting14,000 pesosforhisuse.BymidJuly,amonthbeforeRootsexpectedarrival,thegovernmenthad leased,atitsexpense,adomicileforRoot.DuringhistimeinMontevideo,theSecretaryof Statestayedatoneofthefinesthomesinthecity,abovetheTarancoandCompany headquartersatthecornerofCalle25deMayoandCalleZabala.Indeed,OBrientruthfully notedverygreatinterestinRootsvisitandUruguay,perhapsmorethananyotherSouth AmericanRepublic,isdesirousofmaintainingthemostfriendlyrelationswiththeUnited States.13 RootattheThirdPanAmericanConference BythetimetheBatllegovernmentmadethesepreparations,Roothaddepartedonhis

SouthAmericantour.AboardtheUSSCharleston,RootleftNewYorkwithhiswife,twoofhis children,andservantsamidmuchfanfareon4July1906.HestoppedfirstattheUSpossession
OBrientoRoot,17March1906,DD/Uruguay,roll19;OBrientoRoot,27March1906,DD/Uruguay,roll19;Root toOBrien(telegram),18April1906,DepartmentofState,DiplomaticInstructionsoftheDepartmentofState, MicrocopyM77,RecordGroup59,NationalArchivesandRecordsAdministration,roll128[hereafterDI/Uruguay]. OBrientoRoot(telegraph),3May1906,DD/Uruguay,roll19;ElMinistroMr.Root,ElDa,31May1906;El viajedeMr.Root,ElDa,15July1906;OBrientoRoot(telegram),5July1906,DD/Uruguay,roll19;OBriento Root,27April1906,DD/Uruguay,roll19.
13 12

64

ofPuertoRico,landingon8July.LeavingSanJuanafewdayslater,hetraveledalongthe Braziliancoast,stoppingbrieflyatBelem,Recife,andSalvadordeBahia,alluponthe recommendationofNabuco.On27July,hearrivedattheBraziliancapitalofRiodeJanieroto servethePanAmericanConferenceashonorarychairman.14 Attheconference,Rootlimitedhisexofficiodutiestothegivingofthekeynoteaddress

on31July1906,theonlypreparedaddressoftheentireSouthAmericantour.Inthisshort speech,Rootemphasizeddemocracy,progress,andPanAmericanismneverunpopular themesforYankeediplomatsatinterAmericanconferences.Forexample,Rootcitedthefact thatthewholecivilizedworldisswingingawayfromitsoldgovernmentalmooringsand intrustingthefateofitscivilizationtothecapacityofthepopularmasstogovern.Latin America,heargued,founditselfinthemidstofthisprogressivetrend,asintheregion peacefulsuccessioninaccordwiththepeopleswillhasreplacedtheforcibleseizureofpower permittedbypeoplesindifference.Nonetheless,Rootargued,thisdidnotoccurbynational isolationbutthroughcultural,intellectual,andeconomicsharingthatenabledAmericansto preserveourfreelandsfromtheburnedforsucharmamentsasareamassedbehindthe frontierofEurope.15 TowardtheendofRootsspeech,thesecretaryspokeofsmallnations,atopicthat

surelyinterestedUruguayanpolicymakerswhohadtobalancethetwoneighboringbehemoths, BrazilandArgentina.HestatedthatNorthAmericanswishfornovictoriesbutthoseofpeace; fornoterritoryexceptourown;fornosovereigntyexceptsovereigntyoverourselves.He

14 15

Jessup,478.

RobertBaconandJamesBrownScott,LatinAmericaandtheUnitedStates:AddressesbyElihuRoot(Cambridge, Massachusetts:HarvardUniversityPress,1917),78,11.

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continued,wedeemtheindependenceandequalrightsofthesmallestandweakestmember ofthefamilyofnationsentitledtoasmuchrespectasthoseofthegreatestempire.Ifthatline didnotclinchtheUruguayandelegationsadmiration,thisonedidWedeemtheobservance ofthatrespectthechiefguaranteeoftheweakagainsttheoppressionofthestrong.Finally, inadvocatingLatinAmericanparticipationatthefollowingyearsWorldCongressattheHague, Rootpositedthattheconference,morethananyothergoal,soughttomaintaintheprincipleof peacefularbitrationsothattheweakestandmostunfortunateofourrepublicsmaycometo marchwithequalstepbythesideofthestrongerandmorefortunate.16 Giventhisemphasisonprotectingthesmallnationsoftheworldandtreatingthem

equally,Batllistasreactedpositivelytothespeech.Forexample,ElDaeditorializedthatthe speechrepresentedtotheAmericandelegatesthetrueintentionsofthatgrandcountry.The editorscontinuedthatRootsdiscourse,fortheideasexplicitlyexpressedinit,forthe emotionsthatitproduced,andforthehighauthoritythatpronouncedit,itsignaledthetrue coursethathavetobefollowedforPanAmericanism.ElDaseditorslikewisepickedupon Rootsemphasisonsmallstates.Theywrotethatinthespeech,thereareaboveallsecurity andguarantees,notthreatsanddangersforsmallerstates.17 Afterthekeynoteaddress,RootremainedinRioforaweek,speakingattheBrazilian

legislatureandmakingcallsonthechiefmembersoftheexecutivedepartments;meanwhile Montevideanosmadeitslastminutearrangementsforhisarrivalintheircity.Inthewaning days,BatllistasformedacommitteetoentertaintheUSNavyseamenaboardtheCharleston, purchasedNorthAmericanflags,coinedcommemorativemedals,setuplighting,prepared

16 17

Ibid.,10. PolticaPanamericana,ElDa,2August1906.

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locations,andreadiedmeals.Thecitymadeeveryefforttoseemmodernforitsesteemed visitorfromWashington.18 10August BatllistashadwaitedforthemorningofThursday,10Augustformonths.They

decoratedthecitywithStarsandStripes.MajorsegmentsoftheColoradoPartycameoutto greettheSecretaryofState.Becausethegovernmentdeclaredthedayaholiday,workershad thedayoffandmadetheirwaytotheport.StudentssimilarlyavoidedclasstoseetheNorth AmericanSecretaryofStatedisembark. ElDaheightenedthisinterestbydevotingthefrontpageofitsmorningeditionto

Rootsvisit.AlargemontageoccupyinghalfthemainpagefeaturedphotosofRootandhis familyagainstthebackdropofintertwinedUruguayanandNorthAmericanflags,allabovetwo bustsofGeorgeWashington.Overthemontage,abaldeaglehovered,carryingabannerthat readMr.ElihuRootenMontevideo.ThetextbelowthegraphicpaidhomagetoRoot.The editorsarguedthatthecityshouldwelcomeRootasanenvoyofagreatcountryoftheUnited States,inwhichisexemplarypracticeddemocraticvirtuesand[represents]astrongsociety thathasshowntheworldthemostcolossaldemonstrationofeconomicsuccess.Moreover,it citedRootasthepersonificationofcontinentalfraternity,thedefinitiveidealofthehuman race.Afterward,thepaperprintedabiographythatPedroRequenaBermdez,thecharg daffairesinWashington,wroteoftheSecretaryofState.Finally,thebroadsheetpublisheda
18

EnhonordeMr.Root,ElDa,5August1906;ElViajedeMr.Root,ElDa,6August1906;ElViajedeMr. Root,ElDa,7August1906.

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shortpoemfromaprominentBatllista,GuzmnPapiniyZas.ThepoetlaudedtheUnited Statesasthemodelofhopeandprosperityandendedwiththelines:fromyourimmortal eagle,giveusyourwings;fromyourflag,giveusthestars!19 OtherMontevideonewspapers,eventhoseideologicallyopposedtoBatlleandhis

domesticandforeignpolicies,moreorlessreveledinRootsvisit.LaPrensa,adailythatBatlle subsidizedtopromotethecandidacyofhishandchosensuccessorClaudioWIlliman,not surprisinglydevotedthemostspacetoRootsarrival.Theeditorialnotedthatasentimentof sincerefriendshipunitesitselfwithintenseadmirationbetweenUruguayandtheUnited States.Accordingtotheeditors,theUnitedStatesofferedthemoststupendousexampleof organicprogressandmoralgreatness.ElBien,thedailyfortheConservativeCatholic communitythatopposedBatlleatalmosteveryturn,neverthelessgreetedRootsvisitwith mostsincereinternationalfriendshipandnotedthatevenifourcharacterandlanguageare notalike,weareidenticalintheprincipals,spirit,andregimenofpoliticalbeliefs,our democraticprinciples,andtheextensionofhumanliberty.ElTiempo,aBlancopaper, welcomedRootwiththehighestsentimentofcordialityandemotion.TheMontevideo Times,theEnglishlanguagepaperforthecityslargeBritishcommunity,embracedRootasthe representativeofaverygreatnation,asanapostleofPanAmericanunion,asanexponentofa policyofpeaceandindependence,andfinally...asahighlydistinguisheddiplomatand statesman.TheSpanishcommunity,stillsmartingfor1898,offeredperhapsthemostnegative commentonRootsvisitinitspaper,LaTribunaPopularaneditorialcartoonportrayingUncle SampushingareluctantRootintotheembraceofadisheveledBatlle,authoritarianclubin
19

ElIdealAmericano,ElDa,10August1906;ElihuRoot,ElDa,10August1906;LaAmericadelNorte,El Da,10August1906.

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hand,surroundedbymadadvisors.Nonetheless,thepaperofferednoeditorialcommenton Rootsvisit.20 Aftersucharousingwelcome,RootoccupiedhistimeinMontevideogivingspeeches

andmeetingBatllistapolicymakers.Attheport,hemethisUruguayancounterpart,Jos Romeu.Owingtohisbelatedarrival,RootskippedtheplannedlunchattheNorthAmerican legationandwentrightfromtheporttotheGovernmentHouse,whereinMinisterOBrien introducedhimtoPresidentBatlle.Theexecutiveofferedkindwordsofwelcometothe SecretaryofStatebeforethetwowentoutonthebalconyoverlookingthePlazaIndependencia foramilitaryreview.Thereafter,RootwenttohislodgingsandBatlletelegraphedRooseveltin WashingtonIhavejustgiventhefirsthandshaketoSecretaryofStateElihuRoot.Isalute youwiththelivelysentimentofAmericanfraternity.Sadly,thetelegraphoperatorin WashingtonmistranscribedBatllesnameasJoseBatllayArdones.21 Afterthecordialityoftheintroductions,theplanningcommitteearrangedforthedays

galaeventsforthatevening.At7:30pm,theMinisterofForeignAffairsofferedabanquetatthe municipalpalace.Thearea,electrifiedwithsmallheavenlylittlelightbulbs,accordedRomeu theopportunitytoinauguratethefestivitiesandforRoottothankhishosts.Romeustoast emphasizedthefactthat,thoughUruguaytraditionallylookedtoEuropeowingtothe effectivenessofcommunicationsthereto,noreasonexistswhy[NorthAmericas]socialand

20

Homenaje,LaPrensa(Montevideo),10August1906;SaludosCordiales,ElBien(Montevideo),10August 1906;ElihuRoot,ElTiempo(Montevideo),10August1906;Mr.Root,TheMontevideoTimes,10August1906; Oigaleelduro,LaTribunaPopular(Montevideo),10August1906.

OBrientoRoot,23August1906,DepartmentofState,NumericalandMinorFilesoftheDepartmentofState, mircocopyM862,RecordGroup59[hereafterNumericalFile],file194/4344,roll29;Mr.ElihuRoot,ElDa,11 August1906;JosBatlleyOrdoeztoTheodoreRoosevelt(telegram),10August1906,DepartmentofState,Notes fromtheUruguayanLegationintheUnitedStatestotheDepartmentofState,microcopyT804,RecordGroup59, NationalArchivesandRecordsAdministration,roll1[hereafterNUL].

21

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commercialrelationsmaynotbeextendedwithreciprocaladvantages.Hethereforedrankto PanAmericanfraternity,tothegreatnessoftheUnitedStatesofNorthAmerica,tothehealth ofHisExcellencyPresidentRoosevelt,tothehappinessofMr.ElihuRoot,andofhis distinguishedfamily.RootrepliedthatEuropehadtoolongprofitedfarmorefromthe independenceoftheAmericanrepublicsthantheywouldhaveprofitediftheirunwisesystem ofcolonialgovernmenthasbeencontinued.Nonetheless,theSecretaryofStateargued, closerUSUruguayanrelationsdidnotimpaleanyinterestEuropehadinSouthAmerica.After thebanquet,RootattendedagalaattheTeatroUrquizabeforeretiringforthenight.22 11August HavingsleptatoneofthefinesthousesintheUruguayancapital,Rootsseconddayin

thecitygavethediplomataneasierschedule.Inthemorning,hetouredMontevideoandits suburbsinaparadeofflowerladenautomobiles,receivinggiftsfromlocalschoolchildrenand municipalpoliticians.Towardsmidafternoon,agroupofuniversitystudentsofferedhima gardenpartyinthenewlyestablishedPradopark.Onlytwoweeksprior,studentsfromthe UniversityoftheRepublicsLawSchoolrefusedtotakepartinthereception,citingtheir inabilitytoapprove[Roots]politicsasbeingagainsttheprincipalsofinternationalrights. SuchadiscourseembarrassedRequenaBermdezinWashingtonwhenwordreachedhim. Nonetheless,thesentimentofthebuddingsolicitorsdidnotmimicthatofthestudent populationasawhole;theBatllistascollectedenoughloyalstudentstohavetheftewithout

22

Mr.ElihuRoot,ElDa,11August1906;Bacon,5560;OBrientoRoot,23August1906,NumericalFile,file 194/4344,roll29.

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thelawschoolstudents.Afterthegardenparty,themunicipalofficersreceivedRootatthe municipaloffices.There,thediplomatthankedthecitysofficialforawonderfuldaybefore takingabrieflunchandretiringtopreparefortheeveningsbanquet.23 Theeveningsentertainmentovershadowedthatoftheday.At7:30,PresidentBatlle

offeredabanquetforRootattheGovernmentHouseonPlazaIndependencia.Batllegavean eloquentspeechthatemphasizedPanAmericanismandcommonAmericanprogress,whichfit withhispolicytousetheUnitedStatesasaprotectingforce.Forexample,Batllespokeofthe Americasbornonthesamecontinentandinthesameepoch,ruledbythesameinstitutions, animatedbythesamespiritoflibertyandprogress,anddestinedaliketocauserepublican ideastoprevailonearth.ForBatlle,theUnitedStateshashadimportantparticipationinit butnowLatinAmericaneedstotakeupthenobleandvictoriousexample.Batlleconcluded bynotingthatAmericawillbe,then,thecontinentofpeace,ofajustpeace,foundedon respectfortherightsofallnations,arespectwhich...mustbeasgreatfortheweakest nationsasforthemostpowerfulempires.RootrepliedandpraisedUruguayanprogress, arguingthatafteraturbulentpast,theOrientalRepublicwaspassingthroughthephasesof steadydevelopmentbutthatithasmovedsteadilyonwardandupward,seekingmore perfectjusticeandorderedliberty.Afterthebanquet,theleaderssteppedoutontothe GovernmentHousesporchtoviewPlazaIndependenciailluminatedinfireworks.Afterwards, thedignitarieswalkedtheblockamongstthunderingapplausetothefamousTeatroSolsfor

23

EnHonordeMr.ElihuRoot,ElDa,12August1906;OBrientoRoot,23August1906,NumericalFile,file 194/4344,roll29;PedroRequenaBermdeztoJosRomeu,2August1906,MinisteriodeRelacionesExteriores, FondoLegacinenWashington,ArchivoGeneraldelaNacin(Montevideo),[hereafterMRREE/AGN]caja268, carpeta156;OBrientoSecretaryofState,17July1906,NumericalFile,file194/FW,roll31.

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agalafunction.TheeventendedwiththeplayingoftheStarSpangledBannerandastanding applauseforRootandhisparty,whothereafterretiredfortheevening.24 12August RootslastfulldayinMontevideofoundhimmuchlessbusythantheprevioustwo,

owingprincipallytoitbeingaSaturday,partofthetraditionallylaidbackweekendinUruguay. Hisfirstscheduledfunctionoccurredatnoon,wheretheorganizingcommitteeofferedhim breakfastattheAthenaeum,ahallinwhichmanyColoradosincludingBatllecuttheirpolitical teeth.Therein,prominentintellectualJuanZorilladeSanMartndiscussedhowUruguay shouldembracedemocracy,forwhichtheUSshouldbetheprototype,andthatRootsRio speechreverberatedlikeafriendlyvoiceinthedepthsofthesoulofthispeople. Uruguayans,ZorilladeSanMartnconcluded,loveandadmireyourwonderfulAmerican country.RootthankedhishostbyagainemphasizingtheprogresstheOrientalRepublichad madeasapartofthegreatbrotherhoodofman,notselfish,butopentothebestand brightestinfluencesofhumanity.25 Afterbreakfast,Rootcontinuedhisvisit.HefirsttraveledtoVillaDolores,anaffluent

easternsuburbofMontevideoimmediatelysouthofthenewParqueNacional,foragrand celebrationthattheprominentRossellyRuisfamilyhosted.AccordingtoElDa,overten thousandpeopleattendedthisgathering.Giventhenumberofattendeesandthebrieftimeof

24

EnHonordeMr.ElihuRoot,ElDa,12August1906;OBrientoRoot,23August1906,NumericalFile,file 194/4344,roll29;Bacon,6065. EnHonordeMr.ElihuRoot,ElDa,13August1906;Bacon,6571.

25

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hisstay,Rootmadenospeechesbutenjoyedabuffetanddancing.Thereafter,Rootreturned tothecityforabanquetattheNorthAmericanlegation,whichprominentBatllistas,including Batlle,andthediplomaticcorpsattended.Finally,atmidnight,RootattendedaballattheClub Uruguay,whichoverlookedthePlazaConstitucinintheoldcity.Uponhisentrance,the orchestrasrenditionoftheStarSpangledBannergreetedtheSecretaryofState.Intheearly morninghours,afterdanceswithsomeofthemostprominentladiesofUruguayansociety, RootretiredforthelasttimeinMontevideo.26 13August RootdepartedMontevideoon13August1906;thegovernmentplannednomealsor

parties,merelyalavishsendoffasRootmadehiswaytoBuenosAiresaboardtheCharleston. AfterabriefmeetingwithOBrienattheNorthAmericanlegation,Rootandhisentourage drovetotheport.Arrivingpromptlyatnoon,RootmetBatlle,MinisterofGovernment Williman,andForeignMinisterRomeu.Afterabriefdiscussion,RootandBatlleembracedand exchangedafirmhandshake.Asthetransportshipmovedawayfromshore,thelarge assembledgroupshoutedHuzzah!andVivaNorteAmrica!Rootadeptlyreplied,!Viva elUruguay!tothunderousshoutsbeforehisbarkreachedtheCharlestonenroutetothe Argentinecapital.27

OBrientoRoot,23August1906,NumericalFile,file194/4344,roll29;EnHonordeMr.ElihuRoot,ElDa,13 August1906.
27 26

Mr.ElihuRoot,ElDa,14August1906.

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TheShorttermEffectsofRootsVisittoMontevideo AfterRootleftMontevideo,hesuccessfullycontinuedhisjourney.AtBuenosAires,the

JosFigueroaadministrationgreetedhimcordially.Anearthquakejustpriortohisarrivalin ChilemutedhisvisitinSantiagotoonlythemostunfestivecordialities.Limaspopulace greetedhimenthusiasticallybutayellowfeveroutbreakpreventedhimfromdisembarkingin Ecuador.Afterafewdaysthere,hecrossedoverthePanamanianisthmusandexchanged diplomaticpleasantrieswithPanamanianPresidentManuelAmador.HethenmetColombian PresidentRafaelReyesonthecoastatCartagena,owingtothedistancebetweenBogotand theshoreline,beforearrivingbackinWashingtoninearlyOctober1906.28 BothRootandtheBatlleadministrationexchangedsomesouvenirsofthediplomats

shortstayinMontevideo.Forexample,uponhisarrivalhomeon1October,Rootcustomarily sentthankyouletterstoBatlle,Romeu,andZorilladeSanMartn.PresidentRooseveltlikewise thankedBatllethroughchargdaffairesRequenaBermdezinWashington.EdithRootaswell expressedhergratitudeinalettertoBatlleswife,Matilda.ToJuanCarlosBlanco,hisusher whileinMontevideo,theSecretaryofStatesentagoldencigarettelighterinscribedwithhis monographononesideandthewordsFromElihuRootinEnglishontheobverse.Root himselfdidnotreceiveanymementosexpostfactobuthiswifeEdithandsonEdwarddid.In October1906,MatildasentanautographedpictureofherselftoEdithandthatsamemonth,

28

Davis,5556.

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BatllesentthroughBrazilanUruguayansteedforEdward.Itarrivedunharmedandtothe delightoftherecipientinDecember.29 JustasRootreceivednogiftspersonally,heleftnowrittenrecordofthespecific

countrieshevisited,thoughhedidpensomegeneralimpressionsofthetouritselfuponhis return.Forexample,toHenryStimsonhecalledhisjourneyarduous.Rootcommentedto SenatorHenryCabotLodgethat,whilehehadagoodtime,thejauntthroughSouthAmerica washardworkforafellowwhohatesprocessionsandcrowdsandbrassbands.Nonetheless, theSecretaryofStatecitedthesuccessofhistourandrecommendedtoAlbertShawa sequel,thoughdoubtlesslynotonebyhim.30 NorthAmericansapprovedmuchmoreenthusiasticallyofRootsvisithadonSouth

America,especiallyUruguay.PresidentRooseveltcabledhischiefdiplomatduringthegreat tripthatRoothasdonemorefortheMonroeDoctrinethananyotherSecretaryofStatesince JohnQuincyAdams.RooseveltalsoinformedRootuponhisarrivalinPanamathathehad madeagreatimpressionintheUnitedStates.OBrienreportedtotheStateDepartmentthat Ihavenohesitancyinsayingthattimewillfullyjustify[the]highestimateofgoodwhichwill followSecretaryRootsvisittoUruguay.WilliamGuthrie,aprominentNewYorklawyerand

RoottoRomeu,1October1906,NumericalFile,file19474,roll29;OBrientoSecretaryofState,4October 1906,NumericalFile,file194/165,roll30;DeMr.Root,ElDa,1Sept1906;Mr.RooseveltyElSeorBatlley Ordoez,ElDa,19December1906;DeMrs.Root,ElDa,22August1906;RegalodeMr.Root,ElDa,27June 1907;OBrientoRoot,12October1906,container46,RootMSS;RoottoOBrien,10December1906,container 187,part2,RootMSS. RoottoHenryL.Stimson,4October1906,container186,part2,RootMSS;RoottoAlbertShaw,8October 1906,container186,part2,RootMSS;RoottoHenryCabotLodge,11October1906,container186,part2,Root MSS.

30

29

75

friendofRoot,likewisepositedthatRootsmissionwouldleadtothepermanentdevelopment ofourcommercewithSouthAmerica.31 TheOutlook,aprominentnewsmagazineoftheperiod,alsopraisedRootsjourney.

Shortlyafterthesecretarysreturn,itseditorslaudedRootforcultivatingaresiduumofgood feelingandofbetterunderstandingthatneedsonlytobeadequatelycultivatedtobear permanentfruitofimmensevalue.TheycontinuedbypositingthatMr.Rootsvisithasdone animmenseserviceinallayingthebaselessbutverywidelydiffusedfearsof[North]American aggression.Someweekslater,theeditorssustainedtheiradmirationofRootandhistrip, printingthathehasdonemoretobringSouthandNorthAmericatogetherinmutual understandingandsympathythanyearsofformaldiplomaticnegotiationsanddozensof complicatedtreatiescouldpossiblydo.32 ThetouralsoconfirmedinRootsmindtheneedforcloserrelationswithSouthAmerica.

AtaspeechattheBrazilianEmbassyinWashingtoninMay1907,amatterofeightmonths sincehisreturn,Rootarticulatedapolicythathisactionshadpreviouslysustained.Heasserted thatprogress...inAmericaninternationalrelationsisaprogressalongthepathwaythatleads fromtheruleofforceastheultimatesanctionofargumenttotheruleofpublicopinion. Thoughfullofvacantrhetoric,notantitheticaltopanAmericaninitiatives,thejourney establishedhisbeliefthatSouthAmericanswerenotsimpletonswhoonlyunderstoodforcebut insteadpeoplewhosoughttoresolvedisputesthroughcivilizedmethodsofarbitrationand

RoosevelttoRoot,18August1906,container163,RootMSS;RoosevelttoRoot,20September1906,container 163,RootMSS;OBrientoRoot,23Aug1906,NumericalFile,file198/43,roll29;WilliamGuthrietoRoot,24 December1906,container45,RootMSS. SouthAmericasCommunityofInterest,TheOutlook,6October1906,310311;TheSpiritoftheNewWorld, TheOutlook,20October1906,394.
32 31

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communication.HistoriansrefertothisideaastheRootDoctrine.Rootcalleditthegood neighbor,aphrasehecoinedin1907.33 HowdidUruguayreacttoRootsvisit?Inshort,Rootsucceededinfurtheringties

betweenUruguayandtheUnitedStates.HisvisiteffectivelysubstantiatedtheBatllistabelief thattheUnitedStatesrepresentedafriendlymodelofcivilizationworthyofemulation.Inthe longterm,itinauguratedasignificantperiodofsocial,economic,andpoliticalsharingthat lastedthroughWorldWarIthesubjectofthenextchapter.

33

Bacon,220;Gayden,121.

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Chapter4Goods,Ideas,andPeople(19061914) On3March1912,undertheheadlineofUnitedStatesAidSoughtinBuildingup

Uruguay,theinfluentialNewYorkHeraldpublishedanarticlebasedoninterviewswiththree prominentmeninvolvedwithUruguayanaffairsintheUnitedStatesUruguayanConsul GeneralinNewYorkJosRichling,businessmanWilliamE.Peck,andrailroadentrepreneur JohnJayMacKelvey.ThearticlequotedRichlingwhenhemetaphoricallystatedthatthe situationwefindourselvesisonetheUnitedStatesasawholepassedthroughyesterdayand that,assuch,mycountryislookingmoreandmoretotheUnitedStatesforhelpinsolvingthe commercialproblemsthatconfrontit.RichlingspecificallycommendedYankeeagricultural, geological,andeducationalexpertswhohadtraveledorwilltraveltotheshoresoftheRiver Platetodetermineif[agricultural]methodscanbeimprovedbyadoptingAmericanideas. RichlingalreadynotedthatthepubliceducationsystemintheOrientalRepublicwas practicallybasedonAmericanideas.1 Inthesamearticle,JohnJayMacKelveyandWilliamPeckdiscussedfurthering

commercialexchangebetweenthetwocountries.MacKelvey,whoatthetimewasbuilding thefirstYankeeownedrailroadinUruguay,notedhowtheUruguayangovernmentactedvery sensiblyinthatitgrantedconcessionsinsuchawayastodevelopwidelyseparatedsections ofthecountry.PecksimilarlyfoundthatUSmanufactureshadnotfullyexploitedthewealth ofUruguaybutsawincreasedactivity,especiallyamongstthemeatpackers.2

1 2

UnitedStatesAidSoughtinBuildingupUruguay,NewYorkHerald,3March1912. Ibid.

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TheHeraldarticleelucidatesthreekeythemesthatdominateUSUruguayaninteraction

afterElihuRoots1906visit:thetradeingoods,ideas,andpeople.First,thetwostatestraded muchmoreextensivelyingoods.AsJosBatlleyOrdoezandhisBatllistafollowerssoughtto undermineBritisheconomicimperialism,theemergingYankeemarkets,especiallyforwooland cattle,provedexceptionallyattractive.Likewise,fastercommunicationandlowertariffratesin theUnitedStatesontheseitems,Uruguaystwoprincipalexports,encouragedYankee investmentsintheOrientalRepublic.Mostnotably,the1913UnderwoodSimmonsTariffput meatonthefreelist.ShortlythereafterthemajorNorthAmericanmeatpackers,Armour& CompanyaswellasSwiftestablishedUruguayanpackinghousestoexportbeefandporktothe UnitedStatesandEurope.Suchinvestmentsexemplifiedagrowingcommercialembraceofthe twocountries. Thetradeinideasformsthesecondprominentthemeoftheera.Underthe

presidenciesofBatlleslieutenantClaudioWilliman(19071911)andBatllessecondterm (191115),ColoradoliberalsembarkedoncreatingLatinAmericasfirstwelfarestate,what Batllecalledthemodelcountry.HebelievedthatforUruguaytoprogressandtomodernize, publicpowerneededtoinitiatefinancialandpoliticalreformstoprotectthenation,especially intheareasofworkersrights,unemploymentcompensation,publiceducation,publicworks, andpoliticalfreedoms.Insodoing,BatllistasexplicitlyborrowedfromProgressiveEraUS reforms.Likewise,theyimportedYankeetechnocratstoadviseortorunmanyofthesenew civilservices. Finally,theexchangeofpeopleformsthethirdprominentthemeduringthe19061914

period.Asonehistoriannotes,RootsvisitcatalyzedYankeeinterestthroughoutSouth 79

America,asincreasedperiodicalliteraturedemonstrated.SpecificallyregardingUruguay,North AmericanexpertsliketheonestowhichRichlingpointsabovemovedtoMontevideoandthe surroundingcountryside.Moreimportantly,YankeetouristsputUruguay,oratleastitscapital city,ontheirtravelitineraries.BeforeRoot,aUStouristlikelyvisitedonlythecapitalsofthe largeLatinAmericanstatesBuenosAires,SantiagodeChile,andRiodeJaniero.The impressionRootmadeathomeencouragedthemtoaddMontevideo(andindeedLima)tothat tour.Thus,thetraveloguestheseYankeespublishedontheirreturnservedtoinformand constructUruguayinthecollectiveUSmindsetandthatconstructionremainedunaltered throughtherestoftheBatllistaperiod.3 PoliticalRelationsbetween1906and1914 ThisisnottosaythatUnitedStatesUruguayanpoliticaldiplomacydisappeared between1906andWorldWarII;itmerelyreactedtooutsideeventsratherthancatalyzed them.Inotherwords,traditionaldiplomacysuchasthesigningoftreatiesandthemeetingof officersofstatetookabackseatforonemajorreasonbothcountriesfocusedtheirpolitical diplomacyonotherissues.InUruguay,PresidentWilliman,forexample,attendedtoriparian borderswithArgentinaandBrazil,signingtreatieswitheachtoclarifyortoredefinefrontiers. PresidentBatlle,ontheotherhand,emphasizeddomesticpolicy,specificallyputtinghisvision ofmodernityintoplace.OfficialWashingtonlikewiseallbutignoredUruguaypoliticallyinthis period.PresidentWilliamTaft(19091913)desiredopenmarketsandstabilityinLatinAmerica,
3

JackDavis,TheLatinAmericanPolicyofElihuRoot(Ph.D.diss.,UniversityofIllinois,1956),61.

80

conditionsUruguayalreadymet.Hissuccessor,WoodrowWilson(19131921)focusedhis SouthAmericanpolicyonthemajorstatesArgentina,Brazil,andChilewhileseekingto controltheMexicanRevolutionandstabilizingtheCaribbeaninhislargerLatinAmerican policy.4 Nonetheless,aNovember1909editorialinBatllesElDademonstratedsuccinctlyhow BatlleandhiscadreviewedtheUnitedStatesanditsforeignpolicyinthisperiod.Accordingto Batllistas,Uruguayneededprotectionfromitslargerneighbors,fearingatmostthelossof territoryandatleastinterferenceinitsinternalaffairs.Assuch,theUnitedStatesoffereda counterbalancethathadnotthreatenedUruguayasithadbythatpointMexico,Cuba,and PuertoRico.Thus,theeditorswrotethatgoingbacktotheMonroeDoctrine,Washingtonwas sympathetic[toLatinAmerica]initsattitudetowardimperialistattitudesoftheEuropean powerswhotriedtoprolongtheirdominionoverourfreelands.Theillustriousand prestigiousPresidentTheodoreRooseveltandSecretaryofStateElihuRootcontinuedinthis lineofpolicy,assuringinterAmericansolidarity,makingrespectforothernationsaprinciple, andrecognizingtheequalityofsovereignstates.Inshort,accordingtoBatllesemployees,the USwillingnesstoseekitsgoalswithouttheuseofforceatleastinUruguaydemonstrated thatthecountryasatokenoffriendshipandprogress...amodelofcivilization...an admirableexponentofanera...andanadmirableexampleoffertilecourage.5

DuringWillimansterm,hispoliticaldiplomacyfocusedontheLagunaMernboundarywithBrazil.Bytreaty adjustingtheborderonthatlakein1909,WillimanopenedthelaketoUruguayanmerchants.MarkGilderhus, PanAmericanVisions:WoodrowWilsonintheWesternHemisphere,19131921(Tucson:TheUniversityofArizona Press,1986),20.

5 4

Polticaamericana,ElDa(Montevideo)[hereafterElDa],27November1909.

81

EvenwhentheUnitedStatesprojecteditspowerelsewhereinLatinAmerica,Batlle supportedhisally.Forexample,whenPresidentWilsonorderedtheinvasionofVeracruz, MexicoinApril1914,Batllesopponents,principallyfromtheBlancoParty,tookthe opportunitytoremindthepopulaceofthedisdainsuchactionsshowedforLatinAmerican sovereignty.On26April,studentsdistributedfliersthatreadTotheUruguayanPeople: YankeetroopshaveinvadedMexico,sistercountrytoours.AfterPuertoRico,afterCuba,after thedismembermentofColombiatofoundthetraitorousRepublicofPanama,theMonroeites havetrampledontheirdemocraticdoctrinesandpresentthemselvesasblondTartufsan allusiontoMoliereshypocritefromtheplayofthesamenameofinternationalpolitics.Ata rallythroughthestreetsofMontevideothateveningnumberingapproximately5,000,students heldbannersthatreadVivaMejico!VivaAmricaLatina!6 Batllesresponsewastelling.Hecalledthedemonstrationuncalledforand unjustifiedandnotifiedtheNorthAmericanministerthathedisapprovedofitofficiallybut couldnotlegallystopit.Nonetheless,hepostedguardsattheUSLegationandtheUS Consulateandimpresseduponthecityspoliceforcenottoallowtherallytopasseither location.Moreover,Batllistasorganizedacounterproteston14June.Walkingoverthesame streets,alargergroupElDaestimatedthecrowdnumbered30,000whiletheUSlegation figuredcloserto10,000to12,000ofproUSandproColoradopartisansheldsignsthat expressedsupportofBatllesgovernmentsanditspolicies.Finally,bylateJunetheNorth

NicolayGrevstadtotheSecretaryofState,29April1914,NicolayGrevstadPapers,NorwegianAmerican HistoricalAssociation,Northfield,Minnesota[hereafterGrevstadMSS],box6,folder5.
6

82

AmericanministercouldreportthatantiUSfeelinghadabated,owingprincipallytoWilsons acceptanceofArgentinas,BrazilsandChilesofferofmediationatNiagaraFalls.7 Suchamityemergedbecauseoftheeffectiveskillofpragmaticdiplomatsinboth MontevideoandWashington.InMontevideo,EdwardOBrienheldontothepostofminister untilTaftoccupiedtheWhiteHousein1909.InTaftsfirstyearinoffice,hereplacedtheactive OBrienwithEdwinMorgan.AnoldStateDepartmenthandsince1899,Morganhadservedthe StateDepartmentinWashingtonandtheAmericanSamoabeforepostingsassecretaryto legationsinKoreaandRussia,asconsulinManchuria,asministertoKorea,andfinallyas ministertoCubabetween1905and1910.AsministertoUruguayandParaguay,Morgan carefullycultivatedrelationstocountertheUruguayanpopulacesbeliefthatYankeeslackeda spiritualside;he,forexample,encouragedthesendingofartfromtheUnitedStatesand succeedincreatingthefirstforeignartexhibitioninUruguayin1911.Whilethepopulace admiredMorgan,theministersecretlysuspectedBatlleofundemocraticleanings,writingto WashingtononeofBatllesoligarchictendencies.Assuch,TaftrepostedMorgantoPortugal in1911.8 UponMorgansdeparture,TaftselectedhisfriendandChicagobasednewspaperman NicolayGrevstadtoserveinMontevideo.BorninNorway,GrevstadeditedNorwegian languagenewspapersintheMidwest,firstinMinneapolistheninChicago,thatconsistently

Ibid.;GrevstadtotheSecretaryofState,15June1914,GrevstadMSS,box6,folder5;GrevstadtotheSecretary ofState,22June1914,GrevstadMSS,box6,folder5. EdwinB.MorganisDeadinBrazil,TheNewYorkTimes,17April1934;EdwinMorgantotheSecretaryofState, 9February1911,DepartmentofState,DecimalFileoftheDepartmentofState,RecordGroup59,National ArchivesandRecordsAdministration[hereafterDecimalFile],file833.607A/9;MorgantotheSecretaryofState, 22December1910,DecimalFile,file833.00/71;Morgan,afterservinginLisbonfortwoyears,foundhimselfas MinistertoBraziluntil1933.Thesetwentyoneyearsinonepostwasarecordatthetimeforserviceatonepost andMorganservedinmanyrespectstocloserUSBrazilianrelationsthroughWorldWarIandthe1920s.

8

83

supportedtheGOP.Bythe1910s,herepresentedapotentforceinMidwesternRepublican politics,somuchsothatwhenhedesiredabreakfromjournalism,hehadenoughswayto inquireofSecretaryofStatePhilanderKnoxforaconsularappointmentwithlettersof referencefromPresidentTaftandIllinoisGovernorCharlesDeneen.Appointedtothelegation inMontevideoinearly1911,Grevstadkepthisministrythroughthefirstyearsofthe DemocraticadministrationofWoodrowWilsonthroughthecontinueduseofhisfriendsinthe publishingcommunity.WhentalkthatWilsonwouldreplaceGrevstadwithaDemocratearlyin 1913,despitecustomthatpoliticallyappointeddiplomatsremainedondutyforfouryears, GrevstadenlistedhisIllinoisfriendstoconvinceSecretaryofStateWilliamJ.Bryanthatthe newspapermanwasaliberalRepublican,practicallyanindependent,anecessarystretchof thetruth.Evenso,Bryanboughttheargument,buttokeepDemocratshappyhesplitthe dutiesofthelegation.After1913,WashingtonaccreditedaseparateministertoParaguayand appointedaDemocrattoAsuncin.ForthefirsttimesincetheUShaddiplomatic representationinMontevideosince1867,thelegationonlyservedonecountry:Uruguay.9 Grevstad,likemostofTaftsappointeesinLatinAmericasoughttoopenmarketsforUS goods;atthesametime,hedidsowithoutthatattendantdistrustsomanyotherDollar Diplomatsearned,owingprincipallytotheBatllistaembraceofYankeeideas.Grevstad,for one,advocatedincreasedcommercialpenetrationintoUruguay,supportingUSrailroad, banking,andmeatindustries.Likewise,hestoodatthereadytosubstituteNorthAmerican expertisewhenFrench,British,orGermaninterestsfailedtomodernizeUruguayasfastasthe Batllistasdesired.Finally,whentheonsetofEuropeanwarinAugust1914drasticallydisrupted
WilliamHowardTafttoPhilanderKnox,17April1911,GrevstadMSS,box3,folder1;TafttoGrevstad,7June 1911,GrevstadMSS,box3,folder1;CharlesDeneentoTaft,17June1911;GrevstadMSS,box3,folder1.
9

84

Uruguayancommercewithitstraditionalpartners,Grevstadmorethananyoneelsecatalyzed theincreaseinUStrade,atopicdiscussedingreaterdepthinthefollowingchapter. BothUSministersGrevstadandMorgancurriedfavoramongtheColoradosin UruguayandindeedwentoutoftheirwaytoportraypublicallytheUruguayanleadershipas progressiveandfriendlytoUnitedStatesinterests.Forexample,whenWashingtonreposted MorgantoLisbonin1911,BatllistastudentswrotealettertoPresidentTafttoprotestlosing suchagreatandsincerefriendtoourcountry.GrevstadalsobefriendedBatllistaelites.For instance,heoncewrotetoWashingtonthatitisfortunateforthecountrythatthereignsof government...areinthehandsofastrongandclearheadedmanlikePresidentBatlley Ordez.Batllereciprocatedtheamity,appointingGrevstadtorepresentUruguayuponhis 1915returnhomeinloannegotiationswithChicagobankers.Thesenegotiationsnonetheless failed.10 WhileMorganandGrevstadtoiledawaysuccessfullyintheRiverPlate,theUruguayan governmentundertheColoradossenttwoministerstoWashington.Thefirst,LuisMelian Lanifur,servedintheWashingtonlegationfrom1906to1910.MelianLanifurknewBatlle goingbacktotheirchildhoodandremainedfastfriendsthroughBatllesearlyyears.Despite twohandicapsthatwouldimpairlessermenintheconductoftheirduties,namelyblindness andtrainingasahistorian,MelianLanifurservedthelegationinWashingtonadmirablyifnot exceptionally.Whilehemadeeveryefforttoforwardinformationonindustrialinventionsthat couldaidUruguay,healsospentmostofhisministryhagglingwithhisinferiorsEduardoMaria SezandPedroRequenaBermdez,believingtheywereusurpinghisauthority.Ultimately,
ElMinistroMorganylosestudiantes,ElDa,7June1911;GrevstadtotheSecretaryofState,11September 1914,GrevstadMSS,box6,folder7;JosRichlingtoGrevstad,21December1915,GrevstadMSS,box1,folder3.
10

85

PresidentWillimancalledBatllesboyhoodfriendhometoserveintheChamberofDeputies wherehebrokewithBatlle,findinghisproposedreformstooradical.11 In1910,WillimanreplacedtheblindhistorianwithCarlosMariadePena,amanwhom heknewwell.MariadePenaservedasthemayorofMontevideobetween1889and1890, thereafterservinginthenationaladministrationasMinisterofFinanceandMinisterofPublic Works,Industry,andInstruction.Later,heworkedcloselywithWillimanattheUniversityof Montevideo,risingtobecometheforemostscholarofpoliticaleconomythenintheOriental Republic.Asadiplomat,MariadePenaservedthegoalsoftheBallistastateadmirably.He proactivelysoughtoutexpertsandideasintheUnitedStatesthattheBatllistacoulduseto modernizeUruguay.12 Atthesametime,MariadePenarecognizedthethreatoftheUnitedStatestoasmall nationlikeUruguay.Forexample,in1912,hemailedaconfidentialdispatchdownto MontevideocriticizingthedollardiplomacyofPresidentTaft.MariadePenaworriedover theincreasingpresenceofUSmilitaryforcesanddiplomaticinterventionintheCaribbeanand warnedtheForeignMinistryinMontevideoagainstit.Thankfully,accordingtotheminister, theSouthernConehadcertainadvantagesinitsfighttoresistYankeeimperialismits geographicpositionanditspoliticalandfinancialstability.Nonetheless,topreventUS interventionintheSouthernCone,MariadePenaadvocatedbalancingYankeemerchantswith Europeancommercialinterests,maintainingpoliticalstability,emphasizingharmonyinforeign

MiltonVanger,TheModelCountry:JosBatlleyOrdoezofUruguay,19071915(Hanover,NewHampshire: UniversityPressofNewEngland,1980),160,189190;LuisMelianLanifurtoJacoboVarelaAcevedo,25July1907, ArchivoGeneraldelaNacin(Montevideo),FondoMinisteriodeRelacionesExteriores,LegacinenWashington, [hereafterAGN/MRREE/Washington]caja264,carpeta226.

12

11

UruguayanMinisterDead,TheNewYorkTimes,1May1918.

86

policy,actingconcertedlywithotherregionalpowers,andexpandingtheUruguayaneconomy. BatlleinmanyrespectsheededMariadePenaswarningsandthediplomatremainedonthe jobintheUnitedStatesthroughmostofWorldWarI,dyinginNewYorkCityin1918.13 Evenso,WashingtonandMontevideolimitedtheirpoliticalinteractioninthisperiod. WhileWashingtonbusieditselfwithissuingultimatums,landingMarines,andencouraging changesingovernmentinotherpartsofLatinAmerica,politicaldiplomacywithUruguaytooka backseat.Instead,themajorityofrelationsbetweentheOrientalRepublicandtheUnited Statestooktheformofexchangesinthreekeyareasgoods,ideas,andpeople. Commerce Mosttangibly,ElihuRootsvisitpromptedanincreasedcommercialintercourse

betweenthetwocountries.Uruguaysranchingproductsbeef,pork,andwooltraversedthe AtlanticforcitiessuchasNewYork,Philadelphia,andBostonandmanyEuropeanports. Conversely,USmanufactures,especiallytechnologicalinnovationsthatsymbolizedprogress, madetheirwaythroughMontevideoandfromthatharborintotheUruguaysinterior.Suchan increase,thoughinabsoluteterms,paledincomparisonrelatively;USmerchantswouldneeda worldwartodislodgetheirBritishcounterpartsfromprimepositionintheSouthernCone. Thoughthestatisticaldataremainsincomplete,afterRootsvisitUStradewithUruguay

barelyimprovedabsolutelyadvalorumuntil1910.Forexample,twoyearsbeforeRootsvisit, Uruguayexported$2.07millionworthofgoodstotheUnitedStatesandimported$2.05
13

CarlosMariadePenatoJosRomeu,22February1912,AGN/MRREE/Washington,caja271,carpeta387.

87

million.BytheyearofRootsvisit,Uruguayexported$1.74millionworthofgoodstothe UnitedStateswhileitimported$3.40millioninUSgoods.In1908,theOrientalRepublic exported$2.4millionandimported$3.46millionofUSmerchandise.Onaverage,from1910 untilthestartofWorldWarIinEurope,Uruguayexported$4.5totheUnitedStatesperannum whileimporting,onaverage,$5.9million.Inall,theUnitedStateswithrareexceptionhelda tradedeficitwithUruguayuntilWorldWarI.14 Despitesuchanincreaseintradeinabsoluteterms,Yankeemerchantsoftenfound

themselvesinadisadvantageouspositionrelatively.Britishmerchantsstilldominatedthe importmarketintoUruguay.ButevenifLondonssalesmencompletelydepartedfromthe shoresoftheRiverPlate,USmerchantsalmostinvariablyfoundthemselvesbehindGermanand Frenchmerchants.InUruguaysexporttrade,theUnitedStateslaggedevenfartherbehind, generallyplacingsixthorseventh,behindFrance,Belgium,Germany,Argentina,Brazil,and, moreoftenthannot,GreatBritain.15 Startingaround1910,commercialinteractionbetweenthetwoAmericanrepublics

increasedforanumberofreasons.First,steamshipservicebetweentheUnitedStatesandthe RodelaPlataregionbecamecheaperandmoreregular.Forexample,theLamport&HoltLine inauguratedthefirstscheduledsteamshipservicebetweentheUSandMontevideoin1907. ShipsleftNewYorkmonthly,arrivingatMontevideoafterBrazilianstopsinSalvadordeBahia, RiodeJaniero,andSantos.In1908,theUSgovernmentsubsidizedsteamshipservicetoSouth

U.S.DepartmentofCommerce,BureauofForeignandDomesticCommerce,MonthlyConsularandTrade Reports.Washington:GovernmentPrintingOffice,19051910[hereafterMCTR],no.308,May1906,155;MCTR, no.325,October1907,90;U.S.DepartmentofCommerce,StatisticalAbstractsoftheUnitedStates,no.45 (Washington,D.C.:GovernmentPrintingOffice,1923),361.

15

14

Ibid.

88

Americaandbylaterinthatyear,PrinceLinewasofferingdirectservicebetweenNewYorkand Montevideo.ServicebetweenNewOrleansandMontevideocommencedin1911.16 Second,itseemsYankeebusinessmenhadacculturatedthemselvestotheUruguayan commercialworldinanefforttounderstandUruguayansandincreasetheirmarketshareinthe OrientalRepublic.Forexample,in1909,theUSConsulinMontevideopublicallywarned YankeemerchantsthatthemethodsemployedbyAmericansalesmenintheUnitedStates whensellinggoodswillnotonlyfailtosecureordershere,butarelookedupwithgrave suspicion.Heofferedsomegeneralpointstoincreasebusiness,amongthemdonot attempttodobusinessunlessyouarefamiliarwiththeSpanishlanguageandtheLatinpeople, toalwayskeepyourtemperwellundercontrolandcarryapleasantexpressiononyourface, andriotouslivingwillnotincreaseyoursales.Seemingly,NorthAmericancommercialagents heededtheconsularadviceandbeganstudyingthemarketthoroughlyhiringSpanish speakingagents,learningcommercialcustoms,andsuitingtheirproductstothemarket.By late1910,theconsulcouldreportthatIdonothearawordofAmericanprejudice...andno sentimentexistsagainstgoodsfromtheUnitedStates.17 Tothisend,theBostonChamberofCommercesentamissiontoSouthAmericato investigatemarketconditionsandcommercialviabilityoftheRiverPlateregionin1913.Inlate December1912,theBostonbusinessmenfinallyapprovedsendingacommissiontothewool
PrudenciodeMurguiondotoVarelaAcevedo,14October1907,ArchivoGeneraldelaNacin,FondoMinisterio deRelacionesExteriores,Consulados(EstadosUnidos)[herafterAGN/MRREE/ConsuladosEstadosUnidos],caja 254,carpeta434;NavegacionTransatlnticoentreE.U.ySudAmerica,ElDa,2June1908;EntreNuevaYorky Montevideo,ElDa,18October1908.MariadePenatoJosRomeu,6June1911,AGN/MRREE/Washington,caja 271,carpeta358. MCTR,no.343,April1909,3637;U.S.DepartmentofCommerceandLabor,BureauofManufactures,Daily ConsularandTradeReports(Washington:GovernmentPrintingOffice,19101921)[hereafterDCTR]13,no.120, (22November1910):700.
17 16

89

producingcountriesofSouthAmericaforthepurposesofacquiringnewmarketsforrawwool inlightofthedecliningavailabilityoftheEuropeanvarieties.WhenPresidentBatlle,upon receivingthenewsfeltthetourwasimportantforbothcountriesasitopenedlinesof communicationbetweenwoolproducersandwoolconsumers.OwingtothesignificanceBatlle placedonthecommission,adignifiedreceptionawaitedtheapproximatelyfiftymenwhen thearrivedthemorningof18June1913.ThegovernmenthadanexpositionofUruguayan woolawaitingthembeforetheytraversedthecity.Overthecourseofthreedays,the merchantstouredthecountrysidewithAlfredoMetzGreen,theUruguayanconsulinNewYork, whohadtraveleddownfromtheUStomeetthem,visitedcommercialschools,andattended governmentsponsoredbanquets.Whenthemerchantslefton20June,ElDareportedthat theydepartedwithanexcellentimpressionofthecountry.Indeed,upontheirUSreturn, theirchairmansoughtameetingwithMinisterMariadePenaonhowtobegindirectshipments ofwooltoBoston,avoidingthestopinNewYorkthatraisedthepriceforBostontextile manufacturers.ThebriefvisitexemplifiedthemeanstowhichYankeemerchantswerewilling togotounderstandtheirUruguayancommercialcounterparts.18 Third,theColoradosencouragedanycommercialintercoursewiththeoutsideworldbut especiallywithnonBritishfirms,desiringtoundermineEnglisheconomicinfluenceinthe country.Forexample,whenBatlleattackedtheBritishcontrolledrailwaysystem,USConsul FredericGodingwrotetoWashingtonthatsuchanactionhelpstoexplainthewantof sympathywiththeBritishinterestsofthePresident,sowellknown;whilehisevident
18

HermanL.DillinghamtoMariadePena,27December1912,ArchivoHistricoDiplomtico(Montevideo),Fondo LegacinenWashington,19001930[hereafterAHD/Washington]caja25,carpeta179,expediente5;El ComercialNorteAmericano,ElDa,18February1913;DillinghamtoMariadePena,28August1913, AHD/Washington,caja25,carpeta179,expediente5;Ladelegacinamericana,ElDa,31May1913;La delegacincommercialdeBoston,ElDa,18June1913;LadelegacindeBoston,ElDa,21June1913.

90

encouragementofeverythingNorthAmericanshowshisdesiretoimprovethefriendly relationsalreadyexistingbetweenUruguayandtheUnitedStates."Inthesamevein,Batlles rabidanticlericalismironicallyembracedtrade.AJune1909editorialinElDaarguedthat secondaryschoolstudentsshouldstoplearningtheBiblicallanguagesofGreekandLatinand learnlanguagesthatcancontributetothebetterutilizationofcommerceandthegreater amplitudeofdemonstratingintelligence,specificallyGerman,English,Italian,andRussian. YankeeproductsthemselvesservedasimportantmarkersinBatllesquestformodernity.Just asthegovernmentembracedYankeeideasasmodern,asdemonstratedbelow,North Americanproductstookonasimilarprogressivenature,increasingdemand.Forexample,an advertisementinthe24June1910editionofElDa,amongstothers,showedthatthreeYankee firmshadestablishedthemselvesinMontevideoEdisonPhonographs,SunlightSoap,and KodakCameras.19 Fourth,WashingtonpolicymakersencouragedthemovementofgoodstoSouth America.SecretaryofStateElihuRoot,onemonthafterhisreturnfromhis1906goodwilltour, gaveapopularspeechonthetopicofUStradeinSouthAmericatotheTransMississippi CommercialCongress.Rootextolledhisvisitorsthatimmediatelybeforeus,atexactlythe righttime,justaswearereadyforit,greatopportunitiesforpeacefulcommerceandindustrial expansiontothesoutharepresented,inthenewlyawakenedcontinentofSouthAmerica. Citinghisexperiencesthere,RootportrayedSouthAmericaaspoliticallystableandfriendlyto theUnitedStates,Rootassertedthattheopportunitiesaresolargethatfiguresfailtoconvey them.ThesecretarythusadvocatedthatYankeemerchantsstudytheSouthAmerican
19

FredericGodingtoSecretaryofState,5September1911,DecimalFile,file833.77/30;Todavaellatin,ElDa,8 June1909;ElDa,24June1910.

91

market,learnSpanishandPortuguese,arrangecredit,establishbanks,andencouragethe sendingofexpertstoexplainnewtechnology.Atthesametime,RootassertedthattheUS governmentshouldlowerthetariff,allowUSfirmstopurchaseforeignships,andsubsidize shippingtoSouthAmerica.ThoughRootresignedtheSecretaryshipofStatein1909,heharped onsimilarthemesinsubsequentaddressesinWashingtonasapowerfulsenatorfromNewYork between1909and1915.20 Likewise,theWilliamTaftadministrationadvocatedincreasedeconomicintercourse withLatinAmericanthroughapolicycontemporariestermeddollardiplomacy.Accordingto itsleadingstudents,dollardiplomacysimplymeantusingeconomicinterventiontostaveoff militaryintervention,especiallyinLatinAmericaandEastAsia.TheTaftStateDepartment, mostimportantlySecretaryPhilanderKnoxandFirstAssistantSecretaryHuntingtonWilson, encouragedYankeeinvestmentinbanks,railroads,andloansoverseastoassurethatsmaller nationsinLatinAmericaandEastAsiatiedthemselvestotheUnitedStates.Thispolicy,they hoped,wouldenhanceUSeconomicprestigeand,usingeconomiccoercionthatthese investmentsenabled,wouldinhibittheuseofforce.Notsurprisingly,USbankssuppliedtheir firstloantoUruguayjustafterTaftleftoffice;theNationalCityBankofNewYorkloanedthe Batllistaregime34millionpesostosupporttheBankoftheRepublicandforpublicworksin December1913.21 TheWilsonadministration,comingintoofficeinMarch1913,continuedthislineof policy.NoticingatradedeficitwiththeRiverPlatecountries,Wilsonwentaboutusingthe
20

RobertBaconandJamesBrownScott,LatinAmericaandtheUnitedStates:AddressesbyElihuRoot(Cambridge, Massachusetts:HarvardUniversityPress,1917),247248,254257,262263.

WalterV.ScholesandMarieV.Scholes,TheForeignPoliciesoftheTaftAdministration(Columbia:Universityof MissouriPress,1970),30,35;Observaciones,AHD/Washington,caja25,carpeta177,expediente1.

21

92

mightofthefederalgovernmenttoturnthatdeficitintoasurplus.Wilsonstacticsinvolved encouragingcommercialcommissionersanddiplomatstostudymarketconditionsand encourageYankeetradeintheregion.Forexample,inlate1913,theNationalChamberof CommercesentJohnLenfesteytoMontevideotostudymarketconditions.Hearrivedin January1914,stayingfourdaysbeforecontinuingonhistriptoBrazil.Twomonthslater, anothercommercialcommission,thistimewiththeofficialsanctionoftheCommerce Department,arrivedinMontevideo.AttheheadofthatcommissionsatEdwardN.Hurley,who WilsonlaterappointedtotheFederalTradeCommission.Thisdelegationremainedonedayin MontevideotostudybusinesscommissionsandcommercialopportunitiesinUruguay. Moreover,WilsonsStateDepartmentstaffedthelegationinMontevideowithacommercial attachforthefirsttimeinJuly1914,thoughheresidedinitiallyinBuenosAires.22 Fifthandconnectedly,onemustciteUStariffadjustmentstoUruguayanprincipal exports:beef,pork,andwool.BeforeBatllecametopower,Yankeecustomsofficialsworking undertheguiseofthe1897DigleyTariffchargedbeefandporka2centsperpoundduty.On wool,theycharged4centsperpoundifthewoolcostlessthan12centsperpoundor7cents perpoundifthewoolcostmorethan12centsperpound.WhenCongresschangedthetariff lawsin1909,MinisterMelianLanifurinWashington,ConsulGeneralPrudencioMurguinodoin Baltimore,andForeignMinisterRomeualllobbiedforlowerdutiesforUruguayangoods. Howevermuchthesediplomatsmayhaveaffectedthelegislativeproceedings,thePaine AldrichTariffofthatyearloweredthedutyonporkandbeefto1.5centsperpoundwhileit
ElcomercioconEstadosUnidos,ElDa,23January1914;Delegacincommercialyanqui,ElDa,17February 1914;AttachecommercialdeEstadosUnidos,ElDa,24November1914;GabrielKolko,TheTriumphof Conservativism:AReinterpretationofAmericanHistory,19001916(NewYork:FreePress,1963),270.
22

93

keptthedutyonwoolthesame.Finally,themonumentalUnderwoodSimmonsTariffof1913 putbeefandporkonthefreelist,providedtheimportscompliedwiththeprovisionsofthe 1906MeatInspectionActandthe1906PureFoodandDrugAct,andsimplifiedthewoolduty to8percentadvalorem.Inshort,theUStariffwallontheOrientalRepublicschiefexports persistentlyloweredthroughouttheperiod.23 Somecombinationofallofthesepracticessurelyaugmentedthemovementofgoods betweenUruguayandtheUnitedStatesanddiplomatssurelynoticedtheincrease.For example,inJuly1913USConsulFredericGoodingwrotefromMontevideothat[North] AmericanenterprisehassucceededinestablishingapermanentbusinessinthisRepublic,which ishavingahealthygrowth.ForGooding,itwasonlyaquestionoftimewhentheimports fromtheUnitedStateswilloccupysecondplace[behindGreatBritain],withafairpromiseof toppingthelist.24 TheshippingofgoodsbackandforthbetweenNewYorkandMontevideo,nonetheless,

doesnottelltheentirestoryofUSUruguayaneconomicinteractionintheperiodbetween RootsvisitandWorldWarI.USoverseasventuresinUruguayincreasedinthisperiodas BatllistasencouragedforeignfirmstocompetewiththeBritishandsimultaneouslyAmerican firmslookedfornewmarketsunderthebannerofdollardiplomacy.Specifically,inthree importantindustriesdidUSfirmsinvestinUruguayinthisperiodrailroads,oil,and meatpacking.

30Stat.172;30Stat.183;36Stat.38;36Stat.53;38Stat.142;38Stat.159;OtraAmenanzaExterior,ElDa, 14May1909.
24 23

DCTR16,no.158(9July1913):150.

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Railroads,perhapsthegreatestsymbolofmodernityatthistimeinhumanhistory,first

attractedYankeecapital.Uruguayansfamiliarizedthemselveswithironhorsesinthe nineteenthcenturywhentheBritishmanufacturedthemintheOrientalRepublic.TheseBritish railroadroutes,nevertheless,didnotadequatelyserveUruguaysburgeoningpopulationinthe earlytwentiethcentury,astheyoftenonlyconnectedBritishownedestanciastocoastalports. Buddingtownsandtheirgoodsmadeittomarketonoldfashioneddirtroad.25 Assuch,threedifferentNorthAmericanpromoterscommencedlinesfortheUruguayan stateinthe1910s.First,whenBatllereturnedtopowerin1911,hedistrustedtheBritish ownedCentralRailwayandsoughttoconstructaparallelsystemofstateownedrailroads,what historianMiltonVangercallsoneofBatllesprimegoalsforthisadministration.Forthisnew system,BatllecontractedwithAmericanfinancierPercivalFarquhar,whohadbuiltextensively inBrazilandsomeinUruguaybutovercapitalizationandpoormaintenancenearlybankrupted hiscompaniesby1914.Assuch,BatlleastutelycontractedwiththeNorthAmericanthatyearto buildthestaterailroadundertheguiseofFarquharsUruguayanRailwayCompanywhenthe Yankeecapitalistneededhebusinessmost.ItresultedinFarquharandNewYorksMacArthur Brothersconstructinga1000kilometerrailroadsystemwhichwouldbothopennewareasto railroadsandforcetheCentraltolowerratesandimproveserviceuponitscompletionin1922, oneofthegreatestinternalimprovementssuccessesinUruguayanhistory.GivenFarquhars financialsituation,BatllenegotiatedafavorablecontractatalowpricepayableinUruguayan bonds.MoreimportantlyforBatlle,thecompetitiondidnotpleasetheBritish.Nonetheless,

PeterWinn,BritishInformalEmpireinUruguayintheNineteenthCenturyPastandPresent73(November 1976):117.
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diplomaticcomplaintsfromtheBritishministerinMontevideometonlywithpoliticalcartoons inElDaimplyingtheBritishsgovernmentssubserviencetoBritishcapital.26 Second,exMinisterEdwardOBrienreturnedin1910asthepublicfaceofafirmthat soughttobuildanAtlanticportatCoronillaaptlynamedAtlnticoandconnectitwiththe interiorviarailway,whichhecalledtheTransUruguayanRailway.OBriencameintocontact withthisschemeduringthelastyearofhisministryin1909.Usingthesamerecklessabandon hedemonstratedwhenplanningeveryminuteofRoots1906visit,hecabledtheState DepartmentthataprojectforportworksandtransUruguayanrailroadwithsubstantial subsidyoffersAmericancapitalpositivefootholdandadvantageinSouthernSouthAmerica. HeofferedtoreturnhomeinweekstodiscussthematterpersonallyinWashington.Whenthe StateDepartmentfailedtoanswerhisoffer,herepeateditbutAlveyAdeeandPhilanderKnox stillvacillatedonOBriensvagueproposition.WhenOBrienclarifiedtheprojectinOctober 1909includingaconfidentialprovisionforaUSNavycoalingstation,theStateDepartment sentdowntwoengineerstosurveytheproposedroute.Theirreportconcludedthataspartof ourgeneralpolicyoftradeextension,theprojectisworthyofcarefulreview.27 Nonetheless,theStateDepartmentdidnottakeuptheworkanditfelltoprivate concerns,GeneralOBrienbecomingitsprincipalpropagandistafterhisretirementfrom diplomaticservicein1910.BySeptember1910,OBrienhadbeguntoacquireenoughNorth AmericancapitaltorelateanambitiousplantobuildtheportofLaCoronilla(Atlntico),to
26 27

Vanger,302305;NotaGrafica,ElDa,5September1911.

EdwardOBrientoPhilanderKnox,24June1909,DepartmentofState,NumericalandMinorFilesofthe DepartmentofState,microcopyM862,RecordGroup59,NationalArchivesandRecordsAdministration[hereafter NumericalFile],file16006/1,roll942;AlveyAdeetoKnox,19August1909,NumericalFile,file16006/1,roll942; OBrientotheSecretaryofState,9October1909,NumericalFile,file16006/45,roll942;Memorandumby CharlesPepperandM.H.Davis,1November1909,NumericalFile,file16006/6,roll942;CounseloroftheState DepartmenttotheSecretaryofState,2December1909,NumericalFile,file16006/9,roll942.

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constructtheTransUruguayanRailroadfromtheretothenorthwestofthecountryandlinkit toArgentine,Brazilian,andParaguayanlines,andfinallytocolonizetheregionalongthe railroadbed.Batllefavoredtheinitiative;inElDa,henotedthattherealizationofthis immenseworkmeansmuchtous,positingthatitwouldincreasetrade,peopletheinterior, andleadtofurthersourcesofcreditintheUnitedStates,forwhichBatllerecognizedRoots 1906ascatalyzing.Likewise,USConsulFredericGodingandanumberofUruguayanengineers supportedtheproject.AssuchOBrienreceivedfromtheUruguayangovernmentpermission tocommencetheworkoftherailwayinMarch1911.Nonetheless,OBriensschememet oppositionfromtheUSlegationunderbothMorganandGrevstad.Morgan,forone,senthis personalsecretaryJohnGittingsouttoviewtheprospectsofCoronillain1911andGittings concludedthattheporthaseverythingagainstit.Givenreportssuchasthese,OBrien continuallycomplainedtotheStateDepartmentthroughout1911and1912thatlegation diplomatswereinterferingwiththeproject.28 DespitetheseeffortsonthepartofUSdiplomats,theBatllegovernmentconcededto OBrientofurtherhisrailroadprojectandcommencethesurveyoftheportcityafter1913.In June1913,theBatllegovernmentdecreedthatOBriencouldbeginhisstudiesofboththeport andtherailway.InSeptember1913,hereturnedtotheUStoacquirefundingand,usingit promptlyreturnedtoUruguaytocommencethesurveys.UnfortunatelyforOBrien,the inspectorthatthecontractnamed,W.H.Burr,nevercametoUruguaytosurveytheland.As such,whenOBrienusedasecondengineer,E.A.Bond,theresurgentBlancooppositioncited
MorgantotheSecretaryofState,9September1910,DecimalFile,file833.77/11;MorgantotheSecretaryof State(telegram),6March1911,DecimalFile,file833.77/20;DCTR13,no.211(9September1911):11221123, CrditoyFerrocarriles,ElDa,13September1911;MorgantotheSecretaryofState,8February1911,Decimal File,file833.156;OBrientothePresidentoftheUnitedStates,12September1912,DecimalFile,file833.77/114; GrevstadtotheSecretaryofState,23June1913,DecimalFile,file833.156/27.
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himforrenegingonthecontract.Ultimately,Coloradodeputiesandpublicopinion,whichEl Dacultivated,mutedsuchcriticism.Byearly1915,OBrienhadcompletedhissurveysandEl Dacommentedthatthefinishedportwouldassumeatranscendentalmagnitudeforthe futureportactivitiesofthiscountry.Unfortunately,competitionfromtheportofRioGrande doSul,150milesnorthofLaCoronilla,doomedtheproject.There,aFrenchfirmconstructeda portwithcomparablerailroadfacilitiesand,inessence,beatOBrientothelucrativeinterior trade.Assuch,OBriensLaCoronilla/TransUruguayanRailwayprojectfellintooblivionand RioGrandedoSolcontrolledtheinteriortradeinthatpartoftheworld.Theexdiplomat neverthelessremainedinUruguayandevendevelopedanunsuccessfulschemeforUS financingofanautomobileroadbetweenColoniaandMontevideoin1927.29 Third,asOBrienbeganworkedonCoronillaandontheTransUruguayanRailway, YankeescommencedbuildingontheUruguayanportionofthePanAmericanRailwayin1912. Asfarbackas1872,NorthAmericanentrepreneursadvocatedsometypeofrailroadtoconnect SouthAmericatoNorthAmerica,enablingtheprimaryproductsofSouthAmericatomore effectivelyenterYankeefactories.AtthefirstPanAmericanConferenceinWashingtonin 1890,diplomatsagreedtoconnectaseriesofnationalrailnetworks,eachofwhichtraversed themajorcities,toeachother.Individualstatescouldconcedebuildingprivilegesfornewlines

GrevstadtotheSecretaryofState,23June1913,DecimalFile,file833.156/27;GrevstadtotheSecretaryof State,8June1914,DecimalFile,833.156/34;GrevstadtotheSecretaryofState,8February1915,DecimalFile,file 833.156/37;ElPuertodeLaCoronilla,ElDa,13January1915;ElPuertodelaCoronilla,ElDa,29March 1915;Porelparlamento,ElDa,30May1914;ElasuntodelaCoronilla,ElDa,1June1914;Elasuntodela Coronilla,ElDa,3June1914;LodelaCoronilla,ElDa,4June1914;EdwardO'BrientoRoyD.Chapin,27March 1927,DecimalFile,file833.154/23;JuanAntonioVarese,Rocha:TierradeAventuras(Montevideo:BandaOriental, 2001),164.

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tooutsidefirmsiftheircitiesthatdidnotyetconnecttotheinternationalweb,thesediplomats agreed.30 By1909,thevariouscountrieshadnearlycompletedthesystembutforafewsmall states,includingUruguay.IntothisbreechsteppedNorthAmericanpromotersandrailroad men.In1909,CharlesBrightpurchasedanuncompleted1889concessionfortheInterior RailwayofUruguay,whichthegovernmentissuedtoanUruguayancompanytoconnectthe westernportofColoniawiththenorthernbordertownofSanLuis.AfterMontevideo confirmedhispurchasethatyear,BrightnamedhisfirmPanAmericanTranscontinental RailwayCompanyandsoughtoutinvestors.Byearly1912,NewYorklawyerJohnJ.MacKelvey andothersbackedthecompanyandsoughttointegrateitwiththelargerPanAmerican network.Initially,theBatllegovernmentdelayedinaffirmingtheconcessionandthisholdup convincedMacKelveyofeitherBrightsincompetenceorOBriensinterference.Hisfriend, MinisterGrevstad,hadtomollifytheNewYorklawyerbyprivatelyinforminghimthatBrights incompetenceshouldnotworryMacKelveyandthatOBriencutsasmuchafigureontheP.A. matterasthemanonthemoon.Indeed,MacKelveyneedlesslyworried;Montevideo concededtheworktothefirminlateJuly1912.31 ThePanAmericanTranscontinentalRailwayCompanyconstruction,nonetheless,did notsucceedunderMacKelvey.ByMarch1912,thefirmfellbehindonpayrollandtheMinister ofPublicWorksthreatenedtoannultheconcession,citingtheslownessoftheworkandthe

JohnAnthonyCaruso,ThePanAmericanRailway,TheHispanicAmericanHistoricReview31,no.4(November 1951):608,612613. JohnMacKelveytoGrevstad,29June1912,GrevstadMSS,box3,folder2;MacKelveytoGrevstad,22July1912, GrevstadMSS,box3,folder2;GrevstadtotheSecretaryofState,31December1914,GrevstadMSS,box6,folder 8.

31

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financialconditionofthefirm.MinisterGrevstadconfidentiallysuspectedthatUruguayan policymakersrecognizedthat,ifthefirmweretocompletethework,Uruguaywouldbecomea waystationbetweenArgentinaandBrazil.Inessence,then,theywereusingtheassetsand tardinessofthefirmasanexcuse.Thecompanyreboundedandbylate1912,thework restartedandthecorporationbroughtmanymenandmaterialfromtheUnitedStatesto completethework.MinisterGrevstadinfactcommentedthattheworkatthispointwas promising.But1913broughtdelaysandrepeatedinterruptions,forcingthecompanyto stopitsconstructionofthelinebetweenDuranzoandTrinidad.Facingfurtherinfusionsofcash withlittlehopeofprofitability,thecompanyoffereditsconcessiontotheUruguayan government.TheBatlleadministrationacceptedandinDecember1913purchasedthefirms assets,extinguishedtheclaim,andendedtheshorthistoryofthebusiness.Itthenconcededto theMacArthurBrothersofNewYork,amorereputablefirm,tocompletetheconstructionof theshortTrinidadDuranzoline,whichitdidinOctober1915.Ultimately,theBatlle governmentaimedtointegrateitintothelargerstateownedrailwaysystemthenunder constructionbytheFarquharsyndicate,butitoperatedasanindependentlineintheshort term.Nonetheless,indealingwiththeliquidationofthePanAmericanTranscontinental RailwayCompany,GrevstadindisputablyinformedWashingtonthattheUruguayan governmenthasshowntheworldthatitintendstodealfairlyandjustlywithforeigncapital,a glowingrecommendationinlightofforthcomingdifficultieswithMexicooveroil.32
GrevstadtotheSecretaryofState,31December1914,GrevstadMSS,box6,folder8;DCTR19,no.105(4May 1916):450.MacKelveytoHuntingtonWilson,7March1912,DecimalFile,file833.77/44.Grevstadtothe SecretaryofState,9April1912,DecimalFile,file833.77/71;RobertE.JefferytotheSecretaryofState,18 November1915,DecimalFile,file833.77/180;ElFerrocarrilPanamericano,ElDa,4October1915.For discussionsonUSrelationswithMexicoovertheoilquestion,seeLindaHall,OilBanks,andPolitics:TheUnited StatesandPostrevolutionaryMexico,19171924.(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,1995)andLorenzoMeyer,
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Petroleum,infact,servedasthesecondUruguayanindustrythatattractedNorth

Americaninvestmentbetween1906and1914.In1911,WestIndiaOilCompany,theLatin AmericansubsidiaryofStandardOilofNewJersey,commencedoperationsinMontevideoto importpetroleumandderivateproductstoUruguayans.Italsosoughttobuildrefineriesto harnesstheoilsupposedtoexistinUruguay.Aftersomedifficultyinfindingalocationto baseitsbusiness,thefirmprofitedbysupplyingoiltotheburgeoningrailroadandautomobile industryandbecameamajorfactorinUruguayanindustrialdevelopmentintothe1920sand continuesasEssoStandardOilCompanyofUruguaytoday.Indeed,atthesametimeas nationalistsinRevolutionaryMexicotargetedYankeeandBritishoilconcerns,astableandpro NorthAmericanregimeinUruguayappealedtopetroleumfinanciersnorthoftheRioGrande.33 Despitethesignificantinvestmentinrailroadsandoil,owingtoUruguaysstatusasa

pastoraleconomy,meatpackingseemedthemostobviousUSenterprisetoinvestinUruguay. Nonetheless,theYankeemeatpackersdidnotestablishthemselvesinUruguayuntilthe1910s fortworeasons.First,asthethreemajorpackersArmour,Swift,andMorrishadjoinedina trustastheNationalPackingCompanyin1902,theyhadlittleincentivetoriskcapitalina distantcontinentknowntraditionallyforYankeephobiaandinstability.Second,thelackof reliablesteamservicetotheRodelePlataregionunderminedtheabilityofthesepackersto transportmeattoEuropeanmarketsbeforeitspoiled.

MexicoandtheUnitedStatesintheOilControversy,19171942,2ded.trans.MurielVasconcellos(Austin: UniversityofTexasPress,1977). MyronHofertotheSecretaryofState,20May1925,DecimalFile,file833.5045/11;G.CornellTarlertothe SecretaryofState,2November1911,DecimalFile,file833.6363W52;GrevstadtotheSecretaryofState,15 February1913,DecimalFile,833.6363W52/2.

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AstheRiverPlategainedareputationforpoliticalstabilityandoceanicsteamtravel

becamemoreubiquitous,enablingquickertransportofmeat,theNorthAmericanmeat packersbeganinvestingintheregion.Forexample,in1910,Armour&Co.beganconstruction onthelargestpackinghouseinSouthAmericainLaPlata,Argentina,southofBuenosAires,to harnessthemassivepotentialoftheArgentineinterior.Citingthis,UruguayanConsulinNew YorkJosRichlingcommencedconfidentialnegotiationswiththelargestUSfirmoutsidethe NationalPackingCompany,SulzbergerSons&Company,thefollowingyear.Richlingfeltthat dealingwithSulzbergerwouldgiveUruguayanscompletiveadvantagesoverdealingwiththe BeefTrust.Atthesametime,Richlingexpressedhislackofconcernthatsomenationalists hadaboutYankeemonopolizationoftheRiverPlatepackingindustryasexaggerated. Richlingspropagandizingsucceededin1913,SulzbergerSons&Companyestablishedameat packingplantinFrayBentos,aninteriorcity.34 Moreimportantly,Swift&Co.investedintheUruguayanmarket.Annoyedinearly

1911bythetransferofamajorpackinghousetotheentrenchedBritish,whovirtually monopolizedtheindustry,theBatllegovernmentcommencedtheerectionofafourmillion pesofreezingplant(frigorfico).TheNorthAmericanchargdaffairesnotedthatBatllewas veryanxiousforAmericancapitaliststoinvestinthecountry.Assuch,Batlleaimedtosellthe planttoaYankeeconcernandexemptthatcompanyfromrealestatetaxesaswellasdutieson importedmachinery.AspartofhisemphasisonusingYankeetechnicalexperts,itcouldonly utilizeexpertsfromChicagopertheenablinglaw.Batllesplanworked.Duringconstruction

HarvardUniversity.GraduateSchoolofBusinessAdministration,Armour&Company,18671953(Cambridge, Massachusetts:HarvardUniversity,1954),1213;JosRichlingtoJosRomeu,26June1911, AGN/MRREE/ConsuladosEstadosUnidos,caja261,carpeta572;GrevstadtotheSecretaryofState,2August1913, DecimalFile,file833.6582/12;Laindustrialfrigorfica,ElDa,16October1914.
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in1911,Swift&Co.purchasedthefrigorficofromthestateonthesetermsprovidedafter havingalreadypurchasingthreeextantjerkedbeefplants.TheChicagofirmoriginallynamed theplanttheFrigorficoMontevideobutin1913officiallychangeditsnametoCompaaSwift deMontevideoS.A,thoughitremainedtheFrigorficoMontevideoinpopularnomenclature. TheplantmadetheChicagoconcerntheleadingfactorintheUruguayancattlemarketuntil theFirstWorldWaranditremainedacommercialpowerhouseuntilitsclosurein1957.The plantalsogaveSwift&Co.greatviewsofthecapitalcityitlocatedtheenterpriseonthe northernshoreofMontevideo,ontheCerrooverlookingdowntown.35 TheUnitedStatesandtheUruguayanWelfareState Whilecommercemattered,themostimportanthistoricalmovementinUruguayan

politicalhistoryoccurredbetween1907and1915thecreationoftheWesternHemispheres firstwelfarestate.UnderPresidentsWillimanandmostespeciallyBatlle,Coloradoliberals implementedaprogramtousethestatespowerasasafetynetandfurtherthelivesofits citizens.ThoughsuchamovementgerminatedduringBatllesfirstterm,thedefeatofthe Blancosin1904andthepoliticalstabilityaffordedbyColoradopoliticaldominancethereafter enabledatrueflourishingofinterventionisminthelate1900sandearly1910s.Assuch,inthis period,reformsinindustrialownership,workersrights,financialregulation,andgender equalityaswellasthestateassumingmanyofthetraditionalrolesoftheChurch,namelychild

DCTR21,no.144(20June1918):1098;GodingtotheSecretaryofState,11May1911,DecimalFile,file 833.6582/5;DawnMay,MultinationalCorporationsintheInternationalBeefTrade,inRobertDare,ed.,Food, Power,andCommunity:EssaysintheHistoryofFoodandDrink(KentTown,SouthAustralia:WakefieldPress, 1999),196;GuillermoBernhard,ComerciodeCarnesenelUruguay(Montevideo:AguilareIrazabal,1958),156 158,168.

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careandmarriagerites,alteredUruguayanlifesignificantly.Collectively,historiansreferto thesereformsasBatllismo. Inmanyrespects,owingtoBatllescontemptoftheBritishneocolonyinUruguay,his

fervorfortheUnitedStates,andthesymbolismofRootsvisitinpromotingUStradeand goodwill,manyBatllistaprogramsadaptedNorthAmericanProgressiveEraideas.Theydidso inoneofthreeways.First,insomeareas,mostespeciallytheappropriationofpublicspace andworkersrights,BatllistasusedUSeventstojustifytheirprograms,generallyinElDa. Second,UruguayandiplomatsforwardedProgressiveliteraturethatBatllistasreadandtailored toOrientalneeds.Third,theUruguayangovernmentsentforNorthAmericanexpertstorun schools,makegovernmentmoreefficient,orintegratetheruralareasintoonenation,among othertasks. HistorianshaveshownthatUruguayisnotuniqueinembracingforeignidealsinstate

building;duringthelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies,manyelitesinless developedcountriessoughtoutthebestideasfromtheindustrialworldtoadaptathometo appearmodern.Forexample,AkriaIriyeshowshowMeijiJapaneseleaderstouredEuropeand theUnitedStatesinthe1880stoselectthebestfeaturesofeachpoliticalsystemtoincorporate intotheirconstitution.CertainsectorsofLatinAmericans,too,soughtguidancefromEurope andespeciallyanemergingUnitedStatesasmodelsintheirmodernizationprojects.Louis Prez,forone,notesthattheCubanmiddlesectorsemulatedtheirYankeecounterpartsinthe late1800sandearly1900stoappearmodern.WilliamBeezleyshowshowPorfirianMexican elitesembracedEuropeanculturetoseparatethemselvesfromtheplebianclass.EvenPeter

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SzokdemonstratesthatPanamanianelitessoughttoembracetheirHispanicpastintheearly twentiethcentury,ironicallyenoughtoavoidtheterriblelabelofYankeelackeys.36 Evenso,onemustqualifytheBatllistaembraceofYankeeinitiatives.Ononehand,

BatlleandhissupporterslimitedtheiruseofNorthAmericanideastostatebuilding.Culturally indressandinarchitecture,BatllistasfollowedtheFrenchmodel.Spanishremained,ofcourse, thepredominantlanguage.Soccer,aBritishsport,servedasthenationalpastimeandpassion. Inotherwords,justbecauseBatllistaslookedtoreworkparksandschoolsontheYankee model,theydidnotspeakEnglish,eatapplepie,orplaybaseball. Similarly,BatllistasdidnotlookexclusivelytotheUnitedStatesinitsstatebuilding enterprisesbutlookedtomanyEuropeanstatesaswell.TheyaskedforFrench,Belgian, German,andindeedEnglishideasandexpertstomodernize.Undeniably,Batlletookhismost desiredreformthecollectivepresidencyfromtheSwissFederalCouncil.Inshort,the UnitedStatescontributednoticeablyandsurelysignificantlybutnotexclusivelytoUruguayan statebuildingunderWillimanandBatlle. ClaudioWillimanspresidency(19071911)utilizedYankeeknowledgeandexpertsin

threekeyareaseducation,populatingtheinterior,andpublicworks.Manyhistoriansclaim that,incomparisontoBatllesmoreextensivelyreformistpresidency,Williamstermwasnot verypoliticallyprogressive.Onehistorianevenlabeleditaconservativeinterlude.Granted, Willimansprogramgetslostintheshadowofhisheftyfriendandhislegacyandevenmorethe

AkiraIriye,AcrossthePacific:AnInnerHistoryofAmericanEastAsianRelations(NewYorkandLondon:Harcourt BraceJovanovich,1967);LouisPrez,OnBecomingCuban:Identity,Nationality,andCulture(ChapelHill:University ofNorthCarolinaPress,1999);WilliamBeezley,JudasattheJockeyClubandOtherEpisodesofPorfirianMexico (Lincoln:UniversityofNebraskaPress,1987);PeterSzok,LaltimaGaviota:LiberalismandNostalgiainEarly TwentiethCenturyPanam(Westport,Connecticut:GreenwoodPress,2001).

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rapidityofchangesinconcurrentsocialmovementsinLatinAmerica,mostnotablyinMexico. Nonetheless,WillimansreformsinthesethreeareasmimickedthestatebuildingofBatlle.37 Notsurprisingly,WillimanprincipallyaimedtoreformtheUruguayaneducational

system.Toacertainextent,thiseducationalemphasisresultsfromWillimanspast.Before servingasBatllestrustedlieutenantandMinisterofGovernment(19041907),Williman occupiedtheprestigiousseatasRectoroftheUniversityoftheRepublic.Indeed,afterhis presidentialterm,hereturnedtothatacademicposition.38 Inhiseducationalreformpackages,WillimanembracedUSideas.Forexample,he advocatedthecreationofagriculturalandtechnicalschools,especiallyforwomenandworkers, toharnessthewealthUruguayswildernessmoreeffectivelywhileatthesametimegivingthe proletariansachanceatsocialandeconomicadvancement.Thus,adecreedated12July1909 authorizedthehiringofteacherstrainedonlyinEngland,Belgium,andtheUnitedStates.In otherscholasticareas,too,WillimansoughttoembraceYankeeideas.Forexample,increating theNewSchoolofFineArtsin1910,Willimansgovernmentembracedartisticinstruction overpurelycommercialindustrialtraining,ashadthestateofMassachusettsinitsfinearts schoolssinceatleast1870.39 Batlle,fromEurope,supportedWillimansstanceinremodelingtheeducationalsystem

oneofBatlleshallmarkreformsontheUSmodelthroughaseriesof1908editorialsinEl

ChristineEhrick,TheShieldoftheWeak:FeminismandtheStateinUruguay,19031933(Albuquerque: UniversityofNewMexicoPress,2005),71. MiltonVanger,JoseBatlleyOrdonez:TheCreatorofHisTimes(Cambridge,Massachusetts:HarvardUniversity Press,1963),131. MemorndumEscuelaN.deBellasArtes,22June1910,ArchivoGeneraldelaNacin,ArchivosParticulares, ClaudioWilliman[hereafterWillimanMSS],caja285,carpetaEnseaIndustrial;Decreto,12July1909,Williman MSS,caja285,carpetaEnseaIndustrial.

39 38

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Da.Forinstance,intwoarticlestheeditorsadvocatedthecreationofscholarlybattalions studentswhometinorganizedgroupstoexerciseinunison.BasedonProgressiveJohn Deweysideasofcooperativeeducation,theeditorsassertedthatFrance,Belgium,and Switzerlandhadallsuccessfullyimplementedthisidea.IntheUnitedStates,though,itthrived. There,theeditorsasserted,thebattalionsledtohappyschoolchildren,contributedtothe mentalandmoraleducationofthestudent,implementedasenseoforderandrespect,formed character,andfinallystimulatedpatriotism.Moreover,fourmonthslater,ElDaencouraged thegovernmenttosupportcommercialschools,asgovernmentsdoinItaly,France,Germany, andtheUnitedStates.40 Mostnotablyunderthebannerofeducation,WillimansgovernmentusedaYankee,the

famousDanielE.Salmon,tostartuptheUniversitysVeterinarySchool.Salmon,bornin antebellumNewJersey,becamethefirstDoctorofVeterinaryMedicine(DVM)intheUnited StateswhenCornellUniversityawardedhimthatdegreein1876.AfterworkingfirstatCornell thenattheUnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture,PresidentChesterArthurtappedhimto headthenewBureauofAnimalIndustry(BAI)uponitscreationin1884.AsheadoftheBAI, Salmonundertookresearchtoeradicatecertaintypesoffootandmouthdisease,tocontrol Texasfeverincattle,andtocreateeffectivequarantineregulations.Afterservinginthispost admirablyforovertwentyyears,muckrakersencouragedbyUptonSinclairsexposeTheJungle, targetedtheunpopularSalmonin1905forbusinessdealingswithGeorgeE.Howard&Co., whichtheBAIoftenfailedtoinspect.AlthoughtheBAIssolicitorclearedSalmonof

LosBatallonesEscolares,ElDa,9July1908;LosBatallonesEscolares,ElDa,23July1908;LosPeritos Mercantiles,ElDa,5November1908.

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wrongdoinginlateAugust1905,heresignedaweeklatertopreventfurtherdamagetohis reputationorthatoftheBAI.41 Twoyearslater,theUruguayangovernmenttookadvantageofSalmonsfortuitous unemploymentandconvincedtheveterinariantotraveltotheSouthernConetoorganizeand toleadthecountrysonlyveterinarycollege,aposthehelduntil1912.Atfirst,Salmonsucceed increatingwhatMinisterGrevstadlatercalledoneofthemostuptodateinstitutionsofits kind.Salmonthrivedsomuchthatwhenthecollegeopeneditsclinicalhospitalin1908,only MinisterOBrienrepresentedthediplomaticcorps.Nonetheless,astimewentby,Salmons highmindedgoalsfelltothepracticalitiesofpoorfundingandaninpatientfaculty.When Salmonscontractcameupforrenewalin1911,theUruguayangovernmentalmostapprovedit, buttheschoolsfacultysteppedinandpressuredtheregimetorelieveSalmonofhisduties, citinghowtheinstitutiondidnotrealizetheobjectivesinmindwhenhewasdesignatedfor thatassignment.SalmonstayedanotheryearbeforeretiringtoMontana,wherehediedin 1914.ThefactthatSalmonssuccessor,FrenchmanJosBasset,hadanevenshortertenureof twoyearsostensiblybecauseofhisviolenttemper,mayhaveconsoledSalmoninhisfinal days.42 TheintegrationandpopulationoftheinteriorservedassecondimportantBatllista

programunderWilliman,whichtheliberalsagainmodeledontheUnitedStates.Atleastone
EscueladeVeterinaria,BoletndelaFederacindeProfesionalesUniversitariosalaUniversidad2,no.2(18 July1929)inWillimanMSS,caja285,carpetaEnseaIndustrial;J.F.Smithcors,TheAmericanVeterinaryProfession: ItsBackgroundandDevelopment(Ames:IowaStateUniversityPress,1963),494;O.H.V.Stalheim,TheWinningof AnimalHealth:100YearsofVeterinaryMedicine(Ames:IowaStateUniversityPress,1994),9,15,171;EllisP. Leonard,ACornellHeritage:VeterinaryMedicine,18681908(Ithaca:NewYorkStateCollegeofVeterinary Medicine,1979),80,271;Dr.SalmonClearedofBeefLabelCharge,NewYorkTimes,31August1905;Dr. SalmonResigns;BeefLabeltheCause,NewYorkTimes,7September1905. GrevstadtotheSecretaryofState,23July1914,GrevstadMSS,box6,folder6;EnlaFacultaddeVeterinaria, ElDa,22February1908;EnlaEscueladeVeterinaria,ElDa,11March1911.
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historianhasarguedthat,fortheBatllistasystemtowork,politicalleadersinMontevideo neededapoliticallysupportinginterioraswellasaneconomicallyefficientandpredictable cattlemarket.Nevertheless,intheearlyBatlleyears,amajorityoftheinteriorsresidentsdid notsupporttheBatlleregime,seeingitasalientotheirgauchowaysandsubservienttothe urbaninterestsinMontevideo.Assuch,Batllistassoughtamoreeffectivewaytopopulatethe interiorwithlikemindedsettlers,whowouldthensupporttheColoradoParty.InMarch1910, anElDaeditorialsupportedtheUSmethodsofpopulatingtheWesthomesteading.After explainingtoitsreadersthemechanicsofhomesteadthatthelawauthorizesallthefamily toformasmallreserveandthegoalsthereof,namelytoassureitaroof,theeditorial notedthatthisprojectisnotanoveltyinworldwidelegislation.Rather,itisinspiredbythe learnedinstitutionofNorthAmericadenominatedwiththenamehomestead.Indeed,the authorspointtothespeciallawsin38statesthatallowforsaidhomesteading,beforenotingits successinAlabama.43 Otherthaneducationandhomesteading,theColoradoliberalsunderWillimansought

toemulatetheUnitedStatesinconstructingamodernMontevideo,especiallytoreorderits publicspace.Themodelcountry,afterall,neededamodelcapital.Duringthenineteenth century,thecityrarelyextendedbeyonditscolonialfoundations,nowdenominatedtheCuidad Vieja.Forexample,aslateasthe1920s,thenationallegislaturemetinthe1806constructed Cabildoonthemaincolonialsquare,PlazaConstitution,andvisitorsfoundthePresidents officialresidence,PalacioEstevez,overlookingPlazaIndependencia,whichoccupiedthesame spaceasthecolonialcitysciudadela,orfortress.Intheearly1900s,Montevideoexpanded

43

Vanger,TheModelCountry,356;ElHomestead,ElDa,8March1910.

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rapidlyastheBritishownedrailroadsbroughttheinteriorsgoodstoportandimmigrants, especiallyfromSpainandItaly,populatedthesurroundingareas.Thus,intheearlyBatlle years,thecentralboulevardoutsidetheOldCity,Avenida18deJulio,becameaprominent destinationforshopping,museums,andnightlife.Batlleandhiscadrerecognizedthisandas president,Batllebeganmovinggovernmentofficesoutsideoftheircolonialstructures.Most notably,heinauguratedtheconstructionofanewlegislativepalacein1904,whichbecamethe crownjewelofthecitysskylinewhencompletedin1925. InreorderingMontevideo,theBatllistasagainemulatedsimilarurbanrenewal

movementsintheUnitedStates.ThoughsomeoftheYankeeimpulsetowardsconservation andenvironmentalismemergedfromtheProgressiveinclinationtopreservethefrontier,as personifiedbymenlikeTheodoreRooseveltandGiffordPinchot,theColoradosconcern mirrorsmorecloselytheGildedAgecravingtocreateaoasisofcountryintheurbanmorass,as menlikeFrederickLawOlmsteadandothersdidincitiessuchasNewYork,Boston,andChicago inthelatenineteenthcentury.Similarly,theColoradosfocusedalmostexclusivelyinthis endeavoronthecapitalcityratherthantheinteriorbecause,atthistime,Batllistas overwhelminglycamefromMontevideo.44 Batllistas,astheyexpressedthemselvesinElDa,modeledtheirurbanreformsonUS

citiesunderWilliman.Forexample,theeditorsarguedinFebruarythatifthecityadopted efficiencyexpertandStatenIslandSuperintendentoftheBureauofStreetCleaningJT Fetherstonsideasforstrategicplacementoftrashincinerators,Montevideowouldcreatea

ForadiscussionoftheNorthAmericanimpulsetoreorderitscities,seeWilliamCronon,NaturesMetropolis: ChicagoandtheGreatWest(NewYork:WWNorton&Co.,1991),380.BothBatlleandWillimancamefrom Montevideo.OtherlessprominentBatllistaswhowouldplayimportantrolesinthefuturelikeFelicianoVieraand BaltasarBrum,camefromtheinterior.Inthefirstdecadeofthe1900s,though,theBatllistasoverwhelmingly focuseditspoliticalenergiesonMontevideoasthecityservedasthehomeandpoliticalcenterofitsearlyleaders.
44

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superiorhygienicsituationwithoutalteringtheeconomicconditionsofcurrentfunctionality. Streetconstruction,especiallypavement,alsooccupiedmuchspaceinElDa.AMay1908 editorialjustifiedextensivelightingofcitystreets,arguingthatintheUnitedStatesnostreetis openedwithoutatleastfiftymetersoflighting.WhenCharlesThays,thefamousFrench ArgentinelandscapeartistsvisitedMontevideothefollowingmonth,ElDaendorsedmostof hisrecommendationsforMontevideo,butdisagreedinhisassertionnottopavethestreets. TheeditorsarguedthatgovernmentspavedstreetsinBuenosAires,Rio[de]Janiero,and NorthAmerica.Ayearlater,theeditorsreiteratedtheirsupportforpavingandremindedtheir readersthatintheUnitedStates...asphaltpavementhasprogressedatanamazingrate.In determiningstreetwidth,BatllistasalsolookedtotheUnitedStates.AnOctober1908editorial citedthatthemajoravenuesofthenewcitiesshouldbeinspiredinexamplebytheEuropean andNorthAmericancitiesthatmostcharacterizebetteringimpulses.IntheUnitedStates,the citiesElDacitedincludedWashingtonandNewYork.Eveninpayingfortheirnewmodelcity, BatllistascomparedthemselvestotheUnitedStates.AnAugust1908editorial,forone,noted thatwhilethegovernmentneededtotaxthepeopletofundpublicworks,suchtaxespaledin comparisontothoseintheUSorEuropeforthesamepurpose.45 EvenastheyembracedYankeeideasonhowtoconstructtheirmodelcity,Batllistas

knewwhattheywantedtobuildedificesthataugmentedthegovernmentsroleinthesocial welfareofthepeople,namelyhospitalsandmuseums.Again,theycomparedtheirworkto completedstructuresintheUnitedStates.Forexample,writersinElDafocusedonhospitals

Elproblemadelasbasuras,ElDa,22February1908;AvenidasyCalles,ElDa,26May1908;Elpavimento liso,ElDa,13June1908;Paraterminar,ElDa,24August1909;DerechosdeConstruccin,ElDa,8August 1908;Legislacinedilcia,ElDa,1October1908.
45

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inaJuly1908editorial.TheyfoundthecurrentmedicalfacilitiesinMontevideoquite deficientandarguedthatthecityneedtobuildmorehospitalswithmoreair,light,andspace, justasinthepremierhospitalsofEuropeandtheUnitedStates.Twoyearslater,theeditors arguedthesameformuseums,notingthatthestatemuseumsrequiredbuildingsespecially constructedwiththeobjectivedeterminedtoservethelocationjustastheUnitedStatesdid sowonderfully.46 MorethananyotherurbanprojectsunderWilliman,publicparksbecameimportant

pastoraloasesintheurbansprawlofMontevideo;againBatllistasunderWillimansoughtto rebuildParqueUrbano,nowParqueRod,onthesouthsideofthecityandconstructthePrado onthenorthside,moreorlessontheYankeemodel.Asearlyas1908,articlesinElDaextolled Bostonasofferingthemosttypicalexampleofeffectivepublicwalks.Laterthatyear,the editorsassertedthatcentralparksareessentialtomodernityasallthenewcitiesintheUnited StatesandinEuropecontainthem.Twoyearslater,thepaperlaudedcitieslikeChicagoand Bostonforpossessingmillionsandmillionsofacres,specificallytheireffectonpublichealth, childrecreation,anddynamismofthepeople.ColoradosclearlyembracedtheYankee initiativeofsettingasideurbanlandforrecreation.47 UnderBatllessecondterm(191115),statebuildingprogressedmuchmorerapidly.

Duringthesefouryears,BatllereformedtheUruguayaneducational,political,economic,and socialsystemsswiftly.Educationally,hecreatedfreepublicschoolinginruralareas,and openedthestatesuniversitiestowomen.Politically,heexpandedsuffragetoalladultmales

46 47

Hospitales,ElDa,28July1908;Edificiosparamuseos,ElDa,2May1910.

PaseosPblicos,ElDa,8February1908;PaseosPblicos,ElDa,4June1908;ParquesPblicos,ElDa,12 March1910.

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andallowedforafreeandopenpress.Economically,hemonopolizedtheinsuranceindustry, builtrailroads,andraisedthetariffwalls,allinanefforttoundermineforeign,mainlyBritish, commercialcontrolofUruguay.Mostimportantly,inthesocialsphere,heusedthestates powertobetterthelivesofitscitizensthougholdagepensions,the8hourworkday,minimum wagelaws,regulationofworkingconditions,mandatedcompensationforlaborrelated accidents,and,ultimately,thecreationofthefirstwelfaresystemintheWesternHemisphere. InthewaningdaysofWillimansadministration,butwithBatlleactingascatalystinanticipation ofhisownterm,theUruguayanCongresspassedthe1910PublicAssistanceLaw,which stipulatedthatanyone...indigentoflackingresourceshastherighttofreeassistanceatthe expenseofthestate.48 LikeWilliman,inmanyofthesereforms,BatlleusedtheUnitedStatesinthreeways.

First,hebuilttheirreformsandpublicallyjustifiedthemonUSexamples.Second,heaskedfor andreceivedanumberofUSexpertsinanumberofdifferentfields.Finally,hesent delegationstotheUnitedStatestostudyconditionsinvariousindustries. Forone,BatlleincludedmanyProgressiveEraideasincraftingorjustifyingpolicy

proposals.InanumberofareasthatservedasthehallmarkoftheBatllistareformmovement workersrights,education,andstateinterventionintheeconomyBatllelookedtotheUnited States.Inotherlessimportantareas,namelyantialcoholismandenvironmentalism,the UnitedStatesoftenexemplified,sometimenegatively,thecorrectpathtomodernization. Batllefeltthatstaterunpublicservicesbenefitedthecitizenrybetterthanprivatelyrun

enterprises;assuch,heusedElDatojustifyhisnationalizationofkeyindustriestoundermine
HubertHerring,AHistoryofLatinAmericafromtheBeginningstothePresent,3d.ed.(NewYork:AlfredA. Knopf,1972),794;Ehrick,71.
48

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BritishmonopoliesbycitingUSprecursors.Forexample,inJune1911,ElDasoughttocurry favorforBatllesproposaltomonopolizetheUruguayaninsuranceindustry,whichtheBritish controlled,byreprintingapublicationfromtheArgentineministerinWashingtonthatnoted thatregardingtheindustriesofpublicutilities,railroads,andtelegraphy,manypeopleinthe USareoftheopinionthatthestateshouldpurchasethemandrunthemonitsown.Laterthat year,inanefforttonationalizetheBritishownedMontevideoWaterworks,Batllespapercited thefactthatintheUnitedStates,almostsixtypercentofrunningwatercomesfrompublically ownedenterprisesandonlyoneoftheUSsprincipalcitieshaveprivatelyrunwatercompanies. In1912,BatlleusedElDatojustifyhisattackontheBritishrunrailroads,centralizedunderthe auspicesoftheFerrocarrilCentraldelUruguay.Todoso,hecitedhowcentralizedrailroadsin theUS,afavoritetargetofUSProgressives,abusedlaborandcustomersalike.Finally,inJune 1914,thenewspapernotedthattheUSgovernmentwhosepoliticaleconomicactioniswell knownwasabouttodebateanewlawagainstthetruts[sic]eventually,theClayton AntitrustAct.TheeditorssupportedtheUSeffortsandrecommendedthatallSouthAmerican countries,despitetheirnascentindustries,dictatelawstoimpedethefactorsthatinthe UnitedStateshadledtolargescaletrustsinasmuchasthesetrustsunderminetheeffective spreadofwealthtoallcitizens.49 WorkersrightsformedanotherimportantplankintheBallistaideology;buildingonUS ideas,Batllesoughttolimitworkinghoursanddignifyemployment.AsearlyasFebruary1912, theeditorsofElDa,inanefforttoraiseawarenessforaneighthourdaylaborlaw,remarked thattheUnitedStates,Switzerland,Austria,Norway,Russia,andSpainhadestablished
Elmonopoliodelosseguros,ElDa,5June1911;Elmonopoliodeusinaselctricas,ElDa,24November 1911;FerrocarrilesdelEstado,ElDa,17July1912;Contralostruts[sic],ElDa,29June1914.
49

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maximumhourlaws,thoughthesestatessetthislimitattenhoursperday.Batllistaswere alreadyworkingonalegislativeproposaltomaximizetheUruguayanworkingdayateight hours.Tothatend,inJune1912,MinisterCarlosMariadePenainWashingtonforwardedto MontevideotherecentlypassedUSlawthatlimitedtheworkdaytoeighthoursforfederal employees.Hedidsoarguingthatsuchatextmaybeusefultoconfirmtheadoptionofthe eighthourregulationthatispresentlyunderdiscussioninthelegislature.Astheproposal stagnatedintheUruguayanCongressin1913owingtooppositionfromthepowerfulbusiness lobby,ElDacontinuedtosupportthebillsmerits,citingtheUSasamodelofworkersrights. Forexample,inApril1913,anarticlefromMiguelBecerrodeBengoa,thentraversingthe UnitedStates,laudsthegovernmentsthatcanmakeworkanddurableworks,implantingthis [dignified]systemoforderedandutilitarianwork,justastheUSstatesdidthroughworker protectionlaws.ThenextSeptember,alargearticlenarratedthevariouslaborlawsinthe NorthAmericanstates.Inconcludedbynotingthattheseprogressionsofsociallegislationin theUnitedStatesofferstothenewercountries,likeours,ontheroadtoreformingits progressivelaws,afriendlyinducementandanamplefieldofexperimentationthatshouldnot beignored.Finally,inNovember1915,onlymonthsafterBatlleleftoffice,theUruguayan Congressovercamecapitalsoppositionandpassedtheeighthourworkdaylaw,oneofthe crowningachievementsofBatllismoandUruguayanlabor.50 EducationrepresentedathirdmajorplankintheColoradoprogramandagainBatlle

lookedtotheUnitedStates.InOctober1912,anElDaeditoriallamentedthatLatinAmerican
LasOchoHoras,ElDa,10February1912;MariadePenatoRomeu,22June1912,AGN/MRREE/Washington, caja272,carpeta409;Dignificacindelasprofesiones,ElDa,23April1913;Legislacinobrera,ElDa,15 September1913;JefferytotheSecretaryofState,18November1915,DecimalFile,file833.504/1.
50

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stateshadtoolongembracedpureintellectualisminschoolsratherthanideasthanthe mostusefulideafortheindividualandforsociety,aninterpretationthatputBatlleatodds withJoseEnriqueRod.Infact,thisutilitarianeducation,theeditorsargued,createdthe superiorconditionsinEngland,Germany,andtheUnitedStates,allowingtheGermanicand AngloSaxonracestolayclaimtoeconomicprogresswhileLatinsremainedmiredin backwardness.Thus,Batlleinhissecondtermcreatedvariousutilitarianeducationalprograms, includinganursingschoolrunbyBritishnurses,amoreutilitarianprimaryandsecondaryschool curriculum,andacurriculumattheVeterinarySchoolmodeledevenmoreonUSideasthanit hadbeenunderDr.Salmon.51 Finally,antialcoholicprogramsalsoservedasminorpartsoftheBatllistaideology. UnlikeintheUnitedStates,wereProgressivessoughttoprohibittheconsumptionand manufactureofliquor,Batllistasonlysoughttoregulateitthroughastatemonopoly,citingthe samedetrimentaleffectsonpublicandprivatemoralitythatUSProgressivesdid.Forinstance, in1912,MinisterMariadePenaforwardedanumberofUSnewspaperarticlesasanexample ofwhathereisdoneandisconsideredoffundamentalinterestthefightagainstalcoholism. ThediplomatintendedforthearticlestogototheMinisteroftheInterior,asheheardthe governmentwasdiscussingalawtocombatthesocialulcerofalcoholism.Ayearlater,the ministerforwardedthe1913ExciseLiquorLawforWashingtonDC,whichlimitedthesaleof

51

Elproblemaprofessional,ElDa,23October1912;Lasnurses,ElDa,9May1912;MariadePenatoEmilio Barbaroux,29August1913,AHD/Washington,caja24,carpeta174,expediente4.

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intoxicantstoprescriptions.Suchalaw,hefound,compared...similarlywithlawsthenin placeinUruguay.52 WhileYankeeProgressivismattractedBatllistareformers,theydidnotviewallof Yankeelifeasideal.Forexample,inOctober1913,twoElDaarticlesnotedthatYankee industrialprogressinjuredtheenvironmentandthusthehumaninhabitants.Thefirst lamentedthedrainonphysicalandmoralhygienewithwhichcitieshadtodealowingto industrialsmoke.ThesecondnotedthattheUSusedtohavegreatforestsbutlosttheminthe nameofadvancement.Thereadereasilylostsuchcritiques,nonetheless,inthemidstofan overwhelmingnumberofproYankeearticles.53 AfterusingUSlawsandProgressiveideologiestojustifyandcraftBatllistaprograms, Batlle,buildingonDr.Salmonsexperience,alsoinvitedUSexpertstocometoUruguaytolead variousgovernmentalposts.Between1911and1915,BatlleinvitedoremployedUSexpertsto headthestatespoultryinstitute,itsfisheriesinstitute,torunexperimentsindryfarming,to improvetheindustrialchemistryindustry,tosurveyUruguaysgeologicformations,tocreatea dairyfarmingprogram,andtoenhancespecialeducationprograms.Allthesefitwitheither Batllesrecognitionoftheneedtoexpandortoimprovetheagriculturalsectororhisdesireto betterthelifeofthecitizenthroughindustryandeducation.54
MariadePenatoRomeu,7May1912,AGN/MRREE/Washington,caja272,carpeta403;MariadePenato Barbaroux,n.d.[1913],AHD/Washington,caja24,carpeta175,expediente2.
53 54 52

DeNorteAmrica,ElDa,17October1911;Laindustrialdelrbol,ElDa,26October1911.

MariadePenatoRomeu,20August1912,AGN/MRREE/Washington,caja272,carpeta414;Grevstadtothe SecretaryofState,9September1913,GrevstadMSS,box6,folder2;MorgantotheSecretaryofState,25March 1911,DecimalFile,833.628/3;MorgantotheSecretaryofState,18September1911,DecimalFile,file833.6223; GodingtotheSecretaryofState,2March1912,DecimalFile,file833.628/15;GrevstadtotheSecretaryofState,4 March1912,DecimalFile,file833.628/16;GodingtotheSecretaryofState,3May1912,DecimalFile,file 833.42/8;GodingtotheSecretaryofState,27September1912,DecimalFile,file833.6223/5;MariadePenatothe SecretaryofState,26April1913,DecimalFile,file833.6223/7.

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UnlikeDr.Salmon,manyoftheseUSexpertsfailedforvariousreasonsaccordingto MinisterGrevstad.TheUSheadofthepoultryinstituteleftthecountry...apparentlytothe mutualsatisfactionoftheministerofindustriesandtheexperthimself.Dryfarmingis treatedasajokebyUruguayansbecauseoftheincompetenceoftheexperts.Owingtodelays inshipmentsofmachinery,thedairyexpertscouldnotsucceed.Grevstadblamedthefailureof theindustrialchemistryonBatllesidealism;evenalargestatelikeGermanydidnotpossess suchafacility,thoughtheUSexpert,Dr.LathamClarke,provedcompetent.Thegeologist sufferedowingtoprofessionaljealousies.Despitetheiroverallfailures,theinvitations themselvesshowedjusttheimportanceoftheUnitedStatesinbuildingthemodelcountry.55 OtherthanUSideasandUSexperts,variousUruguayanstraveledtoUSonstatefunds tounderstandUSeducationalandagriculturaltechniques.Inlate1912,forexample,the UruguayangovernmentsentschoolinspectorAlfredoSamonatiatourofeducational institutionsintheUnitedStatestostudytheorganizationofindustrialandwomensschools, thegeneralconditionsofYankeeschools,andtheirfunctioning.Insodoing,Samonativisited NewYork,Washington,Pittsburgh,Cincinnati,andChicagobeforeheadingtoEuropeforthe samepurpose.In1913,alargergroupofteacherslikewisestudiedruralschoolsinNewYork andMassachusettsbeforedepartingforEurope.56 Mostimportantly,theBatllistaregimesenttwosetsofagronomiststotheUnitedStates

between1912and1913tolearnNorthAmericanfarmingmethods.In1911,thegovernment sentsomestudentstoEurope,namelyEngland,Belgium,Germany,Austria,Spain,andItalyto
55 56

GrevstadtotheSecretaryofState,9September1913,GrevstadMSS,box6,folder2.

MariadePenatoRomeu,22January1913,AGN/MRREE/Washington,caja24,carpeta171,expediente4; NuestrosMaestrosenEstadosUnidos,ElDa,25March1913.

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studythefarmsandmarketstherein.ThistoursucceededsomuchthattheUruguayan governmentcommissionedasecondtour,consistingofoneprofessorandfourstudents.This time,thegroupjourneyedacrossthecentralandwesternUnitedStatesforfivemonthsin 1912,stoppingatfarms,agriculturalstations,anduniversitiestostudyeveryangleofthe Yankeeagriculturalindustry.Thegovernmentcommissionedathirdsimilarlysizedtour,which leftMontevideoinApril1913andembarkedonmorestudiesinNorthAmerica.57 ThesetravelersrepresentedonlyonepartofthelargerinteractionbetweenBatlles

liberalstatebuildingandProgressivesintheUnitedStates.AstheProgressivessoughtto organizetheUnitedStatesaroundtheideasoffairnessandsocialjustice,Batlleeagerly embracedmanyoftheirideas,especiallyintheareasofurbanreforms,education, homesteading,antialcoholism,andworkersprotection.Thesejourneymen,nonetheless,did notrepresenttheonlypeoplewhocrossedtheAtlantic;manyUStouristsvisitedUruguayinthe Batlleperiodandtheideaswithwhichtheyreturnedinformedtheintellectualconstructionof BatlleandUruguayinNorthAmerica. YankeeTourists IfcommercereciprocatedadvantagestoboththeUnitedStatesandUruguayand

ColoradoliberalsinMontevideousedYankeeideasandmenintheirstatebuildingfortheir ownadvantage,forNorthAmericanstherelationshippositivelychangedwithanincreasein
57

MariadePenatoWilson,26October1912,DecimalFile,file833.4237/24;GodingtotheSecretaryofState,2 December1912,DecimalFile,file833.4237/25;GodingtotheSecretaryofState,15February1913,DecimalFile, file833.4237/28;Nuestrosagrnomosenelextranjero,ElDa,17Jan1912;NuestrosAgrnomos,ElDa,11 July1912.

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touriststoUruguay.After1906,onefindsamarkedincreaseinYankeetravelerstoUruguayfor anumberofreasons.First,asitbecameamoreubiquitousandefficienttechnology,steam passagebetweentheUSandUruguay,heretoforeexpensiveandindirect,becamecheaperand direct.Justassteamincreasedtradeingoods,asnotedabove,itincreasedtradeinpeople. Second,thestableProgressiveeraeconomyenabledtheYankeemiddleclasstheluxuryof worldtraveltoseetheexoticandsublime.Ofcourse,exPresidentRoosevelts1909safari expeditioninAfricaexemplifiessuchYankeeworldlinessbutotherexamplesaboundas ProgressiveEraNorthAmericanstraveledtoAfrica,EastAsia,Russia,andindeedUruguay. Third,onemustciteElihuRoots1906visittoMontevideo.CharlesHale,whopublishedhis traveloguetoUruguaythefollowingyear,dedicatedhisstudytheitinerantSecretaryofState. Noothersdidsoexplicitly,butthefactthatUruguaysuddenlyshowsupintravelwritingsafter 1906demonstratesthatRootsvisitdidnotmerelyinfluenceUruguayansbutalsoNorth Americans.58 IntheseYankeetravelwritings,onecandiscernthreethemesthatservedtounderlay

YankeeperceptionsofBatllesmodelcountry.First,NorthAmericantravelerspickeduponthe Batllistasemphasisonprogressandmodernity,especiallyduringthecreationoftheBatllista welfarestate.Forexample,writingin1913,AnniePeckfoundUruguayanenterprisingand progressivenation.CatholicpreacherJ.A.Zahm,foundthattheOrientalRepublic everywheremanifestsenterpriseandmodernity,in1914.59

AlbertHale,TheSouthAmericans:TheStoryoftheSouthAmericanRepublics,TheirCharacteristics,Progress,and Tendencies;withSpecialReferencetotheirCommercialRelationswiththeUnitedStates(Indianapolis:TheBobbs MerrillCompany,1907),i. AnnieS.Peck,TheSouthAmericanTour:ADescriptiveGuide(NewYork:GeorgeH.DoranCo.,1913),274;J.A. Zahm,ThroughSouthAmericasSouthland:WithanAccountoftheRooseveltScientificExpeditiontoSouthAmerica (NewYork:D.AppletonandCo.,1916),138.
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Second,Yankeetourists,notsurprisingly,emphasizedtheUruguaysfinancialconstancy,

richnessinresources,andprospectivemarketforUStrade.Forexample,AlbertHalewrotein 1907thattheylikeus,thesegenialOrientals,thattheinteriorawaitedtrueexploitationand thatthecountryneedstoimportalmostallmanufacturedgoods.NodoubtHalethoughtthat UnitedStatescommercecouldaidUruguayansintheseendeavors.Thatsameyear,Francis Clarkfoundthestaterichinavailableresources,essentiallyonevastpasture.By1913,Annie PeckwrotethatUruguaysfinancialreputationisofthebest.Lastly,Zahmwrotein1916that OrientalcattlemenmakeUruguayoneofthegreatestsourcesoftheworldsmeatsupply, whichcomparesfavourablywithGreatPlainsbeef.60 Uruguayanpoliticalstabilityservedasanotherthemeinthetravelliterature.For example,Clarknotedin1907signsofstabilityatpresent.Writingthesameyear,Halenoted that,thoughcompetitionforofficestilldominatesUruguayanpolitics,Saravias1904defeatled togoodgovernment.Finally,AnniePeckwrotein1914thatafterthisprolongedcondition ofturbulence[before1904],theRepublicshowssoremarkableadegreeofdevelopmentand prosperityiswonderfulindeed61 UnfortunatelyforUruguayans,therewasalmostnoreciprocalefforttovisittheUnited

States.ManyUruguayanslackedthecapitaltoembarkonsuchajourneyandthosethatdid veryoftenchoseEuropeovertheUnitedStates,owingtotheculturalaffinityespeciallyfor Francedescribedabove.EvenJosBatlleyOrdoezhimselfmissedseeingtheUnitedStates afterhisfirstadministrationendedinMarch1907.Leavingpoliticsatleastnominallyto

Hale,172,177,179;FrancisE.Clark,TheContinentofOpportunity(NewYork:FlemingH.RevellCo.,1907),215, 219;Peck,272;Zahm,133.
61 60

Clark,219;Hale,160;Peck,274.

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PresidentWilliman,BatlleembarkedonatouroftheEuropeandNorthAfrica,visitingFrance, Holland,Belgium,Italy,Egypt,andPalestinebeforereturninginearly1911toacceptaforegone conclusionhisownreelection.Batlle,accordingtohisnewspaper,desiredtoincludethe UnitedStatesontheitinerary.Nevertheless,BatlleinformedhisfriendWillimaninDecember 1909thathecouldnotmakethedesiredstopbecause,inhiswords,thecostoflivinginthat countryandthetripscaresme,owingtothesheernumberoffamilymembersinhis entourage.62 ToconceptualizelifeintheUnitedStatesthen,Orientalesreliedontheirdiplomats.

Specifically,ElDaarticlesfromthesecretaryofthelegationinWashington,AlbertoNinFras, offeredsomeglimmerofunderstandingoftheYankees.NinFras,scionofaprominent Uruguayanfamily,servedthelegationinWashingtonassecretaryfrom1908untilearly1910, whenanimproperrelationshipwithamarriedWashingtonwoman,FlorenceGarland, sidetrackedhisemployment.TheWashingtonPostpublicizedthescandalinwhichNinFras awaitedMrs.Garlandsdivorcebeforemarryingherwhenthediplomatsworeoutawarrant onGarlandforassaulting[him]withasilkparasol.Thisscandalcausedhisrecalland repostingtoBrazil.63 Despitehisamorousproclivities,rightbeforehisrecallNinFrassentdispatchestoElDa thatportrayednorteamericanosasfullofnervousoverexcitationthatresultsincommercial
MiltonI.Vanger,TheModelCountry,3,3053,107;ElSeorBatlleyOrdoez,ElDa,2March1909;Jos BatlleyOrdoeztoClaudioWilliman,17December1909,WillimanMSS,box311. AlbertoNinFrastoWilliman,17September1908,WIllimanMSS,box307;ThrashesFianc,TheWashington Post,23December1909.ThescandalentertainedinthehallsoftheForeignMinistryinMontevideo.NinFrashad madeanameforhimselfamoralandupstandingChristian,afeelingatoddswithmanyanticlericalBatllistas.The hypocrisyofthisscandalthusgarneredmuchsarcasmwhenForeignMinisterAntonioBachiniwrotetoPresident Willimanthatthesubject,morethanbeingspicy,isgraveandsarcasticallythatwewillsee,then,howthis diversionarrangesitselfforourpreacherofmoralevangelicalism.SeeBachinitoWilliman,26December1909, WIllimanMSS,box311.
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incentive.NinFrasarguedthatthe1898waragainstSpainauguredinanewerainYankee excitementasthewaropenednewmarketsandthusnewcommercialpossibilities.Evenso, whilehedidnotdecrythisYankeeexcitability,hepreferredtheEnglishmentalityofcalmand patience.Otherthanthisarticle,Uruguayanslargelyremainedignorantofthedailylifein NorthAmerica.64 Thus,eventhoughnohighrankingUruguayanpolicymakervisitedtheUnitedStates

untilWorldWarI,whenPublicWorksMinisterJuanCarlosBlancoRootsguideduringhis 1906visittoMontevideoandForeignMinisterBaltasarBrumtraversedtheAtlantic,threeof theUnitedStatessmostdistinguishedretiredofficialsWilliamJenningsBryan,RobertBacon, andTheodoreRooseveltcalledonMontevideoafterRoot.Owingtotheirunofficialnature, nevertheless,thefanfaretheymethardlymimickedthatforsittingSecretaryofStateRootin 1906. WilliamJenningsBryanbecamethefirstimportantYankeetovisitMontevideosince

Root,whenheenteredMontevideoharborinMarch1910.Bryanhadpreviouslytraveled extensively,visitingmostEuropeanstatesin19056.Havingfailedonceagaintocapturethe WhiteHouseinNovember1908,theDemocratsoughttousehisprestigeonagoodwilltour throughoutLatinAmericatodemonstratetotheinhabitantsthereinthatallYankeesdidnot embracetheforcefuldiplomatictacticsoftheRepublicanadministrationsofWilliamMcKinley, TheodoreRoosevelt,andWilliamTaft.Assuch,hequicklytransitedthroughPanama,Cuba, Bolivia,Argentina,Chile,Uruguay,andBrazilmostofwhichneverfeltthefullbruntoftheBig StickonatouraimedatcultivatinggoodrelationswithLatinAmericaandtosubstitute

Diplomticas,ElDa,15February1910;ElCarcterAmericano,ElDa,3January1910.

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friendshipandincreasedeconomicandculturalexchangeforMarinesandarrogant businessmendiplomats.65 ForBryan,theUruguayancapitalservedaslittlemorethanaonenightstopoverforthe formerpresidentialcandidate.Hearrivedon4March1910fromBuenosAiresandcustomarily metwithdignitaries,includingPresidentWilliman,andattendedabanquetattheUruguayClub intheOldCity.Afterwards,hevisitedthecityspedagogicalmuseumbeforeembarkingonhis speechesthatevening.HebeganafewdoorsdownattheMontevideoAteneo,wherehe enthusiasticallypraisedUruguayaneducationinEnglishbeforemovingontotheEnglishClub, whereinhespoketotheEnglishandNorthAmericancolonyinMontevideo.Heconcludedthe eveningwithaconferenceatVictoriaHallfortheYoungChristiansAssociationaboutthe importantworkofChristianorganizationsinmodernizationandprogress.Allthesespeeches broughtwiththemgreatapplauses,accordingtoElDa.Bryanleftonthemorningof5March 1910,havingsucceededinmissionofcultivatingcloserrelationswithUruguayans.66 InOctober1913,theCarnegieEndowmentforWorldPeacesponsoredatripforex SecretaryofStateRobertBaconthroughSouthAmerica,includingUruguay.Bacon,aRoot protg,succeededhimasSecretaryofStateinJanuary1909,thewaningweeksofthe TheodoreRooseveltadministration.UponvisitingRio,Montevideo,BuenosAires,Santiago, andLimamoreorlessrepeatingRootsjourneysevenyearspriorBaconfoundmuch admirationforRootstour,notingthatRootspoliciesofsympathyandunderstandinghave

AlbertL.GaleandGeorgeW.Kline,BryantheMan:TheGreatCommoneratCloseRange(St.Louis,Missouri:The ThompsonPublishingCompany,1908),59;EdwardS.Kaplan,U.S.ImperialisminLatinAmerica:BryansChallenges andContributions,19001920(Westport,Connecticut:GreenwoodPress,1988),1920.

66

65

Mr.BryanenMontevideo,ElDa,5March1910.

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drawncloserrelationswithSouthAmericaandthatithadbeenresponsible,morethanany othersinglefactor,forthecorrectionofthese[negative]impressionsofus.67 BaconarrivedinMontevideoon20October1913.First,heprivatelydiscussedthe mattersofinternationalpeacewithPresidentBatlleandForeignMinisterEmilioBarbaroux. Thereafter,hespokeatabanquetwhereinhestatedthattiesoffriendshipalreadybindthe UnitedStatesandUruguayandthatheprayedtheheartsofourtwopeoplesbeeverentwined inlastingfriendship.Thatnight,atdinner,Baconemphasizedsimilarpoliticalandnatural affinitieswithUruguayandsuggestedincreasesharingofstudents,lawyers,andother intellectuals.Thefollowingday,hepraisedUruguayfortheproverbialaffabilityand hospitalityofthecourtlySpanishrace,whichhasbeenpreservedsopureinthislovely Uruguayanland.Hecontinuedthat,weAmericansoftheNorthareproudofourprogressive sistersoftheSouth.AmongthesethenobleandcharmingRepublicofUruguaytakesa prominentplace,duenotonlytothecultureofherpeople,thevirilityandstrengthoftherace, butalsototheprogressshehasachieved.Afterthis,BacondepartedforBuenosAires.68 Lessthanamonthlater,noneotherthanBaconsformerboss,TheodoreRoosevelt,

gracedtheUruguayancapital.RooseveltvisitedSouthAmericanafterhis1912defeatfor presidenttoWoodrowWilsontoleadanexpeditiontoBrazil,officiallydenominatedthe RooseveltRondonScientificExpedition,toexploretheinteriorofthePortuguesespeaking republic.Evertheadventurer,RooseveltdecidedtoexploretheheadwatersoftheRiverof Doubt,atrailthatnearlycosttheexPresidenthislifein1914.

RobertBacon,ForBetterRelationswithourLatinAmericanNeighbors:AJourneytoSouthAmerica(Washington: CarnegieEndowmentforInternationalPeace,1916),1415.
68 67

Ibid.,106107,110111,116.

125

BeforeembarkingdowntheAmazonRiver,RoosevelttraveledtheSouthernConeona

speakingtour,arrivinginRivera,UruguayoverlandfromBrazilon3November1913.The followingmorning,hetraveledbytraintoMontevideo.There,hevisitedtheCerro, Montevideoslandmarkhill,beforereturningforapublicdinnerattheExecutivePalacewith PresidentBatlle,agreatadmirerofhis.ThetwopresidentsconversedatlengthinFrench RooseveltdidnotspeakSpanishandBatllecouldnotcommunicateinEnglishandRoosevelt purportedlynotedtheideologicaltiesbetweenNorthAmericanProgressivesandUruguayan Coloradosbysupposedlystating,youandIbelongtothesameparty.Batllerosetotoasthis honoredguestasthedefenderoftheMonroeDoctrineintheinterestsinthewholeof America.Rooseveltsspeechfollowed.Herein,heassertedthatthatMonroeDoctrinedidnot authorizeNorthAmericaninterferenceunilaterally,butprotectedunstablerepublicsfrom Europeanimperialism.AssoonasanycountryintheNewWorld,Rooseveltsaid,standson sufficientlyhighfootingoforderlylibertyandachievedsuccess,ofselfrespectingstrength,it becomesaguarantorofthedoctrineonafootingofcompleteequality.Theattendees receivedsuchassuranceswell,foritfitverymuchwiththeColoradovisionofprogressiveand stablestatethatfearedEuropeaninterferenceandsupportedPanAmericanism.Afterthe dinnerwithBatlle,RooseveltgavehisstandardspeechattheAtenoontheEssentialVirtuesof aDemocracybeforesteamingoffthatnighttoBuenosAires.69 ColoradoliberalsgreatlyembracedRoosevelt.EversincethedaysthattheNewYorker

occupiedtheWhiteHouse,BatllesawhimasaguarantorofUruguayansovereignty.Indeed,in
JosephP.Ornig,MyLastChancetoBeaBoy:TheodoreRooseveltsSouthAmericanExpeditionof19131914 (Mechanicsburg,Pennsylvania:StackpoleBooks,1994),5760;Zahm,138,144;TheodoreRoosevelt, Montevideo,TheOutlook106,no.9(28February1914):485;GrevstadtotheSecretaryofState,10November 1913,GrevstadMSS,box6,folder3.
69

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mid1906,monthsbeforeRootsvisit,Batlleaskedforandreceivedanautographedpictureof TR.Thus,whentheexpresidentvisitedMontevideo,ElDareactedpositively.Onthedayof hisarrival,thepaperrananeditorialinwhichitlaudedRooseveltforcausingEuropetotake Americaseriouslythroughapowerfulforeignpolicy.Indeed,thepaper,withoutdefendinghis foreignpolicies,assertedthatRooseveltwasnotaprovocateurofexpansionistpolitics,butan effect.70 GiventhissympathyandthecontrolBatllehadofthecountry,Rooseveltsbriefvisit cameoffveryfestively.MinisterGrevstadwrotetheformerRoughRiderthatthe demonstrationsinyourhonorwere,byallodds,moregeneralandmorespontaneousthan thoseaccordedanyotherdistinguishedforeignvisitorduringthetimeIhavebeenhere.To theStateDepartment,GrevstadarguedthatRooseveltsvisithasmadeforabetter understandinghereofAmericanpolicyasregardsLatinAmerica.71 Likewise,BatlleandBatllistaprogressimpressedRooseveltandhisparty,justasitdid

otherYankeetravelwritersoftheperiod.InhisexclusivesubmissionstoTheOutlook, RooseveltcalledBatlleamanofexceptionalpowerandability.Batllismoalsoamazedtheex President.HewrotethatBatllehadaresolutepurposenotonlytoachieveindustrialsuccess asthenorthernnationsofEuropeandAmericanhaveachievedit,butalsotoachieveboth energyandpoliticalabilityintheactualhandingofpublicaffairs.Indeed,Roosevelt commendedtheBatllistas,astheyareintelligentlydesirousofassimilatingandmakingtheir ownthegoodqualitieswhichtheyregardasresponsibleforoursuccess.Privately,thevisitto

70 71

Roosevelt,ElDa,3Nov1913.

GrevstadtoTheodoreRoosevelt,7November1913,GrevstadMSS,box3,folder4;GrevstadtotheSecretaryof State,10November1913,GrevstadMSS,box6,folder3.

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UruguaydidnotseemtostirRooseveltasmuchasvisitstootherstatesdid.Inalettertohis friendSenatorHenryCabotLodgelessthanamonthafterhisUruguayanvisitwhilemakinghis waytotheAmazonbasin,hewrotethathewasgenuinelyimpressedbyBrazil,theArgentine [sic],andChile.Paraguay,healsofound,wasaninterestingandpicturesquelittlerepublic. ToLodge,RooseveltdidnotmentionUruguayatall.72 LessthanayearafterRooseveltleftMontevideo,whilewarwagedinEuropeoverthe

balanceofpower,colonies,anddeceasedAustrianarchdukes,NorthAmericanClayton SedgwickCoopervisitedSouthAmerica,metwiththenewpresidentofUruguay,andputhis impressiononpaper.WhilehewroteofmanyLatinAmericannations,histhoughtson UruguayinstructreadersastotheprogressitmadeunderBatlle.Hefoundthatit,especially intheconstructionofitsconstitutionandinthepromotionofitsgovernment,remindoneoften oftheUnitedStates,fromwhichcountrythisgrazinglandhastakenmanyofitsprinciples.73 CoopersimpressionsvalidatealargerinteractionbetweentheUnitedStatesand UruguaybetweenElihuRoots1906visitandtheinaugurationoftheGreatWarin1914.Bythe timepeopleinUruguayandtheUnitedStateslearnedthatArchdukeFranzFerdinandofAustria methisfateonthestreetsofSarajevo,thetwocountrieshadprogressedfromarelationshipof nearignorancetoonethatexchangedgoods,ideas,andpeople.Buildingonthisexchange, UruguaythusstoodwiththeWoodrowWilsonadministrationduringthewarwhileatthesame timecontinuingitsmarchtowardsprogressandmodernity.
72

Roosevelt,476;Zahm,138,141;RoosevelttoHenryCabotLodge,12December1913inEltingE.Morison,ed., TheLettersofTheodoreRoosevelt,vol.7,TheDaysofArmageddon(Cambridge,Massachusetts:HarvardUniversity Press,1954),756. ClaytonSedgwickCooper,UnderstandingSouthAmerica(NewYork:GeorgeH.DoranCompany,1918),239.

73

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Chapter5:TheUnitedStatesandUruguayinWorldWarI(19141919) InKansasCity,Missouri,theLibertyMemorialtoWorldWarIsdeadholdsmanymurals

inMemoryHall.Onthenorthwall,onesuchmuralshowsanassortmentoftheUnitedStatess heroes,politicians,anddiplomatsfromthewar,mostnotablylocalveteranCaptainHarry Truman.Inthecenter,theviewerfindsPresidentWoodrowWilson(19131921)standing underacolumnthatsupportsabustofGeorgeWashingtonandtheflagsoftheWestern HemispheresalliesinWilsonsfighttomaketheworldsafefordemocracy.Most interestingly,intertwinedwiththeStarsandStripesonefindsthePabellnNacionalof Uruguay,theonlysuchflagtotouchtheNorthAmericanensignsoclosely.Indeed,though FrenchartistscreatedthemuralduringthewarwithFrenchheroesatitscenterandan AmericancollectormodifiedittosuitColdWarideologyinthe1950s,theinterweavingofthe twoflagskeptfromthe1918originalmuralunderscorethecloseconnectionbetween UruguayandtheUnitedStatesinWorldWarI.1 WhileUruguayneverdeclaredwarontheCentralPowers,thepoliticalamityand

commercialconnectionbetweentheUnitedStatesandtheOrientalRepublicdatingbackto ElihuRoots1906visitprovidedtheWoodrowWilsonadministrationwithaneffectiveallyin theSouthernCone.AlthoughBrazilwastheonlySouthAmericanstatetodeclareformallya stateofwarwithGermany,otherSouthAmericanstatessuchasBolivia,Peru,Ecuador,and UruguayunderPresidentFelicianoViera(19151919)did,nonetheless,breakrelationswiththe

MarkLevitch,PanthondelaGuerre:ReconfiguringaPanoramaoftheGreatWar(Columbia:Universityof MissouriPressandKansasCity,Missouri:TheNationalWorldWarIMuseum,2006)servesasaexcellentstudyof theuseofmemoryandideologyininterpretingthemural,whichhaschangeddramaticallyfromitsFrenchorigins duringthewar.
1

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GermanEmpire.Moreover,theVieraadministrationcommittedwhatUSnegotiatorsat Versailleslatertermedactsthatmaybeconsideredthoseofwar,namelybyimpounding eightGermanmerchantvesselsandleasingthemtotheEmergencyFleetCorporation(EFC).As aresult,theWilsonadministrationpushedforUruguayanparticipationatVersaillesand settlementsoftheOrientalRepublicsclaimswithGermanythere.Inotherwords,WorldWarI culminatedinapracticalrespecttheamityaccruedbetweenthetwostatessinceRootsvisit.2 WhydidUruguaytakethisproNorthAmericanstanceduringthewar?While

continentalsolidarity,PanAmericanism,andtherightsofneutralsservedasbuzzwordsfor publicexplanations,BatllistasenteredtheconflictbecauseofthethreatGermans,especially thoseinSouthernBrazil,posed.Uboatsunderminedeconomicintercoursewiththeoutside worldandGermanKaiserismacommontermElDaemployedforGermanexpansionism couldgraduallythreatenUruguayanindependence.BycloselytyingthemselvestotheUnited States,Uruguayanpoliticalelitesbuiltuponadecadesworthofexperienceandshielded themselvesfromforeignencroachmentbehindaleader,PresidentWilson,whospokeof themesthatresonatedwellinUruguayselfdetermination,therightsofsmallstates,and collectivesecurity. Thischapterfollowsaslightlydifferenttrajectorythanthepreviousones.Thefirst

sectioncoversfourpersonalitiesthatdeterminedthecourseofUSUruguayanrelationsduring thewarViera,UruguayanForeignMinisterBaltasarBrum,Wilson,andUSMinisterin MontevideoRobertEmmettJeffery.Second,itdescribestheperiodbetweenthe1914startof thewarandearly1917,whenbothstatesnominallymaintainedneutrality.Thethirdsection

U.S.DepartmentofState,ForeignRelationsoftheUnitedStates,[hereafterFRUS],1919,TheParisPeace Conference,vol.1(Washington:GPO,1942),356.
2

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coverstheperiodbetween1917and1918,whenboththeUSandUruguayparticipatedinthe wartodifferingextents.Fourth,thischapterdescribestheVersaillesconferenceandthetying upoflooseendsaftertheconflict.Thefifthandsixthsectionsrespectivelysurveyreformism andeconomicrelationsduringtheentirewar,tomaintainthemesthatpervadethe dissertation. Personalities Morethananyotherreason,thesuccessofUSUruguayanrelationsduringtheFirst

WorldWarresultedfromthepersonalitiesandpoliticsoffourimportantmeninMontevideo andWashingtonUruguayanPresidentViera,ForeignMinisterBrum,USPresidentWilson,and USMinisterJeffery.Eachrecognizedthevaluethatapartnershipcouldprovidetheirstate,be that,fortheUnitedStates,politicalandcommercialsupportfromUruguayor,forUruguay, protectionfromtheGermanthreat.Morethananythingelse,thesefourmensharedan ideologythatpermittedmoreeffectiveinteractionbetweenthetwocountriesPan Americanism. FelicianoViera,astaunchBatlleallyfromtheruraldepartmentofSalto,servedas

Batlleshandchosensuccessorinthepresidentialchairandservedthroughoutthewar(1915 1919).IntheearlydaysoftheBatllistamovement,VierasupportedBatllespoliticalprogram, firstintheChamberofDeputiesthen,after1906,intheSenate,wherehewasthebodys youngestpolicymaker.Vieraeventuallyrosetopresidentofthatbodyin1907.Inthe legislature,hefacilitatedpassageofmanykeyBatllistareformsunderWillimanandthefirst 131

monthsofBatlles1911return.Asarewardforhisloyalty,BatllenamedVieraInteriorMinister in1913whenhisSenatetermexpired.WhenBatlleleftoffice,hetappedVieraashissuccessor inthepresidency.3 NorthAmericanClaytonSedgwickCoopersimpressionsofVierain1917inform

posterityofVieraspolicies.CooperfoundhimtobeamanofRooseveltianenergyand tendenciesand,doubtlessly,amanofRooseveltiangirth,muchlikeBatlle.ThoughCoopers interviewprincipallycenteredoncommerce,Vieranonethelessdidnotethatheispractically welldisposedtotheUnitedStatesandtoAmericaninstitutionsashewasinfavorinsending increasinglythestudentsofthisrepublictotheUnitedStatesforeducationashedidthreeof hisboys.4 VierasproYankeecredentialspaledincomparisontothoseofhisSaltoprotg,

BaltasarBrum.WhileVierasatintheSenatepassingBatllesreforms,Brumfoundhimselfin thestreetsasaproBatllestudentleader.TheColoradochieftaincouldnotfailtonoticethe virulencewithwhichtheyoungBrumsupportedhiscauseamongthestudents,akey constituencyintheBatllistacoalition.Assuch,uponhissecondterm,BatlleappointedBrum amanwhoBatllehadnevermetbutmadeanameforhimselfasastaunchBatllistainVieras departmentofSaltohisMinisterofPublicInstruction(19135).Theyoungmansoimpressed BatllethatBrumneededtowaitathreemonthsuntilhisthirtiethbirthdaytoacceptofficially thepost,BatllehavingappointedhimtooearlyaccordingtotheUruguayanconstitution.When Vieradonnedthepresidentialsashin1915,Brumassumedhispatronsformerportfoliointhe

MiltonVanger,JosBatlleyOrdoezofUruguay:TheCreatorofHisTimes,19021907(Cambridge, Massachusetts:HarvardUniversityPress,1963),242,262;MiltonI.Vanger,TheModelCountry:JosBatlley OrdoezofUruguay(Hanover,NewHampshire:UniversityPressofNewEngland,1980),206,323.
4 3

ClaytonSedgwickCooper,UnderstandingSouthAmerica(NewYork:GeorgeH.DoranCompany,1918),272,276.

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InteriorMinistry.WhenForeignMinisterManuelOteroresignedtotakehisseatinthe legislaturein1916,VieratransferredthatofficetotheyoungBrum.HeservedasUruguays chiefdiplomatuntilhisownelevationaspresidentin1919.5 Brum,morethananotherUruguayanpoliticalfigureatthetime,supportedPan

AmericanismandtheUnitedStatesleadingroleinit.WhileBatlle,Williman,Viera,andothers sawnoharminallowingtheUnitedStatesinfluenceintheOrientalRepublictocounterBritish influenceandtoserveasamodelinstatebuilding,Brumspecificallyyearnedforit.For example,USConsulinMontevideoWilliamDawsonwroteinDecember1917thattheForeign MinisterhadshownhimselftobeawarmfriendoftheUnitedStatesandanardentadvocate ofPanAmericanism.Duringthewar,BrumwentoutofhiswaytomakesureYankee commercial,political,andmilitaryinterestshadthesupportoftheUruguayangovernment.6 BrumbestexpressedhisproUnitedStatesPanAmericanideologyinaseriesoflectures

toUruguayanlawstudentsin1920,bywhichtimeheservedaspresident.There,hestatedthat Ihavealwaysconsideredthat[Uruguay]shouldnotdowithouttheactionoftheUnitedStates inmattersofinteresttotheAmericanContinent,especiallyafteritwentforthtowar,withits bloodanditswealth,movedbyitsnobleideal,todefendtherightsofallpeopleandamong themtheindependenceandterritorialintegrityoftheAmericancountries.ForBrum,Pan Americanismimpliestheequalityofallsovereignties,largeandsmall.Inshort,spokeBrum, PanAmericanismrepresentedanexponentofdeepbrotherlysentiment,andofajust

EldoctorBaltasarBrum,ElDa(Montevideo)[hereafterElDa],1July1913;Vanger,TheModelCountry,222, 229. WilliamDawsontotheSecretaryofState,20December1917,DepartmentofState,DecimalFileofthe DepartmentofState,RecordGroup59,NationalArchivesandRecordsAdministration[hereafterDecimalFile],file 833.011/7.

6

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aspirationforthematerialandmoralaggrandizementofallthepeoplesofAmerica.Inother words,BrumfelttheUnitedStatescouldserveastherefereethatwouldprotectthesmaller statesfromitsstrongerneighbors,justthenoblesentimentUruguay,positionedbetween ArgentinaandBrazil,needed.7 HowevermuchVieraandBrumsupportedtheUnitedStates,withoutcomparable

supportinWashington,therelationshipcouldnothavesucceededasmuchasitdid.Forthis, onemustcreditWoodrowWilson.HistorianMarkGilderhushasalreadystudiedWilsonsPan Americanism,callingitthecenterpieceintheunfoldingofWilsonspoliciestowardLatin America.ByPanAmericanism,Wilsonsoughtopenmarketsandpeacefullymediationto conflicts,furtherbelievingthatthediffusionoftheUnitedStatesinfluenceinLatinAmerica wouldhaveupliftingandbeneficialeffects.Ironically,WilsonfocusedmuchofhisSouth AmericanpolicyontheABCstates:Argentina,Brazil,andChile.Leadersinthosestates skepticallyapproachedtheembraceoftheNorthernColossusthathadproventheharbingerof invasionandmeddlingintheirregion.Nonetheless,ColoradoleadersinUruguay,neverthe focusofWilsonsPanAmericanism,readilyembracedit,allowingforamutuallybeneficial relationshipduringWorldWarI.8 Wilson,nonetheless,wasabusymanandneededanagentofPanAmericanismin

Uruguay.InRobertEmmettJeffery,thepresidentfoundthatagent.WilsonappointedJeffery, anardentDemocrat,totheUSLegationinMontevideoin1915.Jefferyhadservedinthe Arkansasstatelegislaturebeforeservingasacircuitcourtjudge,thepositionheheldathis

7 8

BaltasarBrum,ThePeaceofAmerica(Montevideo:ImpretaNacional,1923),1417.

MarkGilderhus,PanAmericanVisions:WoodrowWilsonintheWesternHemisphere,19131921(Tucson:The UniversityofArizonaPress,1986),x.

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diplomaticappointment.BeforedepartingforMontevideo,JefferylunchedwithSecretaryof StateBryanandUruguayanMinisterMariadePenainWashington;hereinMariadePenafound thenewministeranimatedwiththebestwishestowardsUruguay.Undoubtedly,during Jefferystenure,whichlasteduntilearly1921,theArkansanproactivelyworkedwithVieraand BrumtoassurethatUruguaysupportedtheUnitedStatesfirstinneutralityandtheninwar.9 Neutrality(19141917) BoththeUnitedStatesandUruguaydeclaredneutralityinAugust1914whennews

reachedthemthatlargescalewarhadthreatenedEuropeforthefirsttimeinnearlyacentury. TheUnitedStatesofficiallyaffirmeditsimpartialityfirston4August1914,citingtheGerman warsagainstRussiaandFranceaswellastheAustroHungarianwaragainstSerbia.Uruguay declaredneutralityon14August1914,tendaysafterWashington.Asusual,bothWashington andMontevideoproclaimedneutralitylaterin1914and1915asnewstatesenteredthe conflict.Moreover,otherproclamationsfromMontevideothereafterexplicitlydefinedsaid neutralitywhatconstitutedcontrabandandsoforthbasedonthe1907Hague agreements.10 EachcountryfacedidiosyncraticreasonsfornotsupportingeithertheAlliesorthe

CentralPowersimmediatelyafterthewarsstart.IntheUnitedStates,Wilsonfavoredthe
Elnuevoministronorteamericano,ElDa,24May1915;CarlosMariadePenatoManuelOtero,5March1915, ArchivoHistricoDiplomtico(Montevideo),FondoLegacinenWashington,19001930[hereafter AHD/Washington],caja39,carpeta244,expediente1. ProclamationofNeutralitybythePresidentoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica,TheAmericanJournalof InternationalLaw9,no.1(January1915):110;MinistroofRelacionesExteriorestoLegacinenWashington (telegram),12August1914,AHD/Washington,caja29,carpeta200,expediente7.
10 9

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Alliedcause,butsignificantGermanpopulationsontheEastCoast,Midwest,andinoddplaces likeTexashinderedWilsonsabilitytosupportBritainandFrance.Likewise,anisolationist moodpervasiveinNorthAmericanhistorypreventedWilsonfromembracingtheAlliestoo closely.TheUSpublicarguedthatwarinEuropewasEuropesproblem.11 Ontheotherhand,Uruguayanpolicymakersfrettedovercommercialtieswith

Germany.Foratleastadecadebeforethewar,Germany,alongwiththeUnitedStates,France, andItaly,representedoneofthekeytradingpartnerswithUruguay;allofthem,nonetheless laggedfarbehindGreatBritain.Forexample,inbothimportsandexports,Germanytraded muchmorewithUruguaythandidtheUnitedStatesintheyearsleadinguptothewar.Infact, fortheyear1912,GermanystoodoutasUruguayssecondbestcustomerbehindonlyFrance. TheUnitedStatesneverstoodhigherthanforthineitherexportsfromUruguayorimportsto Uruguayinthefiveyearsbeforethewar.Moreover,thetypeofgoodsmatteredtoo GermanysuppliedUruguaywithmostofitsweaponry.Forinstance,asearlyasFebruary1909, theUruguayangovernmenttookdeliveryofshipmentsofthreethousand1906Mauserrifles andthreemillioncartridgesfromBerlin.12 Similarly,likeWilson,ColoradoliberalsinUruguayalsohadtodealwiththepeople issue.AspartofBatllescolonizationplans,effortstoencourageimmigrationtopopulateand toliberalizetheinterior,theOrientalRepublicsawaninfluxofEuropeanimmigrantsfrom CentralandSouthernEuropeinthefirstfifteenyearsofthetwentiethcentury.Mostcame fromItalyandSpainbutalargenumberarrivedfromnewlyunifiedGermanyandAustria.
FrederickLuebke,GermansintheNewWorld:EssaysintheHistoryofImmigration(Urbana:UniversityofIllinois Press,1990),87. DailyCommerceandTradeReport[hereafterDCTR],9July1913,148149;DCTR,9December1913,1231; Llegadadearmamento,ElDa,16February1909.
12 11

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Between1909and1914,489Germansand1157Austriansarrivedtolivepermanentlyin Uruguay.OfallimmigrantgroupsintoUruguayoverthisperiod,Austriansrankedthird,behind theSpanishandItalianswhileGermansrankedsixth,immediatelybehindthePortugueseand theRussians.Duringthisentireperiod,likewise,26totalNorthAmericansemigratedto Uruguay,lessthanthenumberofGermanimmigrantswhocameinanyoneyear.13 ThemostdangerousGermanthreattoUruguay,nevertheless,camenotfrominsidethe

OrientalRepublicbutfromthelargeGermaniccolonyinSouthernBrazil.Startingin1824, EmperorPedroIadvocatedsettlinghisempiressouthernfrontierwithGermans.PedroIfelt that,insodoing,hecouldcreateabufferbetweenhispopulationcentersandtheSpanish speakingpopulationsinUruguayandArgentina.Nonetheless,fewGermanscame,owingtothe BrazilianunwillingnesstoallowfreeworshipandtorecognizeLutheranmarriages.Thenew Republicslessrestrictivelawsonthereligionquestionafter1889restartedGerman immigration.Between1908and1914,atthesametimeasaboutonehundredGermans arrivedannuallyinUruguay,Brazilwelcomednearly5,000peryear,withahighofjustover 8,000in1913.Bytheopeningofthewarin1914,onehistorianestimatesnearly400,000 peopleofGermanheritagelivinginBrazil,mostlyalongtheUruguayanborder.14 TheseTeutoBrazilians,astheycalledthemselves,settledmostlyinthethreesouthern

moststatesofBrazil:RioGrandedoSul,SantaCatarina,andParan.TheseparticularGermans wereinfusedwithastrongsenseofgroupidentityanddifferencefromotherBrazilians mostlyduetotheirisolation.Throughtheuseoftheirfaith,schools,andlanguage,these

13 14

UlyssesGrantSmithtotheSecretaryofState,10August1925,DecimalFile,file833.55/11.

FrederickLuebke,GermansinBrazil:AComparativeHistoryofCulturalConflictduringWorldWarI(BatonRouge: LouisianaStateUniversityPress,1987),1,1013.

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GermanmenandwomenhadbuiltcommunitieslargelyindependentofthedominantBrazilian culturetothenorth.Likewise,thefactthatmostoftheseGermansarrivedinthefiveyears precedingtheoutbreakofwarmeanttoUruguayanpolicymakersthatalargecohesiveunitof Germans,manyofwhomprobablystillthoughtofthemselvesassubjectsoftheKaiser,resided ontheirnorthernborder.15 Ifthesefearswerenotenough,beforethewaranextensivepropagandisticliterature

frombothinsideandoutsidetheGermanEmpireintimatedthatGermancommunities, includingthelargeoneinsouthernBrazil,formedpartofaPanGermanmovementtorulethe world.Forexample,by1900theultranationalistbutpoliticallyimpotentAlldeutscherVerband (PanGermanLeague)propagatedfromGermanyidealsofaunifiedworldwideTeutonic collectivity.NorthAmericanhistorianRonaldUsherevencompiledtheserumorsintoa scholarlyworkentitledPanGermanismin1913,furtherfuelingpanGermansuspicions.16 Nonetheless,afterthewarbrokeout,Alliedpartisansenhancedtheirarguments regardingtheterritorialgreedinessandimmoralityofthedreadedHun.Forexample, FrenchmanAndrChradamewroteinhis1916workThePangermanPlotUnmaskedabout howBerlindeliberatelyplantedcoloniesaroundtheworld,whichwouldriseupandsupport theempireasneeded.Mostimportantly,ChradameexplicitlyinvokedthelargeGerman populationinsouthernBrazilinaidingtheGermanconquestoftheworld.Herein,Chradame claimedthatinsouthernBrazil,theGermansareabsolutemastersandliegemenof[Kaiser] WilliamII.Moreover,Chradameclaimedthatsomeofthecommunityorganizationsthe

15 16

Ibid.,3435. Ibid.,7273.

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Germanmencreated,theRifleClubs,wereinfactsocietiesformilitarydrill.Many propagandisticworksbuiltonChradamesinsinuationsthroughoutthewar.17 ItseemstheBatllistas,alwayscautiouswiththeOrientalRepublicssovereignty,took

thePanGermanclaimsseriously.Forexample,inJuly1915,BatllesElDapublishedamapof howby1950theYankees,theBritish,andtheGermanswouldcarveupSouthAmerica, purportedlyfromoneoftheseGermanbookspublishedsince1911.Accordingtothe Batllistainterpretationofthismonograph,theYankeeswouldcontroltheregionfrom VenezuelaandColombianorthandtheBritswouldcontrolaregionimmediatelytothesouth, endingincentralBolivia.TothesouthoftheBritishsector,onefoundtheGermansector, comprisingofthesouthernsectionsofBolivia,Peru,andBrazil,aswellasallofChile,Argentina, Paraguay,andUruguay.TheeditorscommentedhowtheGermanappetitewasnotmiserly. Thefollowingyear,thepaperoffereditsreadersadetailedstudyofOttoRichardTannenbergs 1911GrossDeutschland,whichitarguedshowedthatGermanywasperfectlypreparedto initiateatotalwarwiththeaimofdistributingalltheworldtoGermany.EvenoutsideEl Da,suchtemerityfoundexpression.AslateasFebruary1917,MinisterJefferycitedunofficial conversationswithForeignMinisterBrumandotherfunctionariesattheForeignMinistrythat ledhimtobelievethattheUruguayansfearedtheSouthernBrazilianGermancolonyandthis apprehensioninhibitedmoreforcefulproAlliedpartisanshiponMontevideospartinthewar.18

Ibid.,123;AndrChradame,ThePangermanPlotUnmasked:BerlinsFormidablePeaceTrapoftheDrawn War(NewYork:CharlesScribnersandSons,1916),197. AmbicionesalemanasenSudAmrica,ElDa,24July1915;LaAmricaAlemana,ElDa,17November1916; RobertEmmettJefferytotheSecretaryofState,13February1917,DepartmentofState,Recordsofthe DepartmentofStateRelatingtoWorldWarIandItsTermination,19141929,microcopyM367,RecordGroup59, NationalArchivesandRecordsAdministration[hereafterWWIRecords],file763.72/3476,roll32.Themap actuallycamefromTannenbergs1911work;Chradameciteditinhisbookaswell.

18 17

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Assuch,giventheGermancommercialtiesandthefearoftheTeutoBrazilians,neither Batlle,inhiswaningdaysinoffice,orVierasawmuchneedtoenterthewartoohastilyuntil suchtimeastheycouldotherwisesecuretherepublicssovereignty.Tothatend,Uruguayan liberalsbuiltontheirprewarcooperationwiththeUnitedStatesandmovedrelationseven closerduringtheperiodbothstoodasneutrals,fromJuly1914toFebruary1917. Forone,Uruguayansstrictlymaintainedneutralityduringtheearlyphaseofthewar.In October1914,theUruguayangovernmentdiscoveredthattheGermanshadsecretly constructedanumberofwirelesstelegraphinstallationsinMontevideoinanefforttocreatea chainofcommunicationfromtheRiverPlatetotheStraightsofMagellan.TheUruguayan governmentdestroyedtheseinstallationsinitsterritoryandillegalizedanyfurtheruseof wirelesstelegraphywithoutgovernmentpermission.Twomonthslater,Uruguayansinsisted thatMontevideosportcommissionadherestrictlytotheneutralitydecreeofAugust1914.For example,whenGermancoalersarrivedinMontevideoinDecember1914,theUruguayan governmentallowedthemtopurchasecoalanddeparttheport,ostensiblytorefuelImperial cruisersatsea.Thefollowingyear,theUruguayangovernmentevendemonstratedthatstrict neutralityappliedalsotoBritainandFrance.Whenthegovernmentsofthesestates confidentiallyapproachedtheVieraadministrationforgunsinSeptember1915,Vierarefused tosellaccordingtoJeffery.Insodoing,theUSdiplomatnotedthatVieraintendedtocontinue thesamelineofactionastheGovernmentoftheUnitedStatesmaypursue.19

NicolayGrevstadtotheSecretaryofState,26October1914,NicolayGrevstadPapers,NorwegianAmerican HistoricalAssociation,Northfield,Minnesota[hereafterGrevstadMSS],box6,folder7;GrevstadtotheSecretary ofState,28October1914,GrevstadMSS,box6,folder7;SpahrtotheSecretaryofState(telegram),17December 1914,WWIRecords,file763.72111/1179,roll149.

19

140

Certainly,theVieraadministrationconfidentiallysupportedWilsonsmovestobroker peace.Forexample,inSeptember1915,VierametwithMinisterJefferyprivatelyand expressedhisbeliefthatitwasnotsomuchthewealthandmaterialpoweroftheAmerican peoplewhichcommandedthesympathyoftheUruguayanpeopleasitwasthechampionship ofthehighestdemocraticandhumanitarianidealsforwhichtheUnitedStatesstood.In celebrationofthe4thofJuly1916,VieravisitedtheUSLegationinpersontheonlypresident intherecentpasttodosoandexpressedtheadmirationofhimselfandhispeopleforthe wayinwhichdemocracyisexemplifiedintheUnitedStatesandconstitutesamodelforthe practiceofdemocraticprinciplesthroughouttheworld.20 Laterthatyear,theForeignMinistryinMontevideoarticulateditsproUSpanAmerican policyinaconfidentialmemorandumtoMinisterMariadePenainWashington.Foreign MinisterManuelOtero,aprominentfollowerofBatlle,pennedthememo,whichbeganby notingthatthefundamentalobjectofourpanAmericanpolicyshouldbetoconservethe independenceoftheRepublic.GiventhatUruguaysterritoryandpoliticalpotencyremained small,Oterosawhisoptionsasachoicebetweenoneoftwobehemoths:theABCpowersor theUnitedStates.Otero,infact,viewedthesituationinblackandwhiteterms,writingthatat theendoftheday,wewillhavetobeononesideortheother.TheABCpowers,thediplomat felt,offeredtoodangerousaprospect;citinghistoricalrivalries,Oterofeltthatonceanimosity aroseagainbetweenArgentina,Brazil,andChile,Uruguaywouldbecomeapawnandits territorydividedashadoccurredtoParaguayinthe1860s.TheUnitedStates,conversely, appealedtoOterobecauseofitssimpleanddefinedforeignpolicygoals,thegreater
JefferytotheSecretaryofState,16September1915,DecimalFile,file833.001/67/3;JefferytotheSecretaryof State,6July1915,DecimalFile,file833.463/5.
20

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securityandforcetheUSoffered,andthePanAmericanpoliciesthatPresidentWilson advocated.Overall,thenOteropositedthatthepoliticalpathforus,therefore,shouldbe considereddefinitive:ithastobestrictlyandessentiallypanAmerican,andourconduct, insteadofbeinguncertainandfullofdoublespeak,shouldbefullofclarity,loyalty,and ostensiblyalwaysorientedtowardthegeneralinterestsofAmerica,bywhichOteromeantthe WesternHemisphere.21 Moreover,OterofeltthatbothUruguayandtheUnitedStatescouldbenefitfromthe relationship.TheUnitedStates,heargued,canloanusitsmoralandmaterialsupportif necessarywhileUruguay,heasserted,cansupply[theUnitedStates]withafirmmaterialand moralbaseinSouthAmerica,byourprivilegedgeographicposition,beitinthecaseofarmed conflictorforthesuccessofcontinentalpolicy.Inotherwords,OterofeltthatUruguaysgeo strategicpositionvisvistheRiverPlatewasanalogoustoCubasvisvistheMississippiRiver andthat,usingthisposition,theUnitedStatescouldinfluencetheABCpowersifUruguayallied withit.22 Evenso,theUruguayanForeignMinisterrecognizedthedangersofembracingthe UnitedStatestooclosely.Oteroplainlyacknowledgedwhathetermedthediplomatichistory oftheUnitedStateswithMexico,Cuba,CentralAmerica,andPanama.Atallcosts,Otero wishedtoavoidbecomingaprotectorateoftheUnitedStates.Thoughhedidnotseethat occurringinthenearfuturecitingthegeographicdistancebetweentheUSandUruguayhe nonethelessnotedthattheMonroeDoctrineservedasaneverexpansivevehiclethatmight onedaysoonthreatentheOrientalRepublic.Assuch,headvocatedthatMariadePena
21 22

ManuelOterotoMariadePena,2March1916,AHD/Washington,caja44,carpeta263,expediente11. Ibid.

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commenceinvestigationsinWashingtontoformingabicameralpanAmericanauthoritywith fullandbindingpowerstoadjudicatedisputes,evenasherecognizedthatsuchinstructions wereabitidealistic.23 Inreply,MinisterMariadePenalargelyagreedwithOtero.Thoughhecitedhistorical tiesbetweenUruguayandEurope,herecognizedthatthewarhadreorientedUruguaytoward theAmericas.HesharedwithOterotheskepticismofArgentinabutcitedBrazilsrecent friendshiptowardUruguayandChilesdisinterestednessasanargumentforsupportingthe ABC.Nonetheless,MariadePenafeltthatpriortoWilson,vacillations,contradictions,and bewildermentscharacterizedWashingtonsLatinAmericanpolicybutthatthepolicyhas lightenedandaccentuateditselfunderWilson.Assuch,aslongasUruguayconcedesthe CaribbeantotheUnitedStatesaszoneofinfluence,resultingprincipallyfromthemilitary importanceofthePanamaCanal,MariadePenaanticipatedlittlethreatfromtheUS.The diplomatevenwentontodescribemanymovementsintheUSthatsoughtsimilarinternational tribunalsasOterohadproposed.24 BatllesimilarlyusedElDatosupportWilsonintimesofcrisisbetween1914andearly 1917.Forexample,afternewsreachedMontevideothatWilsonhadavoidedgoingtowarover theMay1915Lusitaniasinking,itseditorswrotethattheNorthAmericannationiscarrying out...bythebrilliantandsereneactionofitspolicymakers,mostespeciallyitspresident,an effectivecontrolagainsttheexcessesthatcancometocommitittothefeverofwar.The editorsapplaudedthismove,inasmuchas,thoughWilsoncorrectlyprotestedthelossof Yankeelife,iftheUSenteredthewar,sowouldtherestofthehemisphere.Somemonths
23 24

Ibid. MariadePenatoOtero,18July1916,AHD/Washington,caja44,carpeta263,expediente11.

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later,ElDacommentedthatWilsonsresponsetothecrisisepitomizedthemoderationand firmnessthatcharacterizesallhispolicies.Likewise,whenWilsonstooduptotheGermans andforcedthemtoannouncetheSussexPledgeinMarch1916,ElDaapplaudedtheaction.It printedaneditorialinwhichitnotedthattheUnitedStates,ineffect,spokeforallneutralsand thatitisverystrangethatthenationthatsaysitfightsforthelibertyoftheseas,bywhichit meantGermany,isinrealitytheonethatleastrespectsitandthatviolatestheprincipalof justiceinthemostdisgracefulmeans.25 War(19171918) TheGermandecisiontoreinaugurateunrestrictedsubmarinewarfareinFebruary1917

andthesubsequentbreakingofdiplomaticrelationsbetweenWashingtonandBerlinhad profoundeffectsonUSUruguayanrelationsbyforcingBatllistastoputtheirrhetoricinto action.NolongerdidthewarexistoverseasbuttherupturethreatenedtobringGermanships asenemiestotheWesternHemisphere.Indeed,asBatllepublishedinElDa,onceGermany decidedtorestartUboatsintheirpatrolsoftheAtlantic,neutralitycouldnotexist,forcingeach stateintheAmericastotakesides.Inessence,theGermanresolutiondrewboththeUSand Uruguayintothewaraspartners.26 WhentheUnitedStatesbrokerelationswithGermanyinFebruary1917,Uruguayan

liberalssupportedtheUSinconfrontingtheGermans.Forexample,BruminformedJefferythat
Elconflictoyankeealemn,ElDa,12June1915;LodelLusitania,ElDa,12February1916;Lalibertadde losmares,ElDa,20April1916.
26 25

Asuntosinternacionales,ElDa,13July1917.

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theVieraadministrationrecognizesthejusticeandnobilityofthesentimentswhichhave servedaguidetoPresidentWilsoninthisemergency.ElDacalledtheGermanmoveagross errorand,asaresultofWilsonsposition,calledNorthAmericansalaboriousandpacific people,enemiesofbrittleexpansionistadventures,calmandjust,whocollaborationinworld peacehasalwaysbeendisinterestedandeffective.27 Nonetheless,UruguaydidnotgoasfarastheUnitedStatesandremainedneutral,

owingprincipallytothefearthatsuchabrashactionwouldignitethepassionsoftheTeuto Braziliancommunityonitsnorthernborder.Surely,ForeignMinisterBrumwrotetothe GermanchargdaffairesinMontevideothatthereinaugurationofunrestrictedsubmarine warfare,whichhecitedasrepugnanttotheprinciplesofhumanity,meantthatthe Uruguayangovernmentcannotacceptforitscitizens,commerce,andvessels,therestrictions imposeduponitthroughtheundefinedzoneofblockadeandtheformofsubmarine campaign.Despitethisrhetoric,UruguaydidnotbreakrelationswithGermany,ashadthe UnitedStates,owing,Jefferybelieved,tothefearsofcomplications...fromSouthernBrazil whereGermaninfluencesarestronglyintrenched[sic]andoverwhichtheBraziliangovernment doesnotseemtohavecompletecontrol.28 ThisOrientalmoralsupportcontinuedaftertheUSwenttowaron6April1917,butstill

MontevideodidnotactdiplomaticallyagainstGermany.WhenJefferyinformedtheForeign MinistryoftheCongresssdeclarationofwaron14April,Brumrepliedthatheunderstoodthat theUShasbeenforcedby[the]actionofGermany...totakesuchcourse.WhileUruguay

JefferytotheSecretaryofState(telegram),9February1917,WWIRecords,file763.72/3278,roll31;El conflictoyanquigermano,ElDa,6February1917;Contralossubmarinos,ElDa,15February1917. JefferytotheSecretaryofState,13February1917,WWIRecords,file763.72/3476,roll32;BaltasarBrumtothe GermanMinisterinMontevideo,5February1917,WWIRecords,file763.72/3476,roll32.
28 27

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wouldnottakesimilaraction,asitsrightshavenotyetbecometheobjectofanactof aggressiononthepartofGermany,itstillfounditselfinentireaccordandsympathywiththe viewsandactionsoftheUnitedStates,accordingtoBrum.29 WhileUruguaydidnotactaftertheUSwardeclaration,itsnorthernneighbordid.Only

fivedaysaftertheUSdeclaredwar,BrazilbrokerelationswithGermanyovertheParanaffair. On5April,theGermanstorpedoedtheBrazilianfreighterParanoffthecoastofnorthern Francewithoutwarning,killingthreecrewmenand,asimportantly,allowing93,000sacksof coffeetosinkintotheAtlantic.NewsreachedRiothefollowingdayand,aftersomedelay, whichdetractorsattributedtoTeutoBrazilianForeignMinisterLauroMller,Brazilbroke relationson11April1917and,on12April,thestateimpoundedoverfiftyGermanshipsin Brazilianports.30 TheBrazilianGermandiplomaticrupturebroughtthewarnotonlytoSouthAmerica,

butcatalyzedtheUruguayangovernmenttoactsecretly.Confidentially,BrumcabledMinister MariadePenainWashingtonthefollowingdayafterBrazilbrokerelations:Theentranceof Brazilintothewarseemstobeinevitable.Insuchacase,itwillproduceinsurrectioninthe Germanizedstates[ofsouthernBrazil],astheGermanchargdaffairesinsinuatedtome. Uruguayanneutralityisthereforeimpossible;itwillhavetoaidBrazil.Inlightofthis,he instructedMariadePenatoobtainseventythousandMasuerrifles,twohundredmachine guns,andcorrespondingammunitionintheUnitedStates.MariadePenawentabouthisduty vigorously,contactingboththeStateDepartment,inanefforttoencourageUSweapons factoriestoassisthim,andvariousmunitionsfirmssuchasWestinghouseandWinchester.The

JefferytotheSecretaryofState(telegram),14April1917,WWIRecords,file763.72/3853,roll34. Luebke,GermansinBrazil,126127.

29 30

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diplomatgenerallyreceivedoneoftworeplies.First,boththeStateDepartmentandthe weaponshousesnotedthatthemanufactureofgunswoulddisrupttheorderstheUSWar Departmentalreadyplaced.Second,thefirmsinformedhimthat,whiletheycouldgetthe ammunitiontoUruguay,theyneededapprovalondimensions.BythetimeMariadePena cabledUruguay,theForeignMinistrythereconversedwiththeWarandMarineMinistry,and BrumcabledbacktoWashington,thefactorieshadalreadysoldtheammunition.Inall,it seemsMariadePenadidnotobtainanyammunitionintheUSinAprilandMay1917.31 Evenso,Brazilsaction,likethatoftheUnitedStates,didnotalterUruguaysstance

publically;MontevideostillwaitedforGermanprovocation,whichcameon4June1917.That morning,aboutsixtymilesoffshoreofBordeaux,aGermansubmarinesunktheunarmed Rosario,anUruguayanregisteredshipcarryingprincipallytobaccoandsteelbetweenNewYork CityandLaPallice,France.Firingcommencedat2pmlocaltimeandsinkingthemerchantship requiredonlytenshotsfromtheGermanuboat.AllseventeenmenoftheRosarioscrew boardedthelifeboatsand,thoughtheGermansfireduponthemtoo,allescapedthe bombardmentunharmed.Unfortunately,intheonesidedfirefight,thelifeboatsbecame separatedand,afterthreedays,afishingboatpickeduponlytenofthesurvivorsandbrought themtoLaPallice.Oftheseten,nonewereUruguayan,butinsteadDanish,Argentine,Spanish,

MinistrodeRelacionesExteriorestoLegacinenWashington(telegram),15April1917,AHD/Washingtoncaja 50,carpeta286,expediente6;L.A.OsbornetoMariadePena,7May1917,AHD/Washington,caja50,carpeta287, expediente8;WinchesterRepeatingArmsCo.toMariadePena,5May1917,AHD/Washington,caja50,carpeta 287,expediente8.Brumstelegram,notsurprisingly,lackstransitions,articles,andthelikeassuchfrivolitiescost moremoneytosend.Assuchtheaboverepresentsafigurativetranslation.Theoriginaldecipheredtelegram reads:EntradaBrasilguerrapareceserinevitable.Entalcasoproducirsesublevacinenlosestados germanizadossegnmeinsinaelEncargadodeNegociosdeAlemania.NeutralidadUruguayimposiblevariase obligadoaayudarBrasil.NecesitamossesentamilfusilesMauser.Doscientosametralladorasymunicin correspondiente.Exploreesegobiernosipodramoscontarconesoselementosdeinmediatoenprovisin suceso.

31

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Italian,Norwegian,andRussian.TheUSconsulinLaRochelle,whoreportedthematterto Washington,didnotknowthedispositionornationalityoftheothersevencrewmembersfrom theotherlifeboat.32 TheRosarioincidentgaveMinisterJefferyanopeningtopromotecloserUSUruguayan relationsbyusingtheUSNavysquadronstationedinRiodeJaniero.Immediatelyuponhearing newsofthesinking,thediplomatcabledWashingtonthat,ifAdmiralWilliamCapertonthen enroutefromSanDiegotoBahia,BrazilweretotraveltoMontevideo,itwouldhavegood effect.Ayearearlier,inJune1916,PresidentWilsonhadnamedCapertoncommanderin chiefoftheUSPacificFleet.OncetheUSenteredthewar,citinglimitedGermanthreatsinthe Pacific,WilsondecidedtosendtheagedCapertontoRiodeJaniero.There,Wilsonhopedthat thepresenceofCapertonandhissquadronwoulddemonstratediplomaticamitywiththe BraziliansandtheotherSouthernConestateswhile,atthesametime,helpingprotectthe SouthAtlanticOceanfromtheKaiserlicheMarine.33 CapertonarrivedinBrazilon14June1917.Hissquadronenjoyedawarmwelcome, accordingtoonehistorian.Capertonsubstantiatedthis;hewrotetohisfriendAdmiralWilliam S.Benson,theChiefofNavalOperationsinWashington,thatduringhisentirestayinBrazil,he averagedonlythreetofourhoursofsleeppernight,owingtoalltheentertaininguponwhich theBraziliansinsisted.Notsurprisingly,therefore,MinisterJefferywantedtoexportsomeof thatgoodwilltoUruguay,whichitseemedwasabouttomoveclosertotheAlliesoverthe

32 33

JamesGoodiertotheSecretaryofState,8June1917,DecimalFile,file833.857/3.

JefferytotheSecretaryofState(telegram),9June1917,WWIRecords,file763.72/5246,roll42;DavidHealy, AdmiralWilliamB.CapertonandUnitedStatesNavalDiplomacyinSouthAmerica,19171919,JournalofLatin AmericanStudies8,no.2(November1976):298.

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Rosarioincident.TheNavyDepartmentagreedandorderedtheadmiraltotheUruguayan capitalshortlyafterhisarrivalinBrazil.34 Uruguayanauthorities,nevertheless,neededtolegalizeanyvisitofCapertonto Uruguay.Underexistinginternationallaw,aslongasUruguayremainedneutralanyvisitby Caperton,asarepresentativeofabelligerentpower,couldlastnolongerthantwentyfour hours.Therefore,on15June1917,thedayafterCapertonsBrazilianarrival,Bruminformed Jefferythat,effectiveimmediately,allUSshipsincludingnavalvesselsmaynowand henceforthvisittheportsofUruguayforanypurposewhatsoeverwheretheywillbereceived asafriendandnotasabelligerentandwithoutanyrestrictions.Uponhearingthegoodnews, SecretaryofStateLansingrepliedthatWashingtonacceptswithgreatestappreciationthe friendlyoffer.On22June1917,Vieracodifiedthepolicybyexecutivedecree.Thedecree citedtheprincipleofPanAmericansolidarityasthecriterionofitsinternationalpolicyand allowedthatnoAmericancountrywhichindefenseofitsownrightsfindsitselfinastateof warwithnationsofothercontinentswillbetreatedasbelligerentsinUruguay.AstheUS, Panama,andCubarepresentedtheonlyAmericanstatesthatdeclaredwarbyJune1917,Viera aimedthedecreeobviouslyatthembutitallowedforfutureexpansionifotherWestern Hemisphericstatestookthebelligerentstep.Ineffect,Uruguayhadwithdrawnitsneutrality fortheAmericastolegalizethearrivaloftheUSNavy,whichcouldprotectUruguayfrom GermanUboatsandsouthBrazilianinsurrection,evenonlysymbolically.35
WilliamB.CapertontoWilliamS.Benson,6July1917,WilliamB.CapertonPapers,LibraryofCongress, ManuscriptDivision[hereafterCapertonMSS],container1,folder6;Healy,298299. JefferytotheSecretaryofState(telegram),15June1917,WWIRecords,file763.72/5336,roll43;Jefferytothe SecretaryofState(telegram),18June1917,WWIRecords,file763.72/5360,roll43;JefferytotheSecretaryof State(telegram),18June1917,WWIRecords,file763.72/5378,roll43.
35 34

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ThislegalismshieldedCapertonwhenhearrivedon10July1917;histhirteendaylong

visitthusturnedintoonelargePanAmericanfte.Capertonandhismenspentthetime perusingthecity,visitingthefrigorficos,theforeignlegations,theparks,theuniversity,and thepenitentiary.Theybanquetedbothonlandandonsea,aboardtheflagshipUSSPittsburg. On20July,theyattendedalargeballintheParqueHotelfestoonedinUSandUruguayanflags. Finally,on22July,theylefttheportandvisitedArgentinabeforereturningtoRio,where Captertonmadehiswartimeheadquarters.36 TheadmiralfelthisJuly1917visittoMontevideosucceeded.Writingtohisfriend

Benson,Captertonreferredtohisreceptionasrousing,popular,andspontaneous.Hefound thestreetssocrowdedwithpeopleCapertonestimatedtheynumberedseventythousand thatittookthirtyminutestowalktwoblocks,afterwhichheabscondedacartogethimtothe USLegation.Fortheremainderoftheweek,heandhispartyhadbeenonacontinualgo and,likeinBrazil,heestimatedheonlymanagedafewhoursofsleepeachnight.37 TheUruguayansseemedtorevelinCapertonsvisittoo.Duringthevisit,ElDa

commentedthattheUSsailorshavecontinuedtobeobjectsofexpressivedemonstrationsof sympathyonthepartofthepublicpowersand,aboveall,ofthepeople,towhomithasfallen toplaythemostsignificantandbrilliantroleintheseunforgettablepartiesofsincerityand

BienVenidos!,ElDa,10July1917;Elhomenajealosmarinosnorteamericanos,ElDa,10July1917;Un granhomenaje,ElDa,11July1917;Lallegadadelaescudranorteamericana,ElDa,11July1917;Plebiscito popular,ElDa,11July1917;Laestanciadelaescudranorteamericana,ElDa,12July1917;Laestanciadela escudranorteamericana,ElDa,13July1917;Lavisitadelosmarinosnorteamericanos,ElDa,14July1917;En honordelosmarinosnorteamericanos,ElDa,15July1917;Lavisitadelosmarinosnorteamericanos,ElDa, 16July1917;Losmarinosnorteamericanos,17July1917;Losmarinosnorteamericanos,18July1917;Los marinosnorteamericanos,20July1917;Losmarinosnorteamericanos,21July1917;Losmarinos norteamericanos,22July1917;Losmarinosnorteamericanos,24July1917;Losmarinosnorteamericanos,25 July1917.

37

36

CapertontoBenson,17July1917,CapertonMSS,container1,folder6.

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fraternity.Afterthesquadronsdeparture,VieratelegraphedWilsonthecordialsalutations oftheUruguayanpeopleandgovernmentwhosesolidaritywiththesentimentsoftheUnited Stateshasoncemorebeenconfirmed.Vieracitedthepleasingimpressionthegallant sailorsleftastheyfulfilledamemorablemissiontowardPanAmericanunityandsolidarity. WilsonrepliedthathefoundithighlygratifyingthatUruguaysupportedthecauseofself governmentanddemocracy[asthey]areassailedbythesadinfluencesofirresponsibleand unbridledautocracy.38 DespitetheamityofCapertonsvisit,ultimatelytheGermandiplomaticinitiativetouse

theGermancolonyinSouthernBraziltotheKaisersadvantagecatalyzedtheViera administrationtoenterthewarlaterthatsummer.Starting8September1917,Secretaryof StateLansingreleasedtotheUSpressdecipheredtelegramsthatdemonstratedtheduplicityof theGermanministerinBuenosAires,CountKarlvonLuxburg.Luxburghadcoercedthe SwedishlegationinBuenosAirestocloakhisconfidentialdispatchestoBerlinwiththeSwedish diplomaticcodeandtosendthemthroughStockholm.AtelegraphoperatorwiththeCentral andSouthAmericanTelephoneCompanyinBuenosAiresalertedUSAmbassadorFrederic Stimsonandthediplomat,inturn,notifiedWashington.AstheStateDepartmentcouldnot decipherthedispatches,itforwardedthemtoBritishintelligence,whichcouldanddiddecode them.Forthemostpart,Luxburgscommunicationscoveredroutinemattersbutsome demonstratedthatBerlindidplantousetheGermancolonyinsouthernBraziltoitsadvantage. Forexample,on10September,theBritishsentLansingoneofLuxburgstelegrams,dated4

38

Solidaridadmoral,ElDa,15July1917;FelicianoVieratoWoodrowWilson(telegram),23July1917,Caperton MSS,container1,folder6;WilsontoViera(telegram),23July1917,CapertonMSS,container1,folder6.

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August,whichdenotedGermanwaraimsinSouthAmerica:themaintenanceofanopen marketinSouthAmericanandthereorganizationofsouthernBrazil.39 Collectively,thesedispatchesconfirmedtheBatllistasworstfearsthattheGermans haddevelopedplanstousethecolonyinSouthernBraziltocontrolSouthAmerica.ElDa,for one,calledtheGermanschemeoneofthemostatrociousandcruelactsinthehuman conscience.Theeditorsrecognizedtheimpetusforthescheme:namelythatsincetheUS enteredthewar,aidedinSouthAmericabytheBrazilians,Wilhemstrasserecognizedthe necessityofkeepingholdofArgentinaatanypriceandtouseBuenosAiresasthecenterof operationstoneutralizeantiGermanopinionintheRiverPlateregion.Nonetheless,they calledthemeansbywhichLuxburgwentaboutaccomplishingtheplanbyundermining Argentineneutralityacrimeunderthemaskofmorality.Later,ElDapublishedthatsuch activitiesshowthetruenatureofGermandiplomacy,assecretiveandconspiratorial.40 PresidentVieradidnotrelyuponrhetorictocountertheGermanthreat,hestoleships.

At2amon14September,lessthanaweekafterLansingsreleaseoftheLuxburgdispatches, UruguayanmarinestookpossessionofeightGermanshipsinMontevideosport.Theseeight packetshipsfromthevariousGermanownedtransitlines,includingDDGKosmos,the HamburgSouthAmericanLine,theHamburgAmericanLine,andtheRolandLine,hadsatin Montevideosportsincethebeginningofthewarin1914.Asthemarinessurprisedthe Germancrewsintheweehoursofthemorningof14September,theGermanswere nonethelessabletodisablemanymechanicalpartsbeforesurrenderingtheshipstoan

39

Luebke,GermansinBrazil,157158;GermanUprisinginSouthernBrazilStopsRailwaysasStrikesSpread,The NewYorkTimes,3November1917. Luxburg,ElDa,15September1917;Msintrigas,ElDa,22September1917.

40

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overwhelmingforce.Theseizuresharmednobody,eitherGermanorUruguayan,physically. Thereafterthedisabledshipsviz.theHarsburg,theSalatis,theBaha,theThuringia,the Silvia,thePolynesia,theMera,andtheWiegandremainedinlegallimboforweeks; technicallytheGermansteamshipfirmsownedthembuttheUruguayanNavyforcibly possessedthemandtheyremainedunder24hourguard.41 WhywouldVieraembarkonsuchabrashactwithoutyetbeingatwar?Brazilhaddone

thesameearlierintheyearinterningaboutfiftyGermanshipsthroughoutthecountrybut onlythedayafterofficiallybreakingrelations(12April).VieraactedwhileUruguaytechnically remainedneutral.Publically,VierareliedonarumorthattheGermancrewswereabouttosink theshipsandthisactwouldsomehowinjuretheportservicesofMontevideo.ElDa parrotedthatargumentandinsistedthattheseizureresultedwiththeaimofpreventingthe enormousinjuriesthatwouldbeoccasionedtothePortofMontevideoiftheshipswere destroyedorsunk.42 InlateSeptemberandearlyOctober1917,officialdiscussionsoccurredinthe

PresidentialPalaceinMontevideotojustifytheseizurebybreakingrelations.MinisterJeffery suspectedsomeactionmightsoonoccurandwantedWashingtonreadied.On4Octoberas Viera,Brum,andothersdiscussedUruguaysrelationshiptotheconflict,thediplomat suggestedthattheNavyagainorderCapertontoMontevideoifthesituationadjustsitself.

Losbuquesalemanessurtosennuestrasaguas,ElDa,15September1917;UruguayBreakswithGermanyon GroundofHonor,TheNewYorkTimes,8October1917;Losbarcosalemanes,ElDa,30March1918.
42 41

Luebke,GermansinBrazil,127;Losbuquesalemanessurtosennuestrasaguas,ElDa,15September1917.

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Jefferyknew,asdidmanyintheUruguayancapital,thatthecabinetwasdiscussinga momentousdeed.43 Finally,UruguayenteredthewarinOctober1917.On7October,Uruguayofficially

brokerelationswithGermany.UsingauthoritythatCongressgrantedtohim,Vieradeclared thediplomaticandcommercialrelationsbetweenUruguayandtheGermanEmpirebroken andgavetheGermanministerhispassports.On15October,Brumfollowedthisdecreewith anotherendingUruguaysnonalignedstatus,officiallyrevokingallthe1914neutrality proclamations.Inessence,bymidOctober1917,Uruguayfounditselfatwarinallbutname only.44 TheUruguayanpublicreactedenthusiasticallytothenews.On11October,the

ColoradosorganizedamassmeetinginthestreetsofMontevideo.Acrowdgatheredtogreet ArgentineintellectualLeopoldoLugones,anadvocateofwar,whohadcomefromBuenosAires todeliveracongratulatoryoration.Themobthenparadeddownthecitysmainavenue,18de Julio,payingitsrespectstothediplomaticpostsoftheAlliedbelligerentsinMontevideo Cuba,France,Russia,Italy,theUnitedStates,Britain,andBrazil.Thatevening,thediplomats fromthesecountries,Lugones,andmanyofthegreatmenofUruguaybanquetedinhonorof theOrientalRepublicsentranceintothewar.45 Popularenthusiasimaside,inbreakingrelationswiththeGermanEmpire,Colorados

describedtheiractionsaltruistically.ParrotingPresidentVierrasmessagetoCongressin
JefferytotheSecretaryofState,4October1917,WWIRecords,file763.72/7117,roll54;RobertLansingto Jeffery,10October1917,WWIRecords,file763.72/7117,roll54. JefferytotheSecretaryofState,17October1917,WWIRecords,file763.72/7770,roll62;BoletndelMinisterio deRelacionesExterioresdelRepblicaOrientaldelUruguay5,no.10(October1917):751752.
45 44 43

Larupturaderelacionesconelimperioalemn,ElDa,12October1917.

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presentingtherupturebill,BruminformedJefferythattheUruguayangovernmentactedas suchbasedsolelyontheprincipleofelevatedsolidaritywiththedefendersofrightandjustice whoareatthistimethenobledefendersofsmallsovereigntiesunselfishlyfightingforthe worldDemocracy.Inimmediateterms,BrumarguedthatUruguayenteredthewarbecause itunderstandsthatitisnotpossibleforittoremainanylongerasasimplespectatorandthat Uruguayhasnoprivategrievancetoavengenoranydirectoffencetorepress.ElDalikewise citedidealisticthemesincommentingontherupture.Thedayafterthedecree,theeditors wroteofthegloriousconquestoftherepublicanspiritandthisprestigiousaffirmationof nationalsovereignty,whichfillsustothebrimwithpatrioticsatisfactionandpraisesusas factorsinhumansolidarityinthedefenseofrightandofliberty.46 Despitethisrhetoric,clearlyVierasoughttwoendsinbreakingrelations:tolegalizethe

seizureoftheGermanshipsandtoobtainmunitionsfromagratefulUnitedStates.Totakethe shipsobviouslyviolatedUruguaysstatusasaneutral.Inmanyrespects,aslongasUruguay remainedlegallynonaligned,shecouldnotjustifytheseizureofanothernationsshipswithout cause.Moreover,theMontevideogovernmenthadspentthreeyearsprotestingsuch violationsonthepartoftheGermans.Withoutadjustingthediplomaticsituation,sucha seizureonthepartofUruguaywouldprovehypocritical. Likewise,shortlyafterbreakingrelations,BrumsentMariadePenainWashington

anotherrequestformunitions,toprotectagainstanyGermanattack,beitfromEuropeor Brazil.TheUruguayanNavydesired120millimeterBethlehemSteelcanons,75millimeter
JefferytotheSecretaryofState(telegram),17October1917,WWIRecords,file763.72/7770,roll62;Jefferyto theSecretaryofState(telegram),17October1917,WWIRecords,file763.72/7771,roll62;Laruptura,ElDa,8 October1917.
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cannons,grenades,andassociatedammunition.FortheUruguayanArmy,Brumcalledfor shrapnelandpointedMauserriflecartridges.Forthemostpart,theresultsofMariadePenas OctoberinquiriesmirroredthoseofApril.BethlehemSteelandothermanufacturesreplied that,becauseofUSArmyandNavysorders,theyfoundtheoutlooknotencouragingtofulfill Uruguaysdesires.Likewise,theStateDepartmentcouldnotfindamanufacturertoundertake thepointedMauserammunitionwithoutdisturbingUSArmyproduction,whichitrefusedto sanction.Suchaconditioncontinuedintotheearlymonthsof1918.47 Regardlessoftheimpetus,Washingtonofficials,notsurprisingly,publicallyreacted

positivelytothenewsoftheUruguayanGermandiplomaticrupture.Twodaysafterreceipt thenewsoftheUruguayanbreak,LansingtelegraphedJefferytoinformBrumthathe consideredthemoveanoblecorollarytotheJune1917PanAmericandecreeandthatthe doctrineofPanAmericanismisconsecratedbythealtruisticattitudeassumedbytheRepublic ofUruguay.PresidentWilsonlikewisetelegraphedhiscounterpartthatUruguaysaction wouldresultinagreatercontinentalharmony.48 InatriedandtruemethodofboththankingUruguayandinsuringitssupport,

WashingtononceagainsentCapertontoMontevideo.CapertonarrivedinlateOctoberfrom RiodeJanieroandwentabouthisdiplomaticduties.HeattendedabanquetthattheForeign MinistryofferedhimreciprocatedwithoneofhisownforForeignMinisterBrum.Heoffered lunchesaboardhisflagship,theUSSPittsburg,toPresidentVieraandBrum.HevisitedtheEl

BrumtoMariadePena,n.d.[November1917],AHD/Washington,caja50,carpeta287,expediente8;J.Racieler (?)toMariadePena,20December1917,AHD/Washington,caja50,carpeta287,expediente8;LansingtoMaria dePena,26December1917,AHD/Washington,caja50,carpeta287,expediente8;FrankPolktoMariadePena, 10January1918,AHD/Washingtoncaja56,carpeta,312,expediente2;J.Racieler(?)toMariadePena,7February 1918AHD/Washington,caja56,carpeta,312,expediente2. LansingtoJeffery(telegram),10October1917,WWIRecords,file763.72/7156,roll55;BoletndelMinisteriode RelacionesExterioresdelRepblicaOrientaldelUruguay5,no.10(October1917):770.
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Daoffices,metBatlletherepersonally,androdewithBrumtotheinteriorcityofMinasby automobile.ToencouragefurtheramitybetweentheUSandUruguay,hedonatedprofitsfrom asocietybenefitattheParqueCentraltotheUruguayangovernmentspublicassistancefund. Finally,theUSsquadrondepartedtoreturntoRioon2November.49 BymidOctober,theUnitedStateshadsucceededinbringingmostofSouthAmericato

itsside.Brazil,Uruguay,Peru,andBoliviahadbrokenrelations.Indeed,whileCapertondined inMontevideo,BrazilevendeclaredofwaronGermanytheonlySouthAmericanstatetoact assuchon26October1917.Daysearlier,BrazilianPresidentVenceslauBrsreceivedword thattheGermanshadtorpedoedafourthBrazilianship,theMacao,offthecoastofSpain. Moreover,theGermanstooktheMacaoscaptainhostage.Brshadhadenough.On25 October,heaskedtheBrazilianCongresstodeclarewaronGermanyinordertomaintainthe dignityofthenation.Thenextday,theChamberofDeputiesdeclaredwarbyvoteof149to1 andtheSenatedidlikewiseunanimously.Brazilbecamethefourthindependentnationinthe WesternHemispheretojointhewarasabelligerent.50 BackinUruguay,on9November,Vierasignedacarefullywordedbilltotakelegal

possessionoftheexGermanboats,fulfillingoneoftheaimsofbreakingrelations.Thelaw declaredintheinterestofthenation,thestatesoccupationoftheaforementionedeight boatsuntiltheendofthewar.TheUruguayanstatetookchargeofmaintenanceoftheboats andforthatpurposeassigned240seamen.Attheendofthewar,athreemanarbitration

Despusdelaruptura,ElDa,24October1917;LafiestadeanocheenelParqueHotel,ElDa,25October 1917;Despusdelaruptura,ElDa,26October1917;Losmarinosnorteamericanos,ElDa,30October1917; Losmarinosnorteamericanos,ElDa,31October1917;Losmarinosnorteamericanos,ElDa,1November 1917;Losmarinosnorteamericanos,ElDa,3November1917;Losmarinosnorteamericanos,ElDa,6 November1917;Losmarinosnorteamericanos,ElDa,7November1917.
50 49

Luebke,GermansinBrazil,159160.

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panelwoulddeterminethecompensationfortheirusagetotheGermanfirms,lessthecost ofrepairsthattheGermansabotageoccasioned.Thedecreecarefullyusedtheterm occupationratherthanconfiscation,seizure,orimpoundmenttoaidtheUruguayan arbitrationcaseafterthewar;byonlyoccupyingtheboats,theUruguayangovernment wouldonlyfinditselfresponsibletoreimbursetheownersforjusttheuseoftheboatsandnot theentirecostoftheboats,whichitsoughttoreturntothesteamshiplinesafterthewar. Overall,theSeptemberseizureoftheeightboatshadfinallybecomealegalrealityon9 November.51 Shortlyaftertheirseizure,theUSEmergencyFleetCorporation(EFC)interesteditselfin

theboats.CongresscreatedtheEFCin1917asasubsidiaryoftheUSShippingBoard,itself createdin1916,torectifytheglaringlackofaUSmerchantmarineextantsincetheCivilWar. TheShippingActof1916createdtheUSShippingBoardforthepurposeofencouraging, developing,andcreatinganavalauxiliaryandnavalreserveandamerchantmarinetomeetthe requirementsofthecommerceoftheUnitedStates.Nonetheless,theorganizationinitsearly daysfocusedonitspromotionandregulationofextantUSshippinginlightofthedifficultiesof EuropeancommercetheGreatWarcaused.OnceGermanyrestartedunrestrictedsubmarine warfareandtheUSenteredthewarinearly1917,meaningUSshipsbecamelegitimatetargets ofGermantorpedoes,theShippingBoardshifteditsemphasistotheacquisitionofnewships. Forthatpurpose,itcapitalizedapublicprivatecorporation,theEFC,on16April1917,tendays

BoletndelMinisteriodeRelacionesExterioresdelRepblicaOrientaldelUruguay5,no.11(November1917): 867870.

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aftertheUSdeclaredwar.TheEFCexistedtocontroltheconstructionandoperationofships and,amongotherduties,toseekshipsforleasefromforeignnations.52 Inlightofthissearch,inJanuary1918,theEFCbidwiththeUruguayangovernmentto

leasetheshipstheVieraadministrationseizedthepreviousSeptember.TheStateDepartment hadinquiredunofficiallyabouttheshipsasfarbackaslate1917,buttheEFCfirstofficialbid cameinlateJanuary1918.Aspartofthenegotiations,theStateDepartmentassuredthe UruguayansthattheBritishwouldnotcounterbidandthattheUnitedStatesgovernment wouldbacktheEFCbid.UruguayanauthoritiesinsistedonthelaterconditionastheEFC technicallyranitselfasaprivatefirm.53 Confidentially,Uruguayanpolicymakersattemptedtoofferaquidproquofortheships

leases:thelongdesiredmunitionstofendofftheGermancolonyfromsouthernBrazil.Early onintothenegotiations,theUruguayansmadeitaconditionthattheUSStateDepartment wouldhelpsupplythedesiredweaponrythatBrumrequestedwhenUruguaybrokerelationsin October.Indeed,LansingwrotetoSecretaryoftheWarNewtonBakerthatinordertosecure theexGermantonnageinUruguayanportsitwasnecessaryforthisDepartmenttogive assurancestotheUruguayanLegationthatprovisionwouldsoonbemadeforthemanufacture ofthedesiredammunition.Onceagain,theStateDepartmentfailedtoacquiretheMauser bullets,citingthedetrimentaleffectsuchproductionwouldhaveonUSArmyordersandthe

DarrellHevenorSmithandPaulV.Betters,TheUnitedStatesShippingBoard:ItsHistory,Activities,and Organization(Washington,D.C.:TheBrookingsInstitution,1931),1,89,19.ForadiscussionoftheCivilWars effectivedestructionoftheUSMerchantMarine,seeGeorgeW.Dalzell,TheFlightfromtheFlag:TheContinuing EffectoftheCivilWarupontheAmericanCarryingTrade(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1940).

53 52

FRUS1917.supplement1(Washington,DC:GPO,1931),337338,378379,384385,399;FRUS1918 supplement1,vol.1(Washington,DC:GPO,1933),663664,667671,676677,692.

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prohibitivecosttoUruguay.Nevertheless,noevidencedemonstratesthatanysuchdifficulty arosewiththeNavyovertheBethlehemSteelcanons.54 Whilenegotiationscontinuedinsecret,theUruguayangovernmentwentabout

repairingtheexGermanships.Inmanyrespects,thisprovedadifficulttask.TheGerman seamen,intheminutesbeforethesurpriseseizure,haddonetheirbesttodismantleimportant partsoftheships,justastheyhadwhenBrazilinterredtheirshipsinApril.Uruguayanship mechanicshadneitherthetrainingnorthepartstofixcorrectlytheGermandestruction.For example,theGermansmanagedtoremoveovertenthousandscrewsfromtheships. Nonetheless,theUruguayangovernmentwentaboutrepairsanyway.Almostimmediately,the statehiredpainterstorefinishtheexteriors.BylateMarch,thestatehademployedboth Brazilliananddomesticengineers,oneofwhichfoundhimselfastonishedbytheships technology,togettheshipsintoworkingorder.55 Finally,afterengineersmoreorlessrepairedtheGermanboatsandthenegotiators

reachedanaccordvisvisthemunitions,SecretaryoftheUSLegationCraigWadsworth, representingtheEFC,andInteriorMinisterFedericoVidiella,representingtheUruguayan government,signedtheleasecontracttotransfertheboatstotheEFCon24May1918.The termsoftheleasebeganwhenUruguayanauthoritiesdeliveredeachshiptotheEFCand terminatedwhenhostilitiesbetweentheUSandGermanyended.TheEFCagreedtopay8,225 Uruguayanpesospertonpermonth,payableinMontevideoorNewYork.TheEFChadtouse threeoftheboatstheSilvia,theWeigand,andtheHarsburgtocarrytradeexclusively

TheSecretaryofStatetotheSecretaryofWar,27February1918,DecimalFile,file833.24/4;HJtoJHStabler,6 April1918,DecimalFile,file833.24/11;FRUS1918,supplement1,vol.1,671.
55

54

Losbarcosalemanes,ElDa,30March1918;Losbarcosalemanes,ElDa,31March1918.

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betweentheUSandUruguay,thusassuringcommercebetweenthetwostates.ThePolynesia, Salatis,andThuringiawouldsailbetweentheUruguayandEurope.Thefinaltwoships,the MeraandtheBaha,oftenwouldtraveldirectlybetweenUruguayandEuropebutcouldstop offatanAtlanticportoftheUS.Finally,anydifferencesoverpaymenttowhichthe governmentscouldnotcometoanaccordafterthewarweresubjecttobindingarbitration.56 Shortlythereafter,theUruguayanauthoritiesbegandeliveringtheships,butnotbefore

renamingthem.Bydecreeof18June1918,thegovernmentretitledtheexGermanboats afterUruguayancities;theWeigand,Silvia,Harsburg,Baha,Mera,Polynesia,Salatis,and ThuringiabecametheArtigas,Rivera,Salto,Paysand,RoNegro,Colonia,TrientayTres,and Moldonadorespectively.Shortlythereafter,on20July1918,theEFCtookdeliveryofthefirst ship,theTrientayTres.Overthecourseofthenextsevenmonths,theEFCreceivedthe remainder,acquiringtheeighthandlastship,theRivera,on27February1919asthepeace delegatesconvenedatVersailles.57 WhiletheexGermanboatsissueandtheaccordantruptureinrelationsbetween

GermanyandUruguaydominatedUSUruguayandiplomaticintercourseinlate1917andearly 1918,otherissuesarosethatstrengthenedthepartnership.Forexample,publicallyUruguayan authoritiescontinuedtosupportWilsonsstanceonthewar.Forexample,afterWilsongave hisfamousFourteenPointsspeechon8January1918,BrumtelegraphedLansing,

MemorandumofAgreement,26October1926,AHD/Washington,caja115,carpeta513,expediente4; ResumendelasGestionesEfectuadasporelMinisteriodeRelacionesExterioresparaObtenerdeTheEmergency FleetCorporationelPagodeArredramientodelosBuquesexAlemanes,AHD/Washington,caja107,carpeta 489,expediente2;FRUS1918,supplement1,vol.1,692.Capertoninvolvedhimselfinthenegotiationsaswell duringaFebruary1918visittotheUruguayancapital;seeCapertontoBenson,24February1918,CapertonMSS, container1,folder6. BoletndelMinisteriodeRelacionesExterioresdelRepblicaOrientaldelUruguay6,no.6(June1918):591;A. FerreetoUnknown,3September1924,AHD/Washington,caja107,carpeta489,expediente4.
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congratulatingWilsonontheglorythatthatattitudebringsuponyourillustriouscountry. VieratelegraphedWilsonasimilarmessage.ElDaassertedthatnowtheworldcanorient itselfbetteragainstthosethatinthisformidabledisputemocktheprinciplesofhuman justice.58 Moreover,aseriousdiplomaticeventbubbledupinlateMarch1918,whenthe GermansstoppedavesselcarryingUruguayanmilitaryobserversontheAtlanticOcean.Offthe CanaryIslands,theGermanNavyhaltedtheSpanishshipInfantaIsabaeldeBorbon,andwhile theGermancaptainallowedtheshiptoturnaroundunharmed,provideditpromisednotto visittheblockadezoneduringthewar,hecitedUruguayansasoneofthenationalitieshehad instructionstotreatasbelligerentswhenhemetthem.Thisturnofeventsterrifiedthe UruguayanForeignMinistry,inasmuchastheycloakedtheirhostilitytoGermanybehindthe legalismofneverofficiallyhavingdeclaredwar.TheVieraadministrationaskedBerlin,through theSwiss,ifGermanyconsideredUruguayatwarwithGermany.Thankfully,inMay,theSwiss informedBrumthatGermanydidnotconsideritselfatwarwithUruguayandtheGerman governmentagreedtodesistindetainingUruguayans.59 Despitethepositivenews,theInfantaIsabaeldeBorbonincidentdemonstratedto

UruguayanpoliticiansthatthewardidnotmerelyexistintherealmofPanAmericanand democraticrhetoricbutinreality.Assuch,theVieraadministrationconvinceditselfofthe needtotieitselffurthertotheUnitedStatesthroughaseriesofsymbolicacts,aimingto

BrumtoLansing(telegram),11January1918;WWIRecords,file763.72119/1110,roll377;LansingtoBrum (telegram),21January1918,WWIRecords,WWIRecords,file763.72119/1110,roll377;VieratoWilson,11 January1918,WWIRecords,file763.72119/1127,roll377;WilsontoViera,21January1918,WWIRecords,file 763.72119/1127,roll377;Elgranobstculo,ElDa,10January1918. CraigWadsworthtotheSecretaryofState(telegram),17May1918,WWIRecords,file763.72/10036,roll88; FRUS1918,supplement1,vol.1,689.
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protectitselffromKaiserism.Forstarters,itdeclaredthe4thofJuly1918asaUruguayan holiday.InJune1918,Vieraproposedthelaw,citingthefactthat,underthepresent circumstances,theUnitedStates,faithfultoitsprinciples,hasknowntobecomethemaintainer oftheinstitutionsthataresodeartous.TheCongressaccededtoVierasrequeston28June byanoverwhelmingmajorityandtheNorthAmericanIndependenceDayjoinedBastilleDay andMexicosIndependenceDay,amongothers,inthepantheonofUruguayanholidays,at leastfor1918.60 On4July1918,thecitycelebrated.ColoradoswokeuptoanElDaeditionfestooned withagraphicofheadshotsofGeorgeWashington,JamesMonroe,AbrahamLincoln,Theodore Roosevelt,Lansing,andWilsonsurroundingJohnTrumbullsfamousDeclarationof Independencepainting,allunderthetitleofAGloriousDate.Theeditorialexclaimedthe commemorationofuniversaldemocracyandcomparedtheactof1774theeditors misdatedtheeventwiththeliberatorsofSouthAmerica,viz.BernardOHigginsand,of course,UruguayanheroJosGervasioArtigas.Duringtheday,thecitygovernmentcovered thestreetswithflagsofboththeUSandUruguay.Thatevening,amajorityofthecityspolitical elitegatheredatagalaballattheUSLegation.Finally,thefestivitiescontinuedattheParque Hotel,wheretheNorthAmericanAssociationofUruguaysponsoredafteforForeignMinister Brumwellintothenight.61
JefferytotheSecretaryofState,20July1918,DecimalFile,file833.407/11;MinistrodeRelacionesExterioresto LegacinenWashington(telegram),29June1918,AHD/Washington,caja56,carpeta314,expediente3;Hugode PenatoLansing,29June1918,AHD/Washington,caja56,carpeta314,expediente3.Originally,theUruguayan decreemade4Julyaholidaypermanently,butitseemsthatonlyin1918didUruguayanscelebrateit. UnaFechaGloriosa,ElDa,4July1918;Lafiestanacionaldehoy,ElDa,4July1918;Conmemoracindel4 deJulio,ElDa,5July1918.Interestingly,whenMinsterJefferytranslatedthearticlebeforehedispatcheditto theStateDepartment,hequietlycorrectedthedatefrom1774to1776.SeeJefferytotheSecretaryofState,23 August1918,DecimalFile,file833.6461/2.
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Notsurprisingly,NorthAmericanofficialsreactedpositivelytonewsofthe IndependenceDaycelebration.SecretaryofStateLansing,throughJeffery,gavehissincere thankstotheUruguayangovernmentforrecognizingtheeternalprinciplesofright,freedom, andjusticeinthegovernmentofmanforwhichtheindependenceofUruguaynolessthanthat oftheUnitedStateswasfoughtforandobtainedbydeclaringIndependenceDayafeastday.62 AsUruguayanscelebratedUSIndependenceDayand,asimportantly,adayofffrom

work,ForeignMinisterBrumpreparedtovisitNorthAmerica.USofficialshadbroachedthe ideaasearlyasFebruary1918,aroundthesametimeasEFCnegotiationsbeganfortheex Germanboats.CapertonthatmonthfoundBrummostanxioustomakethevisitbutinternal Uruguayanpoliticking,namelyBatlleseffortstosecureBrumselectiontothepresidencyin 1919,preventedanyimmediatemove.Assuch,theUSdidnotextendtheofficialinvitation until10June,afterBatllehadassuredBrumscandidacyfortheColoradoParty.Onceissued,El Dareactedpositivelytotheinvitation,notingitrepresentedahighandexceptional distinctionthatonlyexForeignMinisterofBrazilLauroMllerreceivedinrecentmemory. OtherMontevideopaperslikewisenotedthehistoricalsignificanceoftheinvite.Forexample, on12JuneJefferyinformedWashingtonthatLaMaanaandElDiariodelaPlatawroteofthe invitationinfavorableterms.Thatsameday,BruminformedJefferythatheacceptedthe requestwithgreatenthusiasmandwouldleaveinearlyJuly.63

BoletndelMinisteriodeRelacionesExterioresdelRepblicaOrientaldelUruguay6,no.7(July1918):695; LansingtoHugodePena,8July1918,AHD/Washington,caja56,carpeta314,expediente3. CapertontoBenson,24February1918,CapertonMSS,container1,folder6;NotasInternacionales,ElDa,11 June1918;WadsworthtotheSecretaryofState(telegram),12June1918,WWIRecords,file763.72/10363,roll94; Notasinternacionales,ElDa,11June1918.

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DepartingMontevideoon15July1918,BrumtookacircuitousroutetoWashington,

D.C.AfterstopsintheBraziliancitiesofRecifeandBahiaaswellasCuba,helandedinKey West,Floridaon21August1918.HetravelednorthbytrainfortwodaysandarrivedintheUS capitalon23August.Uponhisarrival,heimmediatelystoppedattheState,War,andNavy BuildingtomeetSecretaryofStateLansing.Thetwothenproceededacrossthestreettothe WhiteHouse,whereLansingformallyintroducedBrumtoPresidentWilson.ToWilson,Brum expressedthesympathyandadmirationthatthepeopleandgovernmentofUruguayfeelfor theUnitedStates,exampleofdemocracy,assuringthatpanAmericancooperationisthevital knotthatunitesthetwoAmericas.WilsonrepliedthatboththeUSandUruguaywerefighting toarriveattheidealofsolidarityofcivilizednations.64 AfterBrumcompletedhisdiplomaticduties,theforeignministertouredvariousUS

citiesoverthecourseofthreeweeks;atalmosteverystop,hewassuretoseeaninstitution thatwouldaidUruguayinitsmodernizingandstatebuilding.Forexample,hefirststoppedin Annapolis,wherehevisitedtheUSNavalAcademy.InPhiladelphia,hetouredtheNavalYard andtheFederalReserveBank.HestayedforfourdaysinNewYork,metwithdistinguished capitalistssuchasrailroadmagnateFrankVanderbiltanddepartmentstorenamesakeJohn WanamakerandtookadaytriptotheUSMilitaryAcademyatWestPoint,whichElDacalleda modelinstitution.FromGotham,BrummadetheshorttriptoLongIslandtovisitex PresidentTheodoreRoosevelt,atTRsrequest,torenewacquaintancesfrom1913.After leavingOysterBay,BrumtraveledtoBostonforadayandtouredHarvardUniversityandits nicestadium.Fromthere,hetraveledtoBuffalotoseeNiagaraFalls.Thereafter,theforeign
LaEmbajadaaEstadosUnidos,ElDa,24August1918;LaEmbajadaaEstadosUnidos,ElDa,25August 1918.
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ministertraversednorthernPennsylvaniatoPittsburgh,whereinhetouredanumberofsteel factories.AfterPittsburgh,BrumcrossedtheMidwestandvisitedChicagoandArmourand Swiftspackinghouses.HethenwentdowntoSt.LouisandMemphis,visitingthecottonplants oftheNewSouth,beforeendinghisUSvisitinNewOrleanson15September.Afterfurther diplomaticstopsinPanama,Ecuador,Peru,Bolivia,andChile,Brumarrivedhomein Montevideoon27November1918.65 Brumsvisitaccomplishedwhatitaimedtoaccomplish,verylittle.ElDaciteditas

beginninganeweraofequalityandjustice.Thepapersurelyoverstatedthecase.Brums jauntdidlittletoalterUSwarpolicy,WashingtonsLatinAmericanpolicy,orUruguaysstance intheconflict.Butthen,thejourneyneveraimedtodoso.BothUruguayanandNorth Americanpolicymakerssoughttocementandtopersonalizetieswithanallyduringaneraof immenseinternationalchaos.Inthatrespect,thejourneysucceeded,evenifitweremerely symbolic.66 Finally,whileBrumtraversedtheUnitedStates,themunicipalauthoritiesof

Montevideodecidedtonamethebeachfrontboulevard(rambla)forPresidentWilson.They
LaEmbajadaaEstadosUnidos,ElDa,27August1918;NuestraembajadaenEsatdosUnidos,ElDa,30 August1918;NuestraembajadaenE.Unidos,ElDa,31August1918;NuestraembajadaenEsatdosUnidos,El Da,1September1918;NuestraembajadaenEsatdosUnidos,ElDa,2September1918;Nuestraembajadaen EsatdosUnidos,ElDa,3September1918;NuestraembajadaenEsatdosUnidos,ElDa,3September1918; NuestraembajadaenEsatdosUnidos,ElDa,4September1918;NuestraembajadaenEsatdosUnidos,ElDa, 5September1918;NuestraembajadaenEsatdosUnidos,ElDa,6September1918;Nuestraembajadaen EsatdosUnidos,ElDa,7September1918;NuestraembajadaenEsatdosUnidos,ElDa,8September1918; NuestraembajadaenEsatdosUnidos,ElDa,9September1918;NuestraembajadaenEsatdosUnidos,ElDa, 10September1918;NuestraembajadaaEsatdosUnidos,ElDa,11September1918;Nuestraembajadaen EsatdosUnidos,ElDa,12September1918;NuestraembajadaenEsatdosUnidos,ElDa,5September1918; NuestraembajadaenEsatdosUnidos,ElDa,16September1918;NuestraembajadaenEsatdosUnidos,ElDa, 18September1918;NuestraembajadaenSudAmrica,ElDa,24September1918;NuestraembajadaenSud Amrica,ElDa,8October1918;NuestraembajadaenAmrica,ElDa,25October1918;Nuestraembajadaen SudAmrica,ElDa,30October1918;NotasInternacionales,ElDa,27November1918.
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NotasInternacionales,ElDa,30August1918.

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informallyannouncedthehonoron4July,theUruguayanholiday,butmadeitofficialon26 August.RamblaPresidenteWilson,thenunderconstruction,ranparallelalongtheRodela Platafortwelvemiles,fromtheOldCitytotheCarrascosuburb,offeringfantasticunobscured viewsofthewaterfront.Jeffery,incallingWilsonsattentiontothehonor,calledtheRambla PresidenteWilsonthemostfashionableandpopulardriveinMontevideo.Ataceremonyin whichBrum,Jeffery,andCapertonspoke,thecityplacedaplaquemarkingthenewnameon ChristmasDay1918.67 LessthanthreemonthsafterthenamingofRamblaPresidenteWilson,thenewsthat

theworldhadwaitedoverfouryearstoheartheAlliesandCentralPowersagreedtoan armisticeeffective11November1918.ElDa,underthebannerTheTriumphofHumanity assertedthatonthatdaywecelebratethetriumphofgoodoverevil,ofrightoverwrong,of thefutureoverthepast,ofHumanityoveritsenemies.Uponhearingthenews,Montevideos populationspontaneouslyfloodedthecitysstreetsincelebration.Brum,uponhisreturnfrom hishemispherictourinlateNovember,telegraphedLansingthemosteffusivefelicitationson thefinaltriumphofhumanityandjusticerepresentedbythealliedcauseandsoably synthesizedbyPresidentWilson.68 Shortlyafterthearmistice,CapertoncamebacktoUruguay.Duringtheconflict,

CapertonandhissquadronhadservedanimportantfunctionforUruguayans,bothasan effectivecounterthreattotheGermanNavyand,moreimportantly,assymbolofmilitaryforce
JefferytotheSecretaryofState,29August1918,DecimalFile,file833.154/13;Conmemoracindel4deJulio, ElDa,5July1918;NotasInternacionales,ElDa,27August1918;LaRamblaPresidenteWilson,ElDa,26 December1918.PartofMontevideosfamousRamblastillbearstheWilsonname,thoughoverthelastninety yearsthecityhasgraduallyshortenedthesectionthatdoes. BrumtoLansing(telegram),n.d.[November1918],WWIRecords,file763.72119/2608,roll386;Eltriunfodela humanidad,ElDa,12November1918;Elhomenajenacionalalavictoriadeledemocracia,ElDa,12 November1918.
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againstthesupposedperiloftheGermancolonyinSouthernBrazil.Asarepresentativeofthe USmilitary,hispresencecomfortedUruguayanpolicymakersintheirfearoftheGermancolony inSouthernBrail,afearthatmanyhistoriansnowciteasunfounded,butonewhich Montevideotookveryseriouslyatthetime. InDecember1918,theUruguayanpopulaceshoweredtheadmiralwithgiftsandpraise.

Inhispersonalpapers,onefindstwoalbumsfromschoolchildren.Thefirst,dated31 December1918,juxtaposestheindependenceheroesofbothcountriesGeorgeWashington andJosArtigasbeforeshowingintertwinedflagsofboththeUSandUruguay.Thecaption translatesasthestudents...salutethepowerfulRepublicoftheNorthanddohomageof greatadmirationtoitsnobleidealsoftruerepublicandemocracythatelevatesittothesummit oflibertyandjusticetoilluminatetheentireworld.Itconcludeswithmapsofbothcountries. Thesecond,undatedbutprobablyfromthesamegeneraltimeperiod,buildsonthesame themesassixthgradersincludedproNorthAmericanstatements,someunifyingWashington andArtigas,amongstUSsymbolsincludingthebaldeagleandtheUSflag.Indeed,byJanuary 1919,theUSNavalAttachattheMontevideolegationcalledCapertonthemostpopular foreignerinUruguaytoday.69 Versailles(1919)

UruguayanSchoolTribute,NavalHistoricalCollection,WilliamB.CapertonPapers(Collection29),box1,folder 1;CommemorativeBook,CapertonMSS,container5,folder4;CopyofaReportNavalAttachatMontevideoto Headquarters,Washington,8January1919,CapertonMSS,container1,folder7.

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ThepopularityofCapertonaside,almostassoonastheNovember1918armistice,the

VeiraadministrationattemptedtosecureaplaceforUruguayatthepeaceconference. Uruguayspositioninthewar,inanycase,provedlegallyanddiplomaticallyproblematical. Afterall,Uruguay,inlinewithotherLatinAmericanstatessuchasPeru,Bolivia,andEcuador, onlybrokerelationswithGermanywithoutdeclaringwaronthecentralEuropeanempire. OtherLatinAmericanstates,viz.Brazil,Cuba,andPanama,haddeclaredwarandassuchfelt obligatedtoinvolvethemselves,evenifonlysuperficially,inmakingpeace. Nonetheless,theVieraadministrationsoughttohaveUruguayanparticipationatthe peacetable,ifonlytoarguethecaseforissuesrelatingtoUruguay.On25November1918, onlytwoweeksafterthearmistice,thenewUruguayanministerinWashington,PedroCosio, inquirediftheUShadconsideredthestatusofstateslikeUruguay,whohadbrokenrelations withoutdeclaringwar,atVersailles.SecretaryofStateLansingrepliedthattheUShadnotyet formulatedapolicyonthematter.Amonthlater,inlateDecember1918,ForeignMinister BrumrevivedthequestionwithMinisterJeffery,askingiftheUSwouldsupportUruguayin attendingtheconference,citingconcretedifferencestobesettledbetweenGermanyand Uruguay,mostespeciallythematteroftheinternedGermanships.UnderSecretaryofState FrankPolk,whotookchargeoftheStateDepartmentwhileLansingmadepeaceoutsideParis, feltthattheUSshouldsupportUruguaysclaim,asunlesstheyaresorepresentedtheywill feelaggrievedandconsiderthattheirfollowingtheleadoftheUnitedStatesintheWorldWar hasnotbeenappreciated.Thus,rightbeforetheNewYear,SecretaryofStateLansinginParis consentedtolendtheUSsgoodofficesinseeingtheLatinAmericanstatesthathadbroken relationswithGermanyrepresentedatVersailles.Hesuggestedthatthey,includingUruguay, 169

officiallynamedelegationsandsendthemtotheFrenchpalaceimmediately,tobeonthespot incaseUruguayistobeaccordedrepresentation.70 InpreconferenceproceduralmeetingsinJanuary1919,USdiplomatsincludingLansing andDavidHunterMillerpushedforUruguayanparticipation.Forinstance,theUSdraftofthe treatyallowedforsometechnicallyneutralPowerswhichhavebrokendiplomaticrelations maybeSignatories,includingUruguay.TheFrenchsoonafterfounditexpedienttoinvite stateslikeUruguayandotherneutralsthathadbrokenrelationsforthepresentationand protectionoftheirinterest.MillerspecificallycitedUruguayinthisgroup,tellingtheFrench thattheOrientalRepublicinparticularhasdonewhatshecouldtofurthertheinterestsofthe UnitedStatesand,indeed,hascommittedactswhichGermanymightveryproperly,ifshehad sochosen,haveregardedasactsofwar.Thus,whenthegreatpowersdecidedinmidJanuary onthecompositionoftheCongress,theyallowedforone[delegate]foreachPowerinastate ofdiplomaticrupturewithenemyPowers,namelyBolivia,Peru,Uruguay,andEcuador.71 Giventhissupport,on5February1919,Vieraofficiallynamedadelegationconsistingof JuanAntonioBueroastheUruguayandelegate,exSenatorJacoboVarelaAcevedoasBueros assistant,andJulinNogueriaasthedelegationssecretary.Weekslater,VieraaddedJuan CarlosBlanco,thenewUruguayanMinistertoFrance,tothedelegation,ostensiblytoprovide theOrientalRepublicwithrepresentationwhiletheotherdelegatestraveledacrossthe Atlantic.ThethreedelegatesBuero,VarelaAcevedo,andBlancostaunchlysupportedBatlle
MinisteriodeRelacionestoLegacinenWashington(telegram),23November1918,AHD/Washington,caja56, carpeta313,expediente4;PedroCosiotoLansing,25November1918,WWIRecords,file763.72119/3083,roll 389;JefferytotheSecretaryofState(telegram),24December1918,WWIRecords,file763.72119/3155,roll390; FrankPolktoJeffery(telegram),27December1918,WWIRecords,file763.72119/3155,roll390;PolktoJeffery (telegram),31December1918,WWIRecords,file763.72119/3194,roll390;FRUS1919,TheParisPeace Conference,vol.1(Washington,D.C.:GPO,1942),227.
71 70

FRUS,1919,TheParisPeaceConference,vol.1,313,348,356,393.

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andhisinternationalviews.BuerohadservedintheForeignMinistryandVierahadnamedhim MinsteradinterimwhileBrumtraveledtotheUSandSouthAmericain1918.VarelaAcevedo workedasBatllespersonalsecretaryduringhisfirstterm,brieflyin1907asWillimansfirst foreignminister,thenasaconfidanttoBatlleinEurope;uponreturningfromEurope,he supportedBatllespoliciesintheUruguayanCongress,hisSenatetermjustendedinearly1919. BlancoferriedElihuRootaroundMontevideoin1906,becamePresidentoftheBankofthe Republicin1907,andlaterservedasPublicWorksMinisterduringBatllessecondtermbefore assumingthediplomaticroleinParis.Buero,VarelaAcevedo,andNorguerialeftMontevideo on19FebruaryandmetBlancoinParisinMarch.72 Duringthefirsttwomonths,whiletheBigThreedeterminedEasternEuropean boundaries,colonialstatuses,andGermanreparations,theUruguayandelegationremained relativelysilent.ButinlateAprilduringthedebateovertheadoptionoftheLeagueofNations covenant,BueroaddressedtheconferencesupportingWilsonsproposedorganization.The UruguayandelegatecitedthefactthatUruguaytraditionallysupportedsuchcollectivesecurity arrangementsand,moreover,JosBatlleyOrdoezarticulatedsuchavisionasearlyas1907, whenPresidentClaudioWillimannamedhimasdelegatetotheSecondHagueConference.Ina gestureofgratitude,PresidentWilsonwroteBueroabriefletterthatread,yourstatement wasadmirable.IfullyrecognizetheleadershipwhichUruguayhasshowninallliberalreform

BoletndelMinisteriodeRelacionesExterioresdelRepblicaOrientaldelUruguay7,no.2(February1919):73 74;Vanger,JosBatlleyOrdoezofUruguay,262,267,270;Vanger,TheModelCountry,230,2426;ElNuevo Ministro,ElDa,12July1918;NuestrodelegadosalaConferenciadelaPaz,ElDa,19February1919;Jefferyto theSecretaryofState(telegram),20February1919,WWIRecords,file763.72119/3819,roll392.

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andininternationalcooperationforpeace.BueroimmediatelytelegraphedElDawithnews oftheletter,whichtheeditorsprintedon2May.73 Wilson,nonetheless,didnotneedtosendthebriefnoteastheUruguayandelegation alreadyadvocatedhiscollectivesecurityarrangements.Notsurprisingly,asasmallstate caughtbetweentwolargerstates,bothofwhichhadhistoricallymeddledinitsinternalaffairs repeatedly,Uruguayandelegatesjumpedattheopportunityforoutsideprotectionoftheir sovereignty.ThatUruguaycouldaccomplishthiswithoutrecoursetoonestatemadetheidea muchmoreappealing.Forexample,inOctober1917,shortlyafterbreakingrelations,ElDa editorializedthatanysuchleaguewouldrepresentasafeguardoffuturepeace.74 Therefore,whiletheUruguayandelegationsupportedWilsoninhisLeagueproposaland theBigThreewentaboutremakingtheworld,theUruguayansfocusedmoreonthequestionof thereparationoftheGermanshipstheOrientalRepublicandmanyotherstatesabsconded duringthewar.Towardtheendoftheconference,VarelaAcevedomadeasubstantive contributiontothefinaltreatybywritinganarticlethatexemptedallbelligerentnations, includingthosewhoonlybrokerelationswithGermany,fromanypecuniaryclaimbasedon eventswhichoccurredatanytimebeforethecomingintoforceofthepresentTreaty.The delegatesincludedVarelaAcevedosclauseasarticle439ofthe440articletreaty.The

WilsonyNuestroPais,ElDa,2May1919;TelmoManacorda,ItinerarioyEspritudeJacoboVarela (Montevideo:ImpesoraUruguaya,1950),25960;MargaretMacMillan,Paris,1919:SixMonthsthatChangedthe World(NewYork:RandomHouse,2001),96.ElDamadesimilarobservationsaboutthecongruitiesbetween VersaillesandBatlleseffortsattheHaguein1907.SeeElUruguayylaLigadeNaciones,ElDa,11July1919.

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Lasociedaddenaciones,ElDa,23October1917.

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Uruguayangovernment,therefore,didnotneedtocompensatetheGermangovernmentfor theshipsitoccupiedinSeptember1917.75 OtherthanrhetoricalsupportoftheUSpositionandtextualcontributionstofinal treaty,theconferenceaffordedtheUruguayandiplomatstheopportunitytomeetPresident Wilson,amanwhooccupiedalmostmythicalstatusinUruguayduringthewar.Buero,forone, metWilsonbrieflyon16Mayforfifteenminutes.Later,VarelaAcevedoandWilsonmet momentarilyataninterAmericandinner.There,WilsonpulledtheUruguayanasideand discussedthemeritsofthetreatywithhimforfullyfifteenminutes.VarelaAcevedoregistered differenceswithWilsonssupportofthepartitioningoflandsineasternGermanyandPoland. AccordingtoVarelaAcevedosbiographer,WilsonsprofessorialexpositionchangedVarela AcevedosmindandtheUruguayandiplomatlefttheencounterastonishedandconvincedof Wilsonspositions.76 Finally,thedelegatessignedthetreatyon28June1919,thefifthanniversaryof ArchdukeFranzFerdinandsdeath.Theostentatiousceremonybeganwithguardsescortingthe Germandelegationintosignthehumiliatingtreatyfirst.Afterward,therepresentativesofthe majorpowersaffixedtheirautographs,theUnitedStatesfirst,thenBritainandits dependencies,France,Italy,andJapan.Finally,theminorpowersallsignedinalphabetical order.AfterBuerosignedfortheOrientalRepublicofUruguay,theconferenceclosed;Buero, onbehalfofUruguay,hadthedistinctionofbeingthelastmantoaffixhisnametotheTreatyof

Manacorda,257258;CharlesI.Bevans,ed.,TreatiesandOtherInternationalAgreementsoftheUnitedStatesof America,17761949,vol.2,Multilateral,19181930(Washington,D.C.:GovernmentPrintingOffice,1969),233. FromtheDiaryofDr.Grayson,16May1919,inArthurLink,ed.,ThePapersofWoodrowWilson,vol.59,May 1031,1919(Princeton,NewJersey:PrincetonUniversityPress,1988),186;Manacorda,259260.

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Versailles.AfterwordreachedMontevideoofthetreatysconclusion,ElDaeditorializedthat aneweraisbornfortheworld!77 UnlikeintheUnitedStates,theratificationprocessmetlimitedobstaclesinUruguay.As thepactembodiedmanyoftheinternationalprinciplesUruguayansgenerallyandBatllistas specificallyhelddearcollectivesecurity,theprotectionofsmallstates,andpeaceful arbitrationofdisputestheUruguayangovernmentratifieditratherquickly.Brum,now president,submittedittotheCongresson19September1919.TheChamberofDeputies approveditthesamedayandtheSenateacceptediton15October.On23October1919, Brumpromulgatedit.Thatday,UruguayreestablisheddiplomaticrelationswithGermanyand UruguayjoinedtheLeagueofNations.78 TyingLooseEnds(19201926) ThecompletionofthewarledtomuchselfcongratulationinbothUruguayandthe

UnitedStates.Forexample,whenBrumassumedthepresidencyon1March1919,whilethe delegatesmetatVersailles,UruguayrequestedtheUSnameaspecialambassadortoattend theinaugurationceremonies.LatinAmericanscommonlyengagedinsuchpractice,butthe StateDepartmentfeltsuchappointmentsneedlessandexpensive,preferringinsteadtosendan autographedletterfromtheWhiteHouse.Nonetheless,theStateauthorizedAdmiralCaperton tomakeonelastappearanceinMontevideoforBrumsinauguration,citingWilsons

MacMillan,474478;Bevans,235;Manacorda,261;LaPaz!,ElDa,29June1919.

77 78

BoletndelMinisteriodeRelacionesExterioresdelRepblicaOrientaldelUruguay7,no.10(October1919):743 745;JefferytotheSecretaryofState(telegram),4November1919,WWIRecords,file763.72119/7602,roll392.

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appreciationoftheattitudeassumedbyUruguayin[the]presentwarandnottoberegarded asestablishingprecedent.Brumneverthelessgreatlyappreciatedthegesture,writingWilson IamthegreatestadmirerofyourExcellencysrepublicanvirtuesandthehighworkof reparationinwhichyouareengagedwithyourcountry.79 Evenso,acongratulatorytelegramfromPresidentWilsonuponhisreturntotheUS

fromParisdemonstrateshowlittletheUruguayanamitymeantintheWilsonadministrations mindset.InJuly1919,WilsonmeanttotelegraphthePresidentofParaguaytothankhimfor ParaguayssupportduringthewaranddoubtlesslytoencourageParaguaytoratifythetreaty andjointheLeagueofNations.TheWhiteHouse,despitealltheinteractionwithUruguayans duringthewar,embarrassinglysentatelegramouttoHisExcellency,JosMontero,President ofUruguay,Asuncinexpressingwarmappreciation[of]yourkindmessageoffelicitationon theconclusionofpeace.Surprisingly,nobodydiscoveredthemistakeuntilitreachedthe MexicanTelegraphCompanysBuenosAiresoffice,whichnotifiedtheStateDepartmentofthe potentiallyhumiliatingtelegram.Thedepartmentpromptlycorrectedtheerrorandresentthe messagetoMontevideo.80 Asembarrassingasthetelegramwouldhavebeenifthetelegraphcompanywouldhave

sentitthroughtoParaguay,itpaledincomparisontothelengthofdiplomaticwranglingofthe dispensationoftheexGermanbarks.Infact,solvingtheproblemrepresenteddefining diplomaticdifficultybetweentheUSandUruguayuntilitsdispensationin1926.Accordingto thetermsoftheMay1918contractbetweenUruguayandtheEFC,theleasedidnotenduntil

79

TheActingSecretaryofStatetoJeffery,21February1919,DecimalFile,file833.00/119;BrumtoWilson,5 March1919,DecimalFile,file833.00/120. WilsontoJosMontero,18July1919,WWIRecords,file763.72119/6010a,roll392.

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theUnitedStatesconcludedthewarwithGermany;sincetheUSSenaterefusedtoratifythe TreatyofVersailles,thewarbetweentheUSandGermanydidnotterminateuntilJuly1921 whentheUSsignedseparatepeacetreatieswiththeAxispowerstoendthewarwithout joiningtheLeagueofNations.Assuch,theUruguayanministerwasonhandforthechristening ofSSArtigas(formerlytheWeigand)onHogIsland,PhiladelphiaaslateasMarch1920.81 AftertheUSofficiallyendeditsparticipationinthewarin1921,theUSandUruguay

debatedthecostoftheleaseforfiveyears.Bothsideshaggledbackandforthoverontime versusofftime,thecostofrepairsthatUruguaycompletedbeforeleasingtheships,andthe costofrepairstheEFCfoundnecessarytocompensateforthefailuresofthoseUruguayan repairs.Finally,in1926,theUruguayanministerinWashingtonsuggestedthatbothsideshire anauditortoreviewthebooks.Oncethismancompletedtheaudit,bothsidesagreedto respecthisdecisionandthequestionoftheleaseendedinOctober1926withafinalpayment bytheEFCof300,000Uruguayanpesos.Thereafter,accordingtothetermsofthe1919 WilsonLloydGeorgeAgreement,UruguayturnedoverboatstotheReparationCommission, whichgavethemtoBritaininexchangeforapplyingthecostoftheboatstotheGerman reparationsdebt.82 WartimeCommerce

FrederickLewisAllen,OnlyYesterday:AnInformalHistoryoftheNineteenTwenties(NewYork:Harper& BrothersPublishers,1931),130;JohnBarretttoJacoboVarelaAcevedo,27March1920,AHD/Washington,caja72, carpeta374,expediente7. D.S.MorrisontoVarelaAcevedo,18October1926,AHD/Washington,caja115,carpeta513,expediente4; UruguaytoGiveupSeizedShips,TheNewYorkTimes,20November1926.

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HowdidthewaraffectUSUruguayancommerce?Morethananyotherconsequence,

thewaralteredthecommercialrelationshipbetweentheUnitedStatesandSouthAmerica, Uruguayespecially.AnumberofhistorianshavecorrectlyshownthatduringthewartheUS supplantedBritainastheprinciplesourceofimportstotheSouthernCone.Astraderoutes closed,GermanUboatsdestroyedmerchantvessels,andEuropeangovernmentsfocusedtheir economiesonwarfooting,bothSouthAmericanandNorthAmericanmerchantslookedto alternativemarketsfortheirproducts.83 ThedifficultyofgettinggoodsbetweenSouthAmericaandtheEuropeanmarketdoes

notexclusivelyexplainincreasedUScommercialpenetrationintoSouthAmerica,though.The EFCcharteredboats,forexample,providedthemeanstoincreasetradebetweentheUSand Uruguay.Moreimportantly,boththeWilsonadministrationintheUnitedStatesandthe BatllistasinUruguaysoughttoexacerbatetheeffectsofthewarandbringtheUScloserto SouthAmericaeconomically.Forexample,asearlyashis1912campaignforthepresidency, WilsonadvocatedincreasingtradewithSouthAmerica. Oncehecametopower,Wilsonusedoneofhisfavoritemethodstoencouragehisends:

internationalconsultation.InMay1915,hecalledtogetherdelegatesfrommostofthenations ofthehemispheretowardthefirstPanAmericanFinancialConferenceinWashington.The brainchildofWilsonsadroitTreasurySecretaryandsoninlawWilliamGibbsMcAdoo,the conferenceaimedatregionaleconomicintegration,underUSleadershipofcourse,inlightof commercialdifficultiesthattheEuropeanwaroccasioned.Ininvitingthedelegates,McAdoo

ThemostsuccinctdiscussionofthecommercialeffectofWorldWarIonUSLatinAmericanrelationscanbe foundinEmilyRosenberg,WorldWarIandtheGrowthofUnitedStatesPredominanceinLatinAmerica(NewYork: GarlandPublishing,1987).

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citedthefactthatUnitedStatescreditsmustbesubstituted[forEuropeanones]iftheorderly developmentandprogressofLatinAmericaistocontinue,andifwedesiretoenlargethetrade andfinancialinfluenceoftheUnitedStatesinthesecountries.84 TheVieraadministrationsenttwoofitsbrightestcommercialmindsFinanceMinister CosioandSenatorGabrielTerratojoinwithMinisterMariadePenaandConsulJosRichling astheUruguayandelegationtotheconference.Inhisopeningspeech,Cosiostatedthat Uruguayhasrespondedtothisinvitationprincipallyonaccountofthefeelingofunderstanding andofadmirationwhichthe[North]Americanpeopleandtheirworthyrepresentativesdeserve atthehandsofthepeopleofmycountry.OverthecourseoffivedaysinlateMay,the Uruguayanspromotedabolishingnavigationtaxesandsubsidizingtransportationcompaniesto encouragemoreeffectiveandquickertransitbetweentheUSandSouthAmericaandthat NorthAmericancommercialandbankinginterestsshouldtourCentralandSouthAmerica,just ashadtheBostonChamberofCommercein1913.Aftertheconclusionoftheconference,the delegates,Uruguaysincluded,touredtheUScitiesofPhiladelphia,Pittsburgh,St.Louis, Chicago,Detroit,Buffalo,andBoston.WhilelittletangiblecameoutofthispanAmerican conference,asusual,onesuchbodydidtheInternationalHighCommission,aconsultative bodyofbusinessmenandfinanceministersaimedatloweringtradebarriersandlearned internationalbusinesscustoms.85 Undertheguiseofthisnewcommission,USpolicymakersreciprocatedwitha commercialtouroftheirowntoUruguay;inlateMarchandearlyApril1916,SecretaryMcAdoo
84

Gilderhus,5662;ProceedingsoftheFirstPanAmericanFinancialConferenceConvenedbyAuthorityofthe GovernmentoftheUnitedStatesundertheDirectionoftheHon.WilliamG.McAdoo,SecretaryoftheTreasury (Washington,D.C:GovernmentPrintingOffice,1915),9. ProceedingsoftheFirstPanAmericanFinancialConference,108,150,235236;Gilderhus,6162.

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ledacommissionthatstoppedoffinMontevideoenroutetoBuenosAiresfortheInternational HighCommission.TheUruguayangovernmentpulledoutallthestopsforitsguests,preparing forthesecretaryandsomeofhisentouragetostayinoneofthefinestchaletsinthecitywhile theremainderofthepartywouldstayattheopulentParqueHotel.Batllistasalsomadesure thatthecityremainedorderly.Forexample,BrumintervenedtohaltastrikeattheYankee ownedFrigorficoMontevideothedaybeforeMcAdooarrived.86 ThevisitactuallyconsistedoftwoseparatetoursanearlieronecomposedofUS businessmenandalateronecomprisedofUSpoliticians,includingMcAdoo.Thefirstarrived on20MarchostensiblyinrepaymentforTerraandCosiosvisittotheUSin1915.Itconsisted ofW.E.HinchliffofBursonKnittingCompany,BostonmerchantThomasCrimming,andArthur TeytusoftheNationalCityBankofNewYork.ThemerchantsmettheirUruguayancommercial counterparts,attendedbanquets,visitedthenationscommercialschool,andtouredatextile plantbeforeleavingforBuenosAirestopreparefortheInternationalHighCommission meeting.Asanaside,oneofthemembersofthecommissioninformedtheElDareporter embeddedwiththemthatthecommissionmembersfoundUruguayasplendidcountry,much morethantheywouldhavethoughtit.87 McAdooandthepoliticiansarrivedon30MarchaboardtheUSSTennessee,abouta weekafterthebusinessmenleftforBuenosAires.Hisdelegation,whichincludedSenator DuncanFletcherofFloridaandAssistantSecretaryoftheTreasuryAndrewPetersamong others,arrivedtoanappreciativecrowd.Theythenmadetheirwaytothegovernmentpalace,
86 87

Lasdelegacionesyanquis,ElDa,18March1916.

Lamisincomercialnorteamericana,ElDa,21March1916;LosDelgadosYanquis,ElDa,22March1916; Losdelgadosyanquis,ElDa,23March1916.

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wheretheymetPresidentVieraandbanqueted.Thenextday,theUruguayCluboffereda reception,whichthedelegationfollowedwithatouroftheVeterinarySchoolandthe AgronomicSchoolbeforeleavingwiththeUruguayandelegationfortheInternationalHigh Commissionthatevening.McAdoofailedtopayhisrespectstooneman,Batlle,butwrote afterwardapologizingfortheoversight.88 BoththewarseffectontheEuropeanmarketandMcAdooseffortstoabscondLatin AmericantradeworkedbrilliantlytotheUSadvantage.Forexample,USMinisterNicolay Grevstad,inhislastdaysinoffice,notedaneweconomictrendfairlyearlyintotheEuropean conflict.InOctober1914,hereportedpublicallythatthatwiththesuddenbreakingofthewar cloudinEurope...alleyesturnedtowardtheUnitedStatesbothasasourceofsupplyof necessariesoflifeasamarketforUruguayanproductsshutoutfromthecustomarymarketsin Europe.EvenBritainsassurancesthatLondonwouldkeepshippinglanesopentoSouth Americahasnotmateriallylessenedthenewandlargeropportunitiesforbroadening[North] Americantradeand[North]AmericanserviceinUruguay,thediplomatreported.89 Duringthewar,UStradewiththeOrientalRepublicsignificantlyincreasedinabsolute terms.ThiscontinuedatrendthatbeganinthefirstBatlleadministration(19031907).The conflictexacerbatedthisincrease.Forexample,onaverage,tradebetweenUruguayandthe USintheyearsbetween1910and1914amountedtoatotalof$10.4perannum.Duringthe war,between1915and1918,thatnumberjumpedoverthreefoldto$38.3millionperannum. Whilethewardoubtlesslycatalyzedsuchanincrease,onecannotoverlooktheeffectofthe
Losdelgadosyanquis,ElDa,30March1916;LosdelgadosalaConferenciaFinancieraPanamericana,ElDa, 31March1916;LosdelgadosalaConferenciaFinancieraPanamericana,ElDa,1April1916;Mc.Adooyel seorBatlle,ElDa,19April1916.
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DCTR,27October1914,472.

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1913UnderwoodSimmonstariff;atleastninetyninepercentofUruguayanexportseachyear duringthewarenteredtheUnitedStateswithoutduty,owingtotheirplacementonthetariffs freelist.90 Thewarnotonlyincreasedtradeinabsolutetermsbutprofoundlyaffectedthe commercialrelationshipbetweenthetwocountriesinotherways.First,in1915,theUnited StatesbecametheleadingimporterofgoodsintoUruguayand,moreoftenthannot,itsleading exportmarketforthefirsttime,adistinctionitheldthroughouttherestofthewar.Afterthe war,theUSmaintaineditspositionasUruguaysnumberoneimporter,supplantingtheBritish. Second,theUnitedStatesforthefirsttimeranatradesurpluswithUruguay.Beforethewar, UruguayanditsSouthAmericanneighborssentmoreprimaryproductsadvaloremtothe UnitedStatesthanittookinwithmanufacturedgoods.PresidentWilsonnoticedsuchatrade deficitandencouragedUSmanufacturerstopenetratetheUruguayanmarket.Hesucceeded. Bytheendofthewar,theUnitedStatessoldnearlytwiceasmanygoodstoUruguayasit purchased,creatingatradesurplus.91 Evenso,tradeingoodsdoesnotexplaintheentirestory;theincreasedcommercial interactiontookotherforms.First,directUSinvestmentincreasedinUruguay.Duringthewar, twonewYankeemeatpackingfirmsendowedcoldstorageplants,frigorficos,inUruguayto complementtheextantplantsofSwiftandSulzberger.Thefirstcamein1916,whentheMorris concernestablisheda208acreplantinMontevideo.Thenextyear,Armourpurchasedthe
U.S.DepartmentofCommerce,BureauofForeignandDomesticCommerce,StatisticalAbstractoftheUnited States,vol.49,1926(Washington:GovernmentPrintingOffice,1927),458459;U.S.DepartmentofCommerce, BureauofForeignandDomesticCommerce,StatisticalAbstractoftheUnitedStates,vol.44,1921(Washington: GovernmentPrintingOffice,1922),462. Ibid.;CommerceReports,23March1916,86;ForadiscussionofWilsonscommercialpolicytowardsSouth America,especiallyaftertheUSentranceintothewar,seeGilderhus,101112.
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underconstructionFrigorficoArtigas,whichlocalbusinessmenhadowned,andopeneditin October1917withimportedYankeemachinery.Thus,bytheendofthewar,allfourmajorUS meatfirmshadasubstantialpresenceinUruguay.Thefourdidanexcellentbusiness,as EuropeandemandincreasedforSouthAmericanbeefasEuropeanscouldgetnotcattlefrom Europe.92 OtherUSfirmsnotrelatedtomeatpackingmovedintoUruguayaswell,themost importantofwhichwastheNationalCityBankofNewYork.Intheyearsimmediatelybefore thewar,USbanks,theNationalCityespecially,begancallingforamodificationoftheNational BankActtoallowthemtoopenoverseasbranches,oftencitingtheincreasedUSeconomic activityinSouthAmerica.PresidentWilsonsupportedthisinitiativeasitwouldopenupmore investmentforUSfirmsinforeignmarkets.Thus,inhisfirstyearinoffice,Congressmodified theacttoallowoverseasbranches.NationalCity,oneoftheleadingUSbanks,quicklyopened thefirstforeignbranchofanyUSbankinBuenosAiresinNovember1914.93 CitingthegreatsuccessoftheBuenosAiresbranch,NationalCityexpandedinto Uruguay.InApril1915,theBuenosAiresbranchplannedanextensionintoMontevideo.InJuly 1915,aftermonthsofnegotiations,theVieraadministrationprovisionallyapprovedaNational CitybranchinMontevideo.InAugust,theUruguayanCongressgranteditapermanent concession.Thebranch,locatedatthecornerofCalle25deMayoandCalleZabala,opened thedoorfurtherforUSinvestmentandeconomictiestotheUruguay.Forexample,fromthis
DawnMay,MultinationalCorporationsintheInternationalBeefTrade,inRobertDare,ed.,Food,Power,and Community:EssaysintheHistoryofFoodandDrink(KentTown,SouthAustralia:WakefieldPress,1999),196; DCTR,23March1916,881;Lacrisiseuropeaynuestraganadera,ElDa,26March1916;FrigorficoArtigas, MontevideoTimes,4July1918. HaroldvanB.ClevelandandThomasF.Huertas,Citibank,18121970(Cambridge,Massachusetts:Harvard UniversityPress,1985),7879.
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branchinFebruary1916,NationalCityloanedtheUruguayangovernment$646,375atsix percentinterest.TheMontevideobranchrepresentedacalculatedmoveonthepartof NationalCitytomoveintoLatinAmerica;bytheendof1917,ithadbranchesinHavana,So Paolo,Santos,RiodeJaniero,Valparaiso,andSantiagodeChileinadditiontoitsBuenosAires andMontevideolocations.94 Otherthanbanks,USfirmsbroughttheautomobiletoUruguayduringthewar.For example,asearlyas1916,theUSfirmStudebakerhadanagentinMontevideo,theCoates Hermanos,andadvertisedinElDathatitsautomobilescouldtreadthetreacherousinterior roadsofUruguay.Moreimportantly,FordMotorCompanyalsoopenedasalesroomandeven afactorypresenceinUruguayduringthewar.Fordhadinternationallocationssince1904,the yearafterthecompanysfounding,whenFordshorselesscarriagestraversedtheroadsof CanadaandEurope,throughthefirmssubsidiaryinGreatBritain.Citingthissuccess,Fordsent EllisHamptontoSouthAmericatoopensalesbranches,includingoneinUruguay,in1913. Duringthewar,FordsbusinessintheOrientalRepublicexpandedprecipitously.ByFebruary 1921,FordofUruguayownedthreefactories,oneofwhichservedasasalesroom,in Montevideo.IntheUruguayaninterior,Fordretainedsalesagentsineverymajorcity.Unlike Studebaker,whichexportedautomobilestoUruguay,FordproducedtheminMontevideo;El DareportedMontevideosFordfactorytohavereadyastockof4000carsforsaleatanytime. Throughoutthe1920s,thecarcrazegrewinUruguayandby1927someestimatedthatninety

ClevelandandHuertas,79;LosCapitalesYanquis,ElDa,10April1915;ElNationalCityBankofNewYork,El Da,11June1915;TheNationalCityBanck[sic],ElDa,7July1915;ElNationalCityBank,ElDa,8July1915; ElNationalCityBank,ElDa,20July1915;TheNationalCityBankofNewYork[advertisement],ElDa,14 June1916;DCTR,7February1916,523.

94

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fivepercentofallcarsonUruguayanroads,whichUSfirmsgenerallypaved,wereNorth American.95 GiventhisincreaseintradeandinvestmentduringWorldWarI,Uruguayan policymakersnotsurprisinglynoticedveryearlyintheconflicthowmuchUScapitalhad protrudedintotheircountry.Shortlyafterthestartoftheconflict,MinisterMariadePenain WashingtonnotedanaugmentedpropagandaamongstthemajorUSnewspaperstoamplify tradewithSouthAmericaasthewarinhibitedEuropeanmarkets.TheenlargedUSeconomic activityledtheministertowriteinJanuary1915thatoperationsthatwerenotpossibleayear agowillbepossibleinaveryshorttime,owingtothebettermentof[Uruguays]improved financialandeconomicconditions.By1916,ElDaeditorializedoneconomicchange,noting thatUStradenowpredominatedintheUruguayaneconomyinlightofitsabilitytosupply necessitiesthatUruguaycouldnolongergetfromEurope.96 Laterinthewar,nonetheless,Uruguayanpoliticalleadersdoubtedthedurabilityofsuch interactionaftertheworldseconomyreturnedtonormal.Forexample,inForeignMinister Brum,despitehisYankeephilia,questionediftheincreasedUSUruguayantradewouldremain atsuchhighlevelsoncethewarconcludedandEuropereturnedtoprewareconomiclevels. Brumwondered,inshort,iftheUnitedStateshastheindustrialandcommercialstrengthto continueitsruninUruguay.97
EnunStudebaker,ElDa,14May1916;MarieCahill,AHistoryoftheFordMotorCompany(NewYork: Smithmark,1992),93,97;DouglasBrinkley,WheelsfortheWorld:HenryFord,HisCompany,andaCenturyof Progress,19032003(NewYork:Viking,2003),202203;ElFordenelUruguay,ElDa,27February1921;Edward OBrientoRoyD.Chapin,7March1927,DecimalFile,file833.154/23.
96 95

MariadePenatoBrum,18August1914,AHD/Washington,caja28,carpeta195,expediente,7;Laindustria norteamericana,ElDa,4January1916;MariadePenatoBrum,21January1915,AHD/Washington,caja35, carpeta224,expediente2. BrumtoMariadePena,5February1917,AHD/Washington,caja43,carpeta255,expediente13.

97

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Insuchskepticism,Brumfoundhimselfincorrect.Throughoutthe1920s,Yankee merchantsremainedtheprincipaleconomicforceinUruguay.TheBritishdidnotregaintheir commercialsupremacyasNorthAmericastoodoutastheprincipalimporterinUruguay.Such aconditionironicallycontributedsignificantlytoadeclineinUSUruguayanrelationsinthat decade. TheContinuanceofUruguayanReform Owingtotheeconomicdislocationsofthewar,BatlleandVierafoundithardto

continuethereformsthathadsocharacterizedtheyearspriortoArchdukeFranzFerdinands death.Duringtheperiodofneutrality,forexample,theadministrationstinkeredwithpublic educationbuildingitverymuchontheUSmodel.Atthesametime,Uruguaysentatleastone experttotheUStostudyengineeringworks,thoughnoevidenceexiststhattheUruguayan governmentcontractedanyNorthAmericanexperts.Finally,whilemostreformsstoppedin lightoftheUSandUruguayanentranceintothewarin1917,onedidnottheBatllistaanti alcoholicprogram,whichreceivedconsiderablestimulationfromtheUSreformsociety,the WomansChristianTemperanceUnion(WCTU). ThefurtheranceofpubliceducationappealedtoBatlleandmanyLatinAmerican

liberals.Ononehand,thisresultedfrompoliticalpragmatismonthepartofBatlle establishingschoolsundertheguiseofthegovernmentunderminedtheestablishedChurch supportedinstitutions.Evenso,Batllealsosupportededucationforitsintrinsicvalue;for example,inhispoliticalprogramof1911,Batllestatedthatwecannotbeoutstandingbecause 185

ofsize,norcanweordowewanttodistinguishourselvesbyourarmedforce;butwecan,ifwe will,doourselvesproudbytheintensityandbrillianceofourculture.Therefore,during Batllessecondterm(19111915),heestablishedpreparatoryschools(liceos)ineachof Uruguaysnineteendepartments,awomansuniversityinMontevideo,andabolishedtuition forsecondaryschoolstudents.BythetimeBatlleleftofficeinMarch1915,theschool populationdoubledvisvisthenumberathis1903inauguration.98 Afterleavingoffice,BatlleagitatedthroughElDathatVieracontinuehiseducational

reformsand,insodoing,citedexplicitlytheUSmodel.Inlate1915,ElDaranaseriesof editorialsextollingtheUSprimaryeducationalsystem,desiringthatUruguayadoptmanyofits Progressiveideas.Forexample,on2November,thedailyadvocatedaprogramprevalent throughouttheUnitedStatestogivestudentsmoresayinschooldecisions.Tendayslater, anothereditorialarticulatedanargumentformoreopenaireducationandnotedthatevenin thelargestUScities,studentshavethespacetolearnoutdoors.On9December,ElDa supportedtheUSsystemofparentalinteractionwithteachersforthebettermentofthe students.On14December,itnotedthatintheUnitedStates,aschoolisthenaturalcenterof popularcultureintheUnitedStates.A22Decembereditorialevengavecredencetohome schooling,questioningcannotweaspiretobroketheoldmoldsinwhichourCatholicand Jesuiteducationalsystemwasfounded,tosubstituteforthemtheseprestigiousmodelsof contemporarylife,intheirhighesteducativeexpression?AChristmas1915editorialnoted thatparentalclubssocommonintheUS,namelyMothersClubs,werequitepracticaland

98

Vanger,TheModelCountry,157160,338339.

186

quiteworthyofbeingimitatedinourmedium.Finally,on28December,aneditorialpromoted theuseofpublicconferences,popularinNewYork,tobringlearningtothegeneralpublic.99 WhileBatllearticulatedhisargumentsforeducation,theVieraadministrationprepared

tosendanengineertotheUnitedStatestostudyNorthAmericanmanufacturingfeats.Of course,thebidirectionalexchangeofexpertsYankeescomingsouthtoadviseortorun BatllesnewstateenterprisesandOrientalsheadingnorthtostudyNorthAmericanadvances characterizedtheperiodbetween1906and1914.Thewarunderminedsuchtravel,asGerman uboatsthreatenedtheAtlanticOceanandmonetaryresourcestightened. Thus,whilenoevidencedemonstratesthatanynewUSexpertscamedowntoUruguay duringthewar,atleastoneUruguayanexpertheadednorthonthegovernmentspeso.Inmid 1916,JuanRivaZuchellitouredtheUnitedStatesfortheexaminationoftheresistanceof constructionmaterialsfordrainageprojectsinSalto,Paysand,andMercedes,allUruguayan interiorcities.RivaZuchellivisitedNewYorkCity,Chattanooga,Memphis,andBirmingham beforereturninghome.AteachUSlocation,localengineersinvitedhimintoinspectfactories, dams,andretainingwallstoencourageUruguayanuseofYankeeproductsintheirdrainage endeavors.100 Boththeeducationalreformandtheengineeringexpertoccurredduringtheneutrality

period(19147),whenactiveparticipationinthewardidnotdistractUruguayanleaders;one reformlastedthroughthewar:antialcoholism.Unlikemanyothertransformationstheperiod,
Cuestionesescolares,ElDa,2November1915;Cuestionesescolares,ElDa,12November1915; Cuestionesescolares,ElDa,9December1915;Cuestionesescolares,ElDa,14December1915;Cuestiones escolares,ElDa,22December1915;Cuestionesescolares,ElDa,25December1915;Cuestionesescolares, ElDa,28December1915. PorAmrica,ElDa,26April1916;PorAmrica,ElDa,11May1916;PorAmrica,ElDa,19May1916; PorAmrica,ElDa,30May1916.
100 99

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thefightagainstKingAlcoholdidnotcomefromthetopdown,butinsteadbubbledupfrom below,specificallytheeffortsoftheUSbasedWCTU.Foundedinthe1874,theWCTUinitially focusedonmakingtheUnitedStatesadrycountrybutin1884,itdecidedtoaugmentitsefforts internationallythroughthefoundingofthesubsidiaryorganization,theWorldwideWomans ChristianTemperanceUnion(WWCTU).InUruguay,areformistadministrationandlocalallies, includingtheLigaNacionalcontraelAlcoholismo,whichaffiliatedwiththeWWCTU,the vegetarianLigaPopularAntiAlcohlica,andtheLigaAntialcoholistadelUruguay,allofwhich hadsimilargoals,aidedtheWWCTUcause.Moreover,prominentUruguayanwomen populatedthesegroups,includingPresidentVierasdaughter.TheWWCTUsentamissionary, MassachusettsbornArgentineresidentCarrievanDomselaar,toaidtheseUruguayan groups.101 Nonetheless,theWCTUanditsprohibitionistalliesmetlittlesuccessuntilthearrivalof

HardyniaK.Norvillein1915.NorvillehadstudiedthemannerinwhichNewYorkchurches successfullyconvertednonChristiansandconvincedherselfthatsuchmethodswouldprove usefulinpreachingthegospelofsobrietyoverseas.In1914,shereachedArgentinaandthe followingyear,firstvisitedUruguay.InMontevideo,shenotedthat,whenshemetwithkey Batllistaleaders,shereceivedareadywelcome.102 Undeniably,shortlyafterNorvillesarrival,Uruguayanstookuptheprohibitionistcause. Forexample,inAugust1915,MinisterofPublicWorksJuanCarlosBlancowrotearesolutionin

JackS.Blocker,DavidM.Fahey,andIanR.Tyrrell,AlcoholandTemperanceinModernHistory:AnInternational Encyclopedia(SantaBarbara,California:ABCCLIO,2003),694695;TheDepartureoftheW.C.T.U.Peregrinators, UnionSignal,24March1921;PeregrinationsoftheW.C.T.U.Pilgrims,UnionSignal,14July1921. WorldsW.C.T.U.Notes,UnionSignal,18February1915;CongressonChristianWorkinLatinAmerica, ChristianWorkinLatinAmerica:BeingtheReportsofCommissionsPresentedtotheCongressonChristianWorkin LatinAmerica,Panama,February,1916(NewYork:TheMissionaryEducationMovement,1917),328.
102 101

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whichhesoughttoprohibittheconsumptionofalcoholicbeveragesbylighthousepersonnel andministrysailors.Blancojustifiedtheactionbycitingthatduringhisfrequentreconossaince missionstoministrylighthousesandministryboats,heoftenfoundmendrunk,resultingin unnecessaryhazardstonavigation.Moreover,on30October1915,theLigaAntialcoholistadel UruguayheldalargerallyintheTeatroSolsatwhichNorvillespoke.103 Batllistasalsotookupalcoholasapoliticalcauseatthesametime.Forexample,on2 November,FinanceMinisterPedroCosioproposedalawtolicensethesaleofalcohol,whichEl Dacalledasocialplague.Cosioadvocatedcharging150pesosperlicense,whichwould allowalcoholsalesonlybefore9pm,atwhichtimeallbarswouldclose.Suchaprogram replacedextantlaw,inwhichlicensesweremuchcheaperandallowedallnightsales.Cosio calledhisplanradicalplanbutcitedtheeffectofhistravelstotheUnitedStatesearlierinthe yearaspartofthePanAmericanFinancialConference.IntheUS,thefactthatnobodydrank ontheclosequartersofatrainandthatSecretaryofStateBryanservedonlyfruitjuice substantiatedCosiosopinionsonthealcoholmatter.104 Finally,NorvillespropagandizingresultedintheVieraadministrationproposinga

prohibitionistlawon3November1915.Thebilldisallowedthesaleofalcoholinpublicspaces, includingports,parks,promenades,theaters,movingpictureshows,gamblinghouses,and railways.Itfurtherbannedcompletelythesaleofabsinthe,apopulartargetoftheWCTUthat theUShadbannedin1912,andanyalcoholtoondutysoldiersandpolice.Finally,itoffered taxincentivestoestablishmentsthatdidnotsellalcohol.Inhismessageaccompanyingthebill,

103 104

Contraelusodelalchol,ElDa,31August1915;Propogandaantialcoholista,ElDa,31October1915; Campaaantialcohlica,ElDa,3November1915.

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VieraexplicitlycitedtheongoingprohibitionistcampaignsinEuropeandNorthAmericaas antecedents.105 JefferyspecificallycreditedNorvilleforthislegislativeact.HewrotetoWashingtonthat thebillisveryprobablytheoutgrowthofanagitationalongthelinesoftheprohibitionist movementintheUnitedStates.Specifically,Jefferyexplainedthatitoweditsoriginstothe workofMissHardyniaK.Norville,anAmericanmissionaryoftheWomens[sic]Christian TemperanceUnionwhohasworkedinUruguaytoarousepopularsentimentonthisquestion. Jefferycalledthebillalongstepinadvancefromtheprohibitionpointofview,especiallyin lightoftheimportanteconomicintereststhatitaffectedintheliquortraffic.106 Thebill,nonetheless,languishedintheCongressduringthewarbutthesuccessofthe

prohibitionistsintheUS,viz.theJanuary1919ratificationoftheEighteenthAmendment,re inauguratedthedebateinUruguay.Forexample,ElDaeditorializedthatthepassageofthe amendmentrepresentedthemostimportantvictoryobtainedupuntilnowintheworldbythe antialcoholiclobby,whoseworkinotherareashaveachievednotablesuccesses.Withthe passingoftheamendmentandtheenablingVolsteadActinOctober1919,theUruguayan Congressagaintookuptheantialcoholicmatter.Finally,theUruguayangovernmentpassed the1915prohibitionbillintolawwithlittlemodification,notablyaddingtothelistofbanned customerswomenandchildren,inMay1920,sixmothsafterNorthAmericaofficiallywent dry.107

105

JefferytotheSecretaryofState,6November1915,DecimalFile,file833.114/2;Lacampaaantialcohlica,El Da,4November1915. JefferytotheSecretaryofState,6November1915,DecimalFile,file833.114/2. DryCampaigninUruguay,TheNewYorkTimes,20May1920;Laguerraalalcohol,ElDa,28May1919;

106 107

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DuringtheGreatWar,relationsbetweentheUnitedStatesandUruguaypeaked.The

Uruguayans,morethananyotherthreat,fearedtheGermancolonyinsouthernBrazil.Seeing theGermansthereasindependentoftheBrazilianstateandwronglyasmindlessautomated machineswhowouldactattheKaisersorders,Uruguayanpolicymakers,especiallyproYankee ForeignMinisterBaltasarBrum,articulatedapanAmericanrhetoriccompatiblewithWoodrow Wilsonsideas.Likewise,UruguayanauthoritiesalsoactedinsupportoftheUnitedStates.For example,theybrokediplomaticrelationswiththeGermanempireinOctober1917,absconding eightGermanshippingvesselsandleasingthemtotheEmergencyFleetCorporation,aswellas supportingWilsonsLeagueofNationsatVersailles. Therelationship,asexpected,broughtUruguaybenefits.AdmiralCapertonsvisits

servedbothassymbolicactsbutalsocautiouswarningstothefearedGermansboththe colonyinsouthernBrazilandtheEuropeanbasedUboatsofthecounterthreatthataUS navalsquadronpresented.BrumvisitedtheUSinAugust1918,thehighestrankingUruguayan policymakertodosouptothattime.Likewise,UruguayanactionsresultedinUSsupportfor theOrientalRepublictoattendthepeaceconference.ThoughtheUruguayandelegationat Versailles,likemanydelegationsfromthesmalleralliedstates,hadlittleimpactonthe negotiations,itspresencenonethelesssignaledthediplomaticimportanceofthestate, especiallyvisvisotherlessdevelopedstatesthatdidnotofficiallyattend. Giventheimportantpoliticalanddiplomaticdimensionsofthewar,commerceand

reformismtookabackseatinUSUruguayanrelationsbetween1914and1919.Nonetheless,in bothareas,dominanttrendscontinued.Forexample,theUSexpandedcommerciallyinthe OrientalRepublic,becomingthestatesleadingimporterandreversingaprewartradedeficit, 191

bothconditionsoutlastedthewarandwouldleadtoimportantconsequencesinthe1920s. Moreover,USinvestmentinUruguaycontinuedasmoreUSmeatpackersbuiltfrigorficosand otherYankeeindustries,mostnotablybankingandautomobiles,setupbranchesin Montevideo. Reformism,owingtotheeconomicdislocationsofthewarandthechangein

administrationsfromBatlletoVieraabated.NonotableUSexpertscamedownduringthe war.Nonetheless,ElDastilllookedtotheUnitedStatestomodifyitsschoolsystem.Veira sentanengineertostudyUSdrainagesystems.Finally,theantialcoholiclobby,whichthe WCTUsHardyniaK.Norvillecatalyzed,succeededinmakingUruguayabitlesswet. IfWorldWarIrepresentedthezenithofUSUruguayanrelations,theydeclined

precipitouslyinthe1920s.Inmanyrespects,thecommercialpenetrationofwar,theunfulfilled implicitpromisesofWilsonianism,andthelooseningofBatllesholdonthestatecausedthis plunge.Inotherwords,whilethewaropenedthedoorformuchcloserties,itseffectsinthe 1920swouldleadtothenadirofrelationsduringthepocadeBatlle.

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Chapter6:TheUnitedStatesandUruguayinthe1920s Thedecadeofthe1920smarkedthedeclineofUSUruguayanrelations.Though relationsstartedoffwell,comingoffasuccessfulwarandovertenyearsofupbeatrelations, owingtodomesticchangesinboththeUnitedStatesandinternationaleconomicforces, relationsdeclinedsteadilyoverthetenyears.Indeed,by1926,USMinisterinMontevideo UlyssesGrantSmithreportedtotheDepartmentofStatethatevenBaltasarBrum,the YankeephilewhohadopenedUruguaytoUSinterestsbeforeandduringtheworldwar,spoke privatelytothediplomatexpressingcriticismsofourpolicywhichhemadeinatoneindicating somethingofbothofregretandanxiety.1 Whilethecollapseinrelationscharacterizedthedecade,somebrightspotsdidappear tocheckertheotherwisegloomyrelationship.Forstarters,twoeventsimmediatelyafterthe warbroughthopethatthewartimeamitycouldcontinuethenamingofJacoboVarela AcevedoasUruguayanMinistertotheUnitedStatesandthevisitofSecretaryofState BainbridgeColby.BothactionsbuiltonWilsonianeragoodwillthatemphasizedPanAmerican cooperationandprotectionofsmallstates. AfterMarch1921,suchaneranolongerexisted;thesetwoeventsatthestartofthe decadecouldnotpreventrisinganimositybetweenthetwostatesinthemiddleyearsofthe 1920s.Certainly,therapiddeclineinrelationsafterWoodrowWilsonleftofficeoweditselfto threecauses.First,theconservative,xenophobic,andisolationistmoodthatpervadedthe
UlyssesGrantSmithtotheSecretaryofState,28September1926,DepartmentofState,DecimalFileofthe DepartmentofState,RecordGroup59,NationalArchivesandRecordsAdministration[hereafterDecimalFile],file 711.33/5.
1

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UnitedStatesanditsRepublicanleadersinthe1920srevisedhowNorthAmericansviewed Uruguayanliberalism.Second,after1916,Batllegraduallylostpoliticalpowertoconservative Blancosandradicalcommunists,bothofwhichdistrustedtheUnitedStatesalbeitfordifferent reasons.Third,theincreasedeconomicpositionofUncleSaminUruguaymeantthathe,rather thanJohnBull,becamethetargetofeconomicnationalists,includingsomeBatllistas. Evenso,duringthemiddleyears,asBatllistascontinuedtotreadtheavenuesofreform, theystilllookedtocertainsectorsoftheYankeerepublic.NorthAmericanProgressives,of course,wereoutofpowerbyMarch1921,butnongovernmentalorganizationssuchasthe WomensChristianTemperanceandvariousfeministorganizationsaidedBatllistasin continuingtheirreforms.Finally,theendofthedecadebroughtftboldiplomacyan Uruguayanteams1927soccertourandUSaidinlandingthe1930WorldCupforUruguay andtraditionaldiplomaticmeansPresidentelectHerbertHoovers1928visitinanattempt torestorefriendlyrelations. Hope(19191920) ThelastyearsoftheWoodrowWilsonadministrationbroughthopeforUSUruguayan relationsontwofrontsthenamingofJacoboVarelaAcevedoasUruguayanministertothe UnitedStatesandthevisitofSecretaryofStateBainbridgeColbytoMontevideoin1920. ThoughPresidentWilsonsufferedastrokewhilecampaigningforratificationoftheVersailles TreatyinSeptember1919andfoundhimselfbedriddenmostofthisperiod,thegoodwillhe builtinUruguayduringhiseightyearsinofficelastedthroughhisincapacity.Likewise,the 194

residualamityofasuccessfulwarandthe1919electionofproNorthAmericanPresident BaltasarBrum(19191923)auguredhopeforUSUruguayanrelationsintothe1920s.The effectsofVarelaAcevedosappointmentandColbysvisit,nevertheless,provedephemeral. JacoboVarelaAcevedohadsolidBatllistacredentials.DuringBatllesfirstterm(1903 1907),theyoungmanhadservedasBatllesprivatesecretary.WhenBatlleleftoffice, PresidentClaudioWilliman(19071911)namedhimForeignMinisterinMarch1907.Inthis post,nonetheless,VarelaAcevedodidnotlastlong,resigninghisportfolioinNovember1907 fortooforcefullyrecommendingtheruptureofrelationswithArgentinaovermaritimeborder definitions.Thereafter,hetraveledtoEuropetobewithBatlle,wherehefellinlovewithmost everylocationhevisited.Whenhecompletedthatpersonalduty,heservedasadeputyand senatorinMontevideo.InbothCongressionalhouses,VarelaAcevedosupportedan overwhelmingnumberofBatllistainitiatives,butbrokewithhispartybossovertheissueofthe collectiveexecutive,whichdoubtlesslycosthimalucrativecabinetpost.AsVarelaAcevedos senatorialtermexpired,PresidentViera(19151919)namedhimaspartoftheUruguayan delegationtoVersailles.WhenthedelegatesatVersaillescompletedtheirdutiesinJune1919, newPresidentBrum(19191923)namedVarelaAcevedotoheadtheUruguayanlegationin Washington.VarelaAcevedoreplacedPedroCosio,whohadservedbarelyayearbetween 1918and1919andhadtoreturnhometoassumeapostonthenewNationalAdministrative Council,discussedlater.VarelaAcevedoservedmuchlongerthanCosio,finishinghistermin Washingtonin1934.2
MiltonVanger,TheModelCountry:JosBatlleyOrdoezofUruguay,19071915(Hanover,NewHampshire: UniversityPressofNewEngland,1980),267;TelmoManacorda,ItinerarioyEspritudeJacoboVarela (Montevideo:ImpesoraUruguaya,1950),31,33,6163,85,99,131,253,303;JacoboVarelaAcevedotoClaudio Williman,1June1909,ArchivoGeneraldelaNacin,ArchivosParticulares,ClaudioWilliman[hereafterWilliman
2

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VarelaAcevedosfifteenyearlongstationinginWashingtonmeantthatastaunch BatllistaandYankeephile,generallyignorantorimmunefromtheantiNorthAmericanismthat prevailedathomethroughoutthe1920s,representedUruguayinWashington.Inotherwords, VarelafoundhimselfstuckintheWilsonerawhileUSUruguayanrelationsdeteriorated. Indeed,uponmeetingatVersaillesin1919andagaininWashingtoninMay1920,Wilsonvery muchimpressedVarelaAcevedoasastatesmenandasadiplomat.Afterthewar,Varela AcevedoseeminglydidnotadjusttopostWilsonianrealities.3 Thus,duringthe1920s,VarelaAcevedocontinuedtreatingtheWarrenHarding(1921 1923),CalvinCoolidge(19231929),andHerbertHoover(19291933)administrationsasifthey actedunderWilsonianparadigmsofcooperation,respect,democracy,andmostimportantly, PanAmericanism.Forexample,thediplomatprivatelyadvocatedthattheUSremoveits troopsfromtheDominicanRepublic,citingtheeffectitwouldhaveonWesternHemispheric amity,despitethefactthatWashingtonseemednotinclinedtodoso.InthePanAmerican Union,anorganizationtheRepublicanslargelyignored,VarelaAcevedoservedasVice President.Later,herepresentedUruguayasadelegatetotheSeventhAmericanConferencein Havanain1928.There,hegaveaspeechinwhichheassertedthattheUnitedStatesarenot onlyamarvelofindustrialorganization...butalsoaprodigiouscountrythatgavetheworld themodeloffreeinstitutionsandlatertheinventionsofthegeniusEdison,[and]thewingsof theWrightbrothersandofLindberg.ThatsuchwordscamefromadiplomatfromUruguay,a countrywhereinprotestors,politicians,andtheproletariatwerethenattackingNorthAmerican
MSS],caja309;VarelaAcevedotoWilliman,27July1909,WillimanMSS,caja310;DelDr.VarelaAcevedo,ElDa (Montevideo)[hereafterElDa],13March1913.
3

Manacorda,2678.

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interests,surelysurprisedtheaudience.Nonetheless,itdemonstrateshowoutoftouchthe UruguayanministerinWashingtonwaswitheventsintheOrientalRepublicbut,atthesame time,probablylessenedtheanimositybetweenthetwostates.4 TheyearaftertheUruguayanForeignMinistrysentVarelaAcevedotoWashington, SecretaryofStateBainbridgeColbytouredMontevideo.ColbytookovertheStateDepartment inMarch1920,afterPresidentWilsonaskedforandreceivedtheresignationofRobertLansing, owingtodifficultiesbetweenthemeninVersaillesandoverMexicanpolicy.Colby,a progressiveandafirmsupporterofWilson,provedhimselfableandadroitineffortsto furthertheamitythatthattheWilsonadministrationhadbuiltduringhiseightyearsinoffice.5 Tothatend,WilsonaskedhisnewSecretaryofStateinautumn1920tomakeagoodwill tourofBrazil,Uruguay,andArgentinaafterdecidingthatsendingGeneralJohnBlackjack Pershingwouldparlaythewrongmessage.Ostensibly,Colbyaimedtorepaythediplomatic visits,inthesteadoftheailingPresidentWilson,ofUruguayanForeignMinister,nowPresident, Brumin1918andBrazilianPresidentEpitcioPessoain1919.Inreality,Wilsonsfailureto convincetheDemocraticPartytorenominatehiminJuly1920,thusmakinghimalameduck, doubtlesslyinfluencedhischoice.Colbysvisitthen,servedasthelasthurrahofWilsonsPan Americanvision.6

4 5

Manacorda,275,289291

MarkGilderhus,PanAmericanVisions:WoodrowWilsonintheWesternHemisphere,19131921(Tucson:The UniversityofArizonaPress,1986),153154. U.S.DepartmentofState,ForeignRelationsoftheUnitedStates,[hereafterFRUS]1920.vol.1.(Washington,DC: GPO,1935),229230;DanielM.Smith,BainbridgeColbyandtheGoodNeighborPolicy,19201921,Mississippi ValleyHistoricalReview50,no.1(June1963):72.

6

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InboththeUSandUruguay,positivitygreetedthenewsofColbysvisit.MinisterRobert JefferytelegraphedtheStateDepartmentthatPresidentBrumandhisgovernmentwillbe greatlypleasedandfeelhighlyhonoredbythevisit.TheNewYorkTimes,likewise,calledthe tripthemostpretentioustripundertakensinceRoots1906tour.7 SecretaryofStateColbyleftNorfolkon4December1920aboardtheUSSFloridaand, afterafivedaystayinBrazil,arrivedinMontevideoon28Decemberforafourdaystay.Upon landing,thecitygreetedColbyenthusiastically,beingdecoratedwithflagsinhonorofthe Americans.ColbysfirstspeechlikewiseappealedtotheBatllistaliberals,inasmuchashe notedhowhealwaysthoughtabout[Uruguay]asaveryprogressiveandprosperouscountry. Overthecourseofthefourdays,Colbymadethestandarddiplomatroundswatchedparades, attendedbanquets,metwithimportantpoliticians,gavekeynoteaddresses,andattendedballs muchashispredecessorRootdidin1906.Ofnote,on29December,Colbybecamethefirst foreignertoaddressajointsessionoftheUruguayancongress.OnNewYearsEve1920,Colby receivedaUruguayanflagfromthemunicipalauthoritiesbeforedepartingtheUruguayan capitalforBuenosAires.8 VisvishissubsequentvisittoBuenosAires,MontevideowelcomedColbywarmly, accordingtotheNewYorkTimescorrespondent.WhenColbyarrivedinMontevideoharbor, thecorrespondentnotedthatUruguayisasecondAmerica.Thepeoplearelikeoursandhave thesameaspirationsandpoliticalaims.Therefore,hecontinued,President[Brum]and[the]
7 8

FRUS,1920.VolI,230;ColbySoontoGotoSouthAmerica,TheNewYorkTimes,10November1920.

LallegadadeMr.Colby,ElDa,29December1920;SecretaryColbyReachesUruguay,TheNewYorkTimes, 29December1920;Mr.ColbyenMontevideo,ElDa,30December1920;MontevideoTakesColbyintoIts Arms,TheNewYorkTimes,30December1920;Mr.ColbyenMontevideo,ElDa,31December1920;Uruguay PresentsColbywithaFlag,TheNewYorkTimes,1January1921;PartidadeMr.Colby,ElDa,2January1921.

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peoplearesympatheticwithAmerica,consequentlythepartyofSecretaryofStateColbyhas hadthemostenthusiasticreceptiongivenatanyplaceduringthetrip.WhenColbysparty arrivedinArgentina,wheretheHiplitoYrigoyengovernmentfailedtosupportardentlytheUS wareffortandonlybegrudginglyacceptedtheColbymissionatthelastminute,theTimes correspondentnotedthatanabsenceofpopularenthusiasmmetColby,withonlyafew hundredpeople,mostNorthAmericans,attheport.ThewriterattributedthistoArgentine arrogance,theUSpassageoftheEmergencyTariffBill,theArgentinereactiontoUS imperialism,andtheprominenceoftheGermanelementintherepublic.9 WhateffectdidColbysvisithaveonUSUruguayanrelations?PresidentBrum,forone, informedWilsonthatthetripshowedhowtruethebondsofmutualesteemwhich traditionallybindourtwocountries.ColbycitedtheutmostfriendliestfortheUnitedStates amongthethreestateshevisited,especiallyforthepoliciesofPresidentWilson.TheNewYork TimescommentedthattheMontevideostoprepresentedatremendoussuccess.Historian DanielM.Smith,echoingthenewspaper,arguedthat,aspartofColbysLatinAmericanpolicy, thevisitenvisagedtheGoodNeighborPolicyofthenextDemocrattooccupytheWhiteHouse. WhileMontevideoreactedenthusiasticallytoColbysvisit,Smithsinterpretationoverplaysthe truenatureofthejourney:alastgaspgoodwillgesturefromalameduckpresidentthat appreciatedLatinAmericaandespeciallyUruguaybuthadlittlebearingonfuturerelations, whichthreeRepublicanadministrationswoulddetermine.10
MontevideoTakesColbyintoItsArms,TheNewYorkTimes,30December1920;ArgentiniansCoolto SecretaryColby,TheNewYorkTimes,2January1921. FRUS,1920.VolI,234;U.S.MotivesCleartoSouthAmerica,TheWashingtonPost,28January1921; ArgentiniansCooltoSecretaryColby,TheNewYorkTimes,2January1921;Smith,56.
10 9

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Decline(19211927) ThesetwoeventsVarelaAcevedosappointmentandColbysvisitoccurredin1919 and1920,thelastyearsoftheWilsonpresidency;after1921,relationsdeterioratedgradually butsignificantly.Bythelate1920s,YankeediplomatsinMontevideonotedhowprofoundly UruguayanelitesdistrustedNorthAmericans.Forexample,in1926,theUSMinisterUlysses GrantSmithnoticedadeepprejudiceagainsttheUnitedStatesinUruguay.TheArchbishop ofMontevideoconfidentiallyexpressedtotheUSministerin1928thathefelttheUS governmentfundedProtestantmissionariestoundermineUruguayanindependence,an accusationthediplomatdeniedfervently.Thatsameyear,GrantSmithwrotethathelivedina semihostileatmosphereinMontevideoowingtothepopulacesdistrustoftheYankees.11 HowdidUSUruguayanrelations,whichhadbeensoclosebeforeandduringthewar, deterioratesofastinthe1920s?First,astheProgressiveEraendedintheUnitedStates,North Americanpolicymakersanditsbodypoliticembracedamoreinwardandconservativepolitical philosophy.Itmadethemsuspiciousofoutsiders,hesitanttoembracetheworldsproblems, andunwillingtosupportthechangethatmenlikeBatlleadvocated.Second,politicschangedin Uruguayaswell.BatllehaddominatedtheColoradoPartysinceatleast1904andledaunited partythroughthe1910sandintoworldwar.Hiscarefullyconstructedcoalitionofstudents, workers,themiddleclass,andliberalsofallstripesfracturedoverthequestionofBatllesmost desiredreform,thecollectiveexecutive,duringhissecondterm.Thissplinteringmeantthat
GrantSmithtotheSecretaryofState,1October1926,DecimalFile,file711.33/7;GrantSmithtotheSecretary ofState,5September1928,DecimalFile,file711.33/12;GrantSmithtotheSecretaryofState,2October1928, DecimalFile,file711.33/13.
11

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politicalforcesthattheBatllistashadheretoforesubsumedgainedavoice,andveryoftenthat voiceconflictedwithBatllesproNorthAmericansentimentsevenasBatlleandhisinnercircle admiredtheUS.Third,theUnitedStatesmaintainedtheprincipaleconomicpositioninthe OrientalRepublicafterthewar.Superficially,thisstateofaffairsshouldhaveportendedwell fortheUnitedStatesbutitdidnotinUruguayinthe1920s.Batlle,muchlikesomeofhis Mexicancontemporaries,hadopenlypushedtherhetoricofnationalismandquestioned foreigncontrolofUruguayseconomicresources.Inthe1910s,thisworkedoutwellforYankee merchantsandinvestorsastheBritishdirectedtheUruguayaneconomy.Inthatdecade, BatllistasviewedYankeesasacompetingforcethattheycouldusetoundermineBritish economichegemony.TheworldwarseconomicrestructuringchangedallthatandUncleSam replacedJohnBullasthetargetofUruguayannationalism.Acloserexaminationofthesethree pointsdemonstratesjusthoweachcontributedtothedeclineoftheamitythatthetwostates hadbuiltbetweenRoots1906visitandtheGreatWar. USDomesticPolitics USdomesticpoliticssharesomepartoftheblameforthedeclineofUSUruguayan relationsinthe1920s.UndertheRepublicanpresidenciesofWarrenHardingandCalvin Coolidge,WashingtonrenegedonitsdutiesasprotectoroftheAmericas,apolicypositionthat hadendearedBatllistastotheUnitedStates,especiallyunderWoodrowWilson.Suchan isolationistturnmirroredotherconservativechangesintheUnitedStates,whichduringthe 1920sbannedliquor,limitedimmigration,andsoughttopurifyitsracialmakeup. 201

WhateffectdidthisconservativereorientationoftheUnitedStateshaveonUS Uruguayanrelations?Ononehand,itfosteredalevelofdistrustamongstUruguayan policymakersintheUnitedStatesinasmuchasitdemonstratedthatWashingtonmight abandonitsWilsonianemphasisonPanAmericanismforareturntotheBigStick.Forexample, ElDacalledtheRepublicancontrolledUSSenatesrejectionoftheVersaillesTreaty lamentableinthatitunderminedtheprestigeoftheLeagueofNationsandgavetheGermans newmeanstocreateapermanentEuropeanandworldwidetumult.In1920,PresidentBrum likewisenoticedhowthisrejectionbegantocrackthefaadeofamitybetweentheUSand Uruguay.DuringanaudiencewithBrumthatMinisterJefferyattended,WilliamS.Kiles,Vice PresidentoftheAmericanInternationalCorporation,inquiredofthePresidentifWoodrow WilsonsrhetoricandNorthAmericanactionsinthewarhadnotdispelledallfeelingsof mistrustintheUnitedStatesinLatinAmerica.Brumrepliedthatsuchsentimentshadnever existedinUruguaybutthattheoppositionoftheUnitedStatesSenatetowardsWilsonand theLeagueofNationswasbringingbacktheoldfeelingsofmistrusttowardstheUnitedStates inLatinAmerica.12 Nonetheless,in1923,UruguayanauthoritiesonceaskedtheUnitedStatestoassure theircountryssovereigntyandtheUSisolationistsentimentinhibitedaction.InAugust1923, ForeignMinisterPedroManiniRiossentMinisterVarelaAcevedoinWashingtonastrictly confidentialmemoregardingapossiblewarbetweenArgentinaandBrazil.WhileManiniRios didnotbelievewarlikely,inflamedasitwasbynationalistpassionsratherthanconcrete
12

Elcumplimentodeltratado,ElDa,12December1919;RobertJefferytoSecretaryofState(telegram),7April 1920,DepartmentofState,RecordsoftheDepartmentofStateRelatingtoWorldWarIandItsTermination,1914 1929,microcopyM367,RecordGroup59,NationalArchivesandRecordsAdministration[hereafterWWIRecords], file763.72119/4682,roll402.

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problems,henonethelesssoughtamultilateraltreaty,withtheUnitedStatesssupport,to assuretheneutralityofAmericanstatesinanintraAmericandispute.ManiniRioshadalready consultedtheUruguayandelegationattheLeagueofNations,buthefeltitcompletely doubtfulthatanyaidwouldcomefromGeneva.Uponreceiptofthisinstruction,Varela AcevedometwithSecretaryofStateCharlesEvansHugheson17January1924.Inthis meeting,VarelaAcevedointimatedthat,eventhoughtheUSdidnotjointheLeagueofNations, itmusttakealeadershiproleinthehemispheretopreventwar.Hughesrepliedthat,though hesupportedsuchapreemptivemoveonthepartoftheUnitedStates,neitherthepublic wouldsupportitnorwouldCongressapprovesuchabindinginternationalistagreement.Even so,thesecretarydoubtediftheArgentineBraziliansituationwouldresultinwar.The Uruguayanministertheninquiredpointedlythat,ifthesituationdidresultinwar,wouldtheUS supportUruguayinmaintainingitsneutrality?Hughesobfuscated,notingthathehadtodeal withthespecificsofeachsituationasitarose,buthewouldsurelyatleastoffermediationof theconflict.WiththatVarelaAcevedoandHughesdepartedcompanyamicably.13 WhiletheArgentineBrazilianrivalrydidnotresultinwarin19234,thisepisodedoes demonstratetheeffectofUSconservativismonUSUruguayanrelations.Theinternationalist administrationofTheodoreRoosevelt(19011909)alwaysaidedtheUruguayanswhenthey soughthelp.Forexample,asnotedabove,whenin1902PresidentJuanLinfoldoCuestasasked forUSguaranteeofUruguayanneutralityinlightofapotentialconflictbetweenArgentinaand Chileananalogoussituationtotheonein19234theUSNavysenttheUSSIowato
13

PedroManiniRiostoVarelaAcevedo,30August1923,ArchivoHistricoDiplomtico(Montevideo),Fondo LegacinenWashington,19001930[hereafterAHD/Washington],caja96,carpeta453,expediente1;Varela AcevedotoManiniRios,17January1924,AHD/Washington,caja96,carpeta453,expediente1.

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Montevideoharbor.Likewise,whenCuestaswantedaUScruisertopreventaBlancouprising atBatllesinaugurationin1903,theUSSNewarkarrived.In1904,whenBatllesoughtUS muscletoundermineArgentinesupportfortheBlancorebellion,insteamedtheUSSTacoma. WhentheUruguayanministerapproachedtheisolationistCoolidgeadministration,theState Departmentcouldoffer,atbest,mediation. Morethananyotherconsequence,thechangeofmoodintheUSalteredhowNorth AmericansperceivedUruguayans,especiallyBatllistas.Asnotedabove,inthe1910sNorth AmericanslaudedBatllesreformsasprogressive,forwardthinking,andmodern.Inlightofthe ongoingefforttobringtheProgressiveerastateintotheprotectionoflabor,children,women, andtheconsumer,BatllesreformsappearedascontemporaryandinsympathywithNorth AmericasProgressivereforms. Theconservativeturnofthe1920salteredthisrelationshipradically.Afterthefallof RussiatotheBolsheviksin1917,thesubsequentRedScare(19191920),andgeneral xenophobicattitudestowardsoutsideideas,BatllistaUruguaylookedmorelikeSovietRussia thantheUnitedStates,atleastaccordingtoWashingtonofficialsanditsdiplomatsin Montevideo.NumerousexampleslitterdiplomaticdispatchesofBatllessupposedaffinityfor Communismandsocialism.Forexample,inlate1922,USMinisterHoffmanPhilipreferredto Batlleasapartydictator.ByNovember1923,USConsulThomasBevancharacterized Batllistapoliciesasshowingastrongtrendtowardsocialism.MyronHofer,chargdaffaires in1925notedtheavowedsocialistictendenciesoftheGovernment.Tobefair,Yankee diplomatsdidnotalwaysviewBatlleasafollowerofKarlMarx.Apparentlyinfluencedtoo muchbydominanttrendsinworldpolitics,twoyearsafterHofercalledtheUruguayan 204

governmentsocialistic,hebelievedthatBatllewasbecomingasecondMussolini.Inany event,USdiplomatsbegantoseeBatlleandhisfollowers,generallytheonlymenwho supportedtheUnitedStatesbythe1920s,asantithesestotheNorthAmericanperceptionof laissezfairecapitalismaswellasfreeandopendemocracy.14 UruguayanDomesticPolitics OnecannotblamesolelyUSdomesticpoliticsasUruguayanpoliticschangedmuchin the1920saswell;theoriginsofthechangeemergedduringBatllessecondadministration (19111915).Duringthisperiodofimmensesocialandpoliticalreform,Batlleputintoplace someintriguingandforwardthinkingdemocraticreforms,amongthemthesecretballot, proportionalrepresentation,anduniversalmalesuffrage.Yet,Batllealsofailedatputting throughsomekeyreforms,includingtheadoptionofacollectiveexecutive,basedontheSwiss model.ThesetransformationsentotosoughttobringtruedemocracytoUruguay. Inmanyrespects,thesereformsmirroredthechangesthatcontemporarilyoccurred acrosstheRodelaPlata.InArgentina,theconservativeclassessoughttoforestallaradical rebellionbyopeningupslightlytheelectoralsystem.The1912SezPealawexpandedthe electoralsystemtomorenativemenandlegalizedthesecretballot.PresidentRoqueSez Peahopedthatinsodoinghecouldcoopttheradicalsintotheelectoralprocess,thus avoidingarmedrebellion,whileatthesametimeholdingontopowerbynotenfranchisingtoo
14

HoffmanPhiliptotheSecretaryofState,18December1922,DecimalFile,file833.000/183;ThomasBevanto theSecretaryofState,3November1923,DecimalFile,833.5035/;MyronHofertotheSecretaryofState,5May 1924,DecimalFile,833.504/10;PhiliptotheSecretaryofState,23February1923,DecimalFile,file833.911/3; GrantSmithtotheSecretaryofState,9April1927,DecimalFile,file833.00/311.

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many.SezPeafailedbyunderestimatingradicalstrength.Inthe1916elections,thefirst underthenewlaw,theUninCvicaRadicalunderHiplitoYrigoyencametopower.15 Batlledidnotseektounderminerevolutionbutbringatruerformofdemocracyto Uruguayand,assuch,theresultsinUruguaydifferedslightlyfromthoseinArgentina.Inother words,thefirstelectionsincetheenactingoftheBatllespoliticalreformssurelyembarrassed theColoradosbutitdidnotremovethemfrompower.Onatideofdemocraticopening,Batlle wentaheadwithplanstoorganizeaconstitutionalconventiontoreplacethe1830charter,the onlyconstitutioninUruguayanhistoryuptothatpoint.Incallingthegathering,Batllehopedto enactsomeofhiskeyreformsinthenewconstitution:separationofchurchandstate, municipalautonomy,directelectionofthepresidency,andmostimportantlythecollective executive.16 On31July1916,Uruguayanmenwenttothepollstoelectmemberstoaconstitutional conventionunderthesenewmoreopenelectorallaws.TheresultssurelysurprisedBatlle. Blancoswonaplurality46%whileBatllistaColorados,whopromisedtosupportBatlleinall hisreforms,polledabout41%.AntiCollegistColorados,whopolled10%bythemselves, supportedallofBatllesreformsbutforthecollectiveexecutive.Thus,whileColorados composedabaremajorityoftheconventiontheremaining3%wenttothesocialistsandthe smallrightwingCivicPartyitbecameclearthatBatllebegantolosehisgripontheColorado Partyandthepoliticalcontrolofthestate.ThevoteservedasaplebisciteonBatllismoand whenBatllelost,PresidentVieraannouncedhispeak(alto)ofreforms,pronouncingthatwe
DavidRock,PoliticsinArgentina,18901930:TheRiseandFallofRadicalism(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity Press,1975),34,40.
16 15

JefferytotheSecretaryofState,27November1916,DecimalFile,file833.011/4.

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havemovedratherquickly;wewilltakeapauseinthejourney.AnumberofUruguayan historianscitethisvoteandVierasaltoasthebeginningofthedeclineofBatllismo.17 Theresultantconstitutionrepresentedacompromise.Recognizingthattheycouldnot

pushthroughalltheirdesiredreforms,ColoradosandBlancosagreedtoaconstitutionalpact. TheColoradosreceivedtwooftheirdesiredreformstheseparationofchurchandstate,and directelectionoftheexecutive.Inexchange,theBlancoswroteinoneimportantprovision: thatpresidentscouldnotreturntopoweruntiltwopresidentialtermshadlapsed.Theyaimed thisprovisiondirectlyatBatllehimself,whoalreadyhadannouncedhiscandidacyforelection in1919tosucceedPresidentViera.Onthematterofthecollectiveexecutive,thetwoparties compromisedapopularlyelectedpresidentcontrolledtheministriesofWar,Navy,and ForeignRelationswhileaninememberNationalAdministrativeCouncilcontrolledtheother ministries,includingFinance,PublicWorks,andthelike.AllofBatlleselectoralreforms, includingproportionalrepresentation,thesecretballot,anduniversalmalesuffrage,remained ensuringBlancoswouldhaveasayingovernance.Thedelegatesclosedtheconventioninlate October1917andthepublicapprovedthenewconstitutionoverwhelminglybyplebiscitein November.18 Whenthenewconstitutionwentintoeffecton1March1919,itshowedhowmuch powertheBatllefactionhadlost.TheBatllistasremainedinpower,tobesure,butonly nominally.Thequestionofthecollectiveexecutivefracturedthepartyalongvariouslines
GerardoCaetano,LaRepblicaConservadora,19161929,vol.1,ElAltoaLasReformas(Montevideo:Editorial FindeSiglo,1992),34,40;ChristineEhrick,TheShieldoftheWeak:FeminismandtheStateinUruguay,19031933 (Albuquerque:UniversityofNewMexicoPress,2005),83;Uruguaydidnotadoptfemalesuffrageinnational electionsuntil1932;thusin1916,onlyUruguayanmenvoted. JefferytotheSecretaryofState,27November1916,DecimalFile,file833.011/4;WilliamDawsontothe SecretaryofState,20December1917,DecimalFile,833.011/7.
18 17

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duringthepresidencyofBaltasarBrum(19191923),anableBatllelieutenantandfriendofthe UnitedStates.AsearlyasDecember1921,theUSchargdaffairescouldpointtothreedistinct strainsintheColoradoPartytheBatllistasection,byfarthemajority,theVieristasorradicals, andthemoreconservativeRiveristas.WhiletheColoradoPartydid,outofnecessity,come togetheratelectiontime,thecandidatestheyranforpresidentrepresentedcompromisesand ineffectualleadersthatoffendedfewandsoughttoavoidcontroversy.Inotherwords,while theColoradosmaintainedanominalholdonpower,theirpresidentswereunexceptional.The USchargdaffairescalledBrumssuccessor,JoseSerrato(19231927),aneutralmanwhose besttraitwasthathehaskeptalooffrompolitics.FollowingSerrato,Uruguayanselectedthe ColoradoJuanCampisteguy(19271931),amanoflittleinitiativeaccordingtoMinister UlyssesGrantSmith.Thus,inthe1920s,UruguaylackedthecharismaticproYankeereformers inthepresidentialchairwhohadcharacterizedthatofficeinthe1900sand1910s.19 DespitethefactthatneitherBatllehimselformanyofhisclosestlieutenantsworethe presidentialsashafter1923,theystillthoughthighlyoftheUnitedStatesthroughoutthe decade.Forexample,whenJuanCarlosBlancothesamemanthatguidedElihuRootthrough Montevideoin1906andvisitedtheUSasMinisterofIndustriesin1914tookovertheForeign Ministryin1925,heconversedprivatelywithMinisterHoffmanPhilip.Heexpressedhisfeeling thatoneofhischiefambitionsinassumingofficewastoassistineverymannerpossiblethe mutualinterestsofourtwogovernmentsaswellasthemaintenanceandstrengtheningofthe bondsoffriendshipandcommercebetweenNorthAmericaandUruguay.Twoyearslater,
OliverHarrimantotheSecretaryofState,29December1921,DecimalFile,file833.00/162;NormanArmourto theSecretaryofState,11May1922,DecimalFile,file833.00/167;GrantSmithtotheSecretaryofState,24March 1927,DecimalFile,file833.00/310.
19

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MyronHofer,firstsecretaryoftheUSlegationinMontevideo,traveledbytrainwithFinance MinisterPabloMinelli,thecleverestoftheyoungprotgsofSr.BatlleyOrdoez.Onthis journey,theUruguayanpolicymakerpraisedtheUnitedStatesinvariousspeechesandprivately informedthediplomatthatSr.BatllewasatruefriendofAmericaandhadonseveral occasionsstoppedattacksagainst[theNorthAmerican]governmentbothinthepressandin thegovernmenthere.BatlleespeciallyfavoredtheUSsincethedoctorsattheMayoClinic quicklycuredhissonofadiseasethatUruguayandoctorscouldnotdiagnose.20 Evenso,thenewconstitutionsopeningofthepoliticalpowertoheretoforesuppressed groupsthroughthesecretballot,proportionalrepresentation,anduniversalsuffrage,alsogave newpeoplevoicesingovernment,bothinthestreetsandintheNationalAdministrative Council.Duringthe1920s,whileColoradosmaintainedthemselvesnominallyinpower,Blancos ledbyLuisAlbertodeHerrera,andotherminorparties,includingsocialists,openedpolitical discourseinwaysthathadnotbeenavailableearlier.DeHerrera,forone,servedasheadof theBlancoPartyandmoreoftenthannotsatontheNationalAdministrativeCouncil. ThesenewlypotentpartieshistoricallydistrustedtheUnitedStates,thoughthe

overwhelmingtideoftheBatllistapoliticalmachinemutedtheircriticismbetween1900and 1920.Forexample,theBlancos,thetraditionalpartyoftheinteriorgauchoandconservative mindedCatholics,feltthatUSencroachmentintoUruguaythreatenedtheirlocalfiefdoms, theirruralindependence,andtheirchurch.Inmanyrespects,BlancossupportedBritain,the chiefconsumersoftheirbeef,andArgentina,astatethatshelteredthemastheyplanned revolutionsinthelate1800sandearly1900s.Outsidethetwotraditionalparties,manyItalian

PhiliptotheSecretaryofState,10February1925,DecimalFile,file711.33/4;GrantSmithtotheSecretaryof State,9April1927,DecimalFile,file833.00/311.
20

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bornandSpanishbornradicalsthoughnotallcoalescedunderthebannerofthePartido SocialistadelUruguay(PSU)in1910.WhensomemembersofthePSUdecidedtoacceptthe Cominternstwentyoneconditionsin1920,theyformedthePartidoComunistadelUruguay (PCU).ThePCU,likemanyultraleftwingparties,tookitscuesfromMarxswritingsandLenins SovietUnionindenouncingindustrialregimessuchastheUnitedStatesandadvocatedthe forcefuloverthrowofthecapitalistsystem.Otherradicalsrefusedpartyaffiliationbut nonethelessfoughtagainstwhattheysawasUSimperialistandcommercialexpansion.Thus, inthe1920s,theUSfacedtwonewthreatsthatithaddisregardedpreviously,onefromthe rightandonefromtheleft,withoutastrongallyintheBatllistastoamelioratetheantiNorth Americansentiment.21 ThispoliticalopeningfirstaffectedUSUruguayanrelationsin1927,whentheCoolidge administrationsentUSMarinestoinvadeNicaragua.Truly,USMarineshadspentagoodpart oftheprecedingfifteenyearsembarkinganddisembarkinginNicaraguatoensurethevarious presidentspaidtheirdebtsandmaintainedfriendlyrelationswiththeUS.In1925,withNew YorkbankerssatisfiedthattheNicaraguagovernmenthadpaiditsdebtstothem,President CoolidgeremovedUSforcesfromthecountry.Nonetheless,assoonasthetroopsleft,US puppetPresidentAdolfoDazseemedabouttolosepowertotheLiberalsunderJuanSacasa. Assuch,twoyearsaftertheyleft,USMarinesreturnedtopropuptheDazregime.22

Ehrick,TheShieldoftheWeak,60,189;ElPartidoComunistaenelUruguay(Montevideo:DireccinNacionalde RelacionesPblicas,1980),7;FernandoLpezDAlesandro,HistoriadelaIzquierdaUruguaya,vol.3,LaFundacin delPartidoComunistaylaDivisindelAnarquismo,19191923(Montevideo:EdicionesdelNuevoMundo,1992), 218233. HubertHerring,AHistoryofLatinAmericafromtheBeginningstothePresent,3d.ed.(NewYork:AlfredA. Knopf,1972),491.

22 21

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TheUSgovernment,ofcourse,spentagooddealoftimeandmoneyinterveninginLatin AmericainthefirsttwodecadesofthetwentiethcenturybutwhiletheunifiedColoradoParty underBatllerantheUruguayangovernment,Montevideoeithersupportedorignoredsuch intercessions.AccordingtopoliticalscientistPeterH.Smith,Washingtonintervenedmilitarily inLatinAmericamorethanthirtytimesbetween1898and1934,includinginterventionsin CostaRica,Cuba,theDominicanRepublic,Guatemala,Haiti,Honduras,Mexico,Nicaragua,and Panama.Batllistasforthemostpartfailedtotakenotice,whichthelackofmentioninElDa evidenced.WhentheydiddiscernUSactions,theygenerallydefendedthemorfocusedonUS effortstoendtheoccupationpeacefully.Forexample,whenWilsonorderedUSMarinesto occupyVeracruzinApril1914,ElDaeditorializedthattheUShadaspecialinterestinthe revolutionasanadjoiningstatewhenitembarkeduponthispacifyingmission.Mostofthe printElDadevotedtotheinterventionrestedonthesuccessfulmediationoftheABCpowers atNiagaraFallsandSouthAmericasgrowinginfluenceitdemonstrated.Likewise,whentheUS armyinvadednorthernMexicoinMarch1916tofindPanchoVilla,ElDahardlytooknoticebut toargueoncethatWilsonhadtheweightychargetohavetointerveneinMexico.23 WhentheBatllistaslostcontroloftheUruguayanpoliticalsystem,Coloradodissidents andBlancostooktheopportunitytotargettheUnitedStates,especiallyoverthe1927 interventioninNicaragua.ManyinUruguay,whichtheoppositionpartiesgoadedon,feltthat WashingtonwouldnotdifferentiatebetweenNicaraguaandUruguay,bothsmallstatessimilar sizeandpoliticalpluralism.By1927,MinisterGrantSmithreportedawidespreadfeelingin

PeterH.Smith,TheTalonsoftheEagle:DynamicsofU.S.LatinAmericanRelations(NewYork:OxfordUniversity Press,1996),5253;ElincidentedeTampico,ElDa,16April1914;MjicoyEstadosUnidos,ElDa,27June 1914;ElPresidenteWilson,ElDa,28April1914.

23

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UruguaythattheNicaraguaninterventionrepresentedtheNorthAmericanambition ultimatelytopossessourselvesofallLatinAmericancountries,Uruguayincluded.Twoyears later,chargGadereportedthatamajorityofOrientalesprincipallyfearedUSpoliticaland economicdominationofthe[SouthAmerican]continent[and]afearofinterventionincase Uruguayshouldeverrepudiateitsdebts.24 Thereafter,LuisAlbertodeHerrera,thesamemanwhoasSecretaryoftheUruguayan legationintheWashingtonin1903suggestedthattheUScouldactasasentrytoguard Orientalsovereignty,usedhisnewpoliticalvoicetoblasttheBatllistasandtheirassociation withtheUnitedStates.Forexample,inOctober1929,deHerrerabroughtthematterof BatllesrequestforaUSbattleshipduringthe1904civilwartotheNationalAdministration Council.There,theBlancoleaderassertedthatBatllehadaskedtheUnitedStatesto interveneintherevolutionof1904,accordingtotheUSminister.Brum,nowontheCouncil, defendedBatlle,citingthatheonlyaskedforthegoodofficesoftheUnitedStatesinlightofthe ArgentineinterferenceinsupportingtheBlancorebels.Batllehimselfansweredthe accusationsinaneditorialinElDa.HejustifiedtherequesttoWashingtononthegrounds that,whiletheBlancosinvitedtheopeninterventionoftheJulioRocaadministrationin Argentina,BatllesoughtonlytohaveafriendlycountryuseitsinfluencetomaketheRiver Platestatesobservethenecessaryneutrality.AfterBatllesdeathweekslater,themattertoo perished,buttheepisodenonethelessdemonstratedthatthecloserelationshipbetween

GrantSmithtotheSecretaryofState,26December1927,DecimalFile,file711.33/10;GerhardGadetothe SecretaryofState,19March1929,DecimalFile,file711.33/16.
24

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BatllistasandtheUnitedStatescouldprovidepoliticalfodderfortheBlancoPartyasBatllista hegemonydeclined.25 Socialists,anoverwhelmingmajorityofwhomimmigratedtoUruguayfromItalyand Spaininthe1900sand1910sinprogramstheBatllistasorganizedtopopulatetheinterior, likewiseusedtheirnewpoliticalvoicetolambasttheUnitedStates.ThoughthePCUorother radicalgroupsneveroccupiedaseatontheNationalAdministrativeCouncilinthe1920s,they didinfluencepolicyinatleasttwoways.First,theyconvincedtheSerratoadministrationto recognizetheUnionofSovietSocialistRepublics(USSR)inAugust1924,followingtheleadof Mexico,whichhaddonethesameearlierinthemonth.Inreportingthedecisionto Washington,MinisterGrantSmithlamentedthatthismeantthatUruguaythusbecamethe officialcenterforBolshevisticpropagandainthispartoftheworld.Indeed,theOriental RepublicandMexicostoodoutastheonlytwoWesternHemisphericstatestohaverecognized LeninssocialistrepublicbeforetheUSdidsoin1933.26 Secondandmoreimportantly,theradicalsusedmassprotesttosignifytheirdisgust withtheUnitedStates,mostimportantlyoverthetrialandexecutionofFerdinandoNicola SaccoandBartolomeoVanzetti.Infact,throughoutthe1920s,astheMassachusettstrial draggedonandstaysofexecutionsdelayedtheanarchistsultimatefate,Uruguayansocialists andcommuniststhoroughlyusedtheUSasasymbolofcapitalisticoppressionofthe proletariat.Thecaseespeciallyappealedtomanysocialists,anarchists,andcommunistsin

GadetotheSecretaryofState,10October1929,DecimalFile,file711.33/21;SucesosInternacionalesde1904, ElDa,11October1929.
26

25

GrantSmithtotheSecretaryofState,24August1924,DecimalFile,file833.00B/4.

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UruguayinasmuchastheysharedacommonalitywiththeforlornMassachusettsprisoners Italianheritage. Asearlyas1921,whentheMassachusettscourtsfirstfoundthetwoItaliansguilty, Uruguayansocialistsbegantoagitatefortheirrelease.Forexample,whentheNorfolkCounty courtsdecidedthecaseinOctober1921,Communistlaborunionsencouragedtheirmembers tostopworkandattendarallyinthestreetsofMontevideoon28October.Duringtherally, theUSministerreported,theusualinflammatoryspeechesweredelivered,butonlyslight disturbanceswererecorded.TheUruguayanauthoritieshadtakenmeasurestoensureextra protectionofUSbusinessesanddiplomaticpostsinthecity.ElDanotedthat,thoughUruguay hadendedthebarbariouspunishmentofthedeathpenaltyduringBatllespresidency,itstill condemnedtherallybecauseitdidnotemergefromhumanitarianpurposestofreeSacco andVanzettibutfrompoliticalpurposes,namelytohumiliatetheUS.On1Decemberof thatyear,Montevideospolicebrokeupasecondrally,calledtoprotestSaccoandVanzettis sentencing.TheseantiNorthAmericanassembliesabatedforseveralyearswhilethe Massachusettsanarchistsappealedtheruling,receivednewevidentiaryproceedings,andthe Massachusettsgovernorstayedtheirexecutions.27 Finally,inmid1927,whenitappearedthetwomenwouldfinallybeputtodeathdid theUruguayansocialistsagainawakentoSaccoandVanzettisplight.AsearlyasJune, Communistsheldarallyforthetwoanarchists.Theflierannouncingthegatheringnotedthat thetwomensymbolizedtheworkingclass,vexedandpersecutedtothedeathbyreactionary exploitativecapitalism.Rightbeforetheexecution,whenomnibusworkerswrotetoMinister
HarrimantotheSecretaryofState21November1921,DecimalFile,file833.00/157;SaccoyVanzetti,ElDa, 29October1921;HarrimantotheSecretaryofState,19December1921,DecimalFile,file833.00/159.
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GrantSmithtoappealtoWashingtonforanotherstay,thediplomatrepliedthatthefederal governmentdidnothavejurisdictioninthiscaseandevenifitdid,theUruguayangovernment couldonlyseekredressthroughMinisterVarelaAcevedoinWashington.28 WhenwordreachedMontevideoinearlyAugust1927thatGovernorAlvanFuller announcedthatSaccoandVanzettiwouldreceivenofurthertrials,Uruguayanlaborunions calledageneralstrikeon9August.UnderthebanneroftheUnionSyndicalUruguaya,workers broughtautomobiletraffictoastandstill.GrantSmithreportedthatmostshopsclosedtheir doorsandprotesterssmashedinatleastonestreetcarswindows.Owingtothelargepolice presence,thelargerallyonPlazaIndependenciacameandwentwithoutviolence.Ingeneral, thestrikeonlypartiallysucceededascommerceinmanyareascontinueduninterrupted.29 Thelaboraction,ironicallyenough,ledtoanoutpouringofsupportfortheUnited Statesamongtheconservativeclasses,thetraditionalenemiesofthegranrepblicadelNorte inUruguay.TheconservativeColoradopaperLaMaanaeditorializedonthehypocrisyofthe radicals,notingthattheworkersprotestedaUSexecutiondeterminedinacourtoflawwhile notlamentingatallthepoorvictimsinSovietRussiathatlackedanyjudicialprotections.The conservativeDiarodelaPlatalikewisecalledtheworkersactionsunpardonable.Eventhe publicpronouncementsoftheBlancos,MinisterGrantSmithreported,attackedthe CommunistswhilegivingUSpoliticiansthebenefitofthedoubtregardingthewisdomoftheir actions.30

GrantSmithtotheSecretaryofState,7June1927,DecimalFile,file833.00/314;GrantSmithtotheSecretaryof State,4August1927,DecimalFile,file311.6521Sa1/811.
29 30 28

GrantSmithtotheSecretaryofState,11August1927,DecimalFile,file311.6521Sa1/812. Ibid.;GrantSmithtotheSecretaryofState,25August1927,DecimalFile,file311.6521Sa1/877.

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WhenwordreachedMontevideothatSaccoandVanzettifinallymettheirmakeron23 August1927,theUruguayanradicalsturnedtoviolence.Onthemorningof31August,Minister GrantSmitharrivedattheUSlegationtofindpolice,whoreportedtohimfindingan unexplodedbombinastreetcargaragenearhisoffice.Thereafter,theMontevideopolice placedGrantSmith,ConsulGeneralClarenceCarrigan,andthelegationandconsulatebuildings under24hourguard.SuchprotectiondidnotscareGrantSmith,heargued,becauseprevious postings,especiallyinEuropeduringthewar,hadexposedhimtokavass...constantly.On2 September,localpolicediscoveredalaboratorywhereintheyfoundbombmakingmaterials similartotheonesemployedintheincendiarydevicenearthelegationandarrestedtwomen. BylateSeptember,theMontevideopresswiththeexceptionofthesocialistdailyJusticiafailed tomentionthecasebuttheUruguayangovernmentmaintaineditsprotectionaroundUS diplomaticofficersuntilOctober.31 Whilethestrikeonlysucceededpartiallyandthebombdidnotexplode,sucheffortson thepartofradicalsinMontevideodemonstratehowmuchantiYankeesentimentexistedinthe UruguayancapitalwhencomparedtootherLatinAmericanreactionstothecase.Forexample, inParaguay,theUSministerreportedthatotherthanademonstrationatAsuncinsport, quietandorderreignedthroughoutthenation.TheYankeechargdaffairesinGuatemala Cityreportednogreatinterestinthecase.InVeracruz,Mexico,theUSconsulreceiveda deaththreatbutlittleotheragitationoccurred.Quitoviewedtheeventswithapathy.InRio deJaniero,MinisterEdwinMorganreportedthatthecasedidnotseriouslyinterestthe
GrantSmithtotheSecretaryofState(telegram),31August1927,DecimalFile,file311.6521Sa1/817;Grant SmithtotheSecretaryofState,6September1927,DecimalFile,file833.00B/10;GrantSmithtotheSecretaryof State,8September1927,DecimalFile,file833.000/318;GrantSmithtotheSecretaryofState,23September 1927,DecimalFile,file833.000/319;GrantSmithtotheSecretaryofState,17November1927,DecimalFile,file 833.000/326.
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workingclassesofBrazil;onlysomeshopsclosedandafewmillworkerstookaholidayto protesttheexecutions.32 OnlyacrosstheRiverPlateinBuenosAires,whichhadalargerItalianimmigrant population,didantiYankeeprotestsoverthecaseturnmoreviolentthantheydidin Montevideo,owingprincipallytotheactionsofItalianbornanarchistSeverinoDiGiovanni.On 16May1926,afterattendingarallyinsupportoftheMassachusettsprisoners,DiGiovanni plantedabomboutsidetheUSEmbassyinBuenosAires.Whenitexplodedat11pmoutside theemptydiplomaticpost,itsenttheUSshieldhalfwayacrossthestreetandleftacratersobig thatarrivinginvestigatorscouldrushthroughit.ArgentineauthoritiesarrestedDiGiovanni,he wascustomarilysoftenedupbutreleasedowingtolackofevidenceaftertwodays.Overa yearlater,on22July1927,asecondbombexplodedintheaffluentareaofPalermoand destroyedthepedestalofthemonumenttoGeorgeWashington.On10August,inanticipation ofthedeathofSaccoandVanzetti,bombswentoffattheCourtsofJustice,therailwaystation, andarailroadbridgewhileageneralstrikecrippledthecity.WhenGovernorFullerpostponed theexecution,itmerelyprovidedtheArgentineanarchistsanotherdaytoattack.On23August 1927,whennewsreachedtheArgentinecapitalthatSaccoandVanzettidied,anarchistsledby DiGiovannicalledanothergeneralstrike,startedariot,andexplodedbombsacrossthecity, includingatUSbankbranches.33
GeorgeKreecktotheSecretaryofState,23August1927,DecimalFile,file311.6521Sa1/912;StanleyHawksto theSecretaryofState,30August1927,DecimalFile,311.6521Sa1/838;WillysA.MyerstotheSecretaryofState, 30August1927,DecimalFile,file311.6521Sa1/849;WaldemarJ.GallmantotheSecretaryofState,30August 1927,DecimalFile,file311.6521Sa1/881;EdwinMorgantotheSecretaryofState,31August1927,DecimalFile, file311.6521Sa1/867. GrantSmithtotheSecretaryofState,29December1927,DecimalFile,file311.6521Sa1/959;OsvaldoBayer, AnarchismandViolence:SeverinoDiGiovanniinArgentina,19231931,trans.PaulSharkey(Catania,Italy:Elephant Editions,1985),5070.
33 32

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ImmediatelyafterthebombingsinBuenosAires,theMontevideopolicepostedarmed guardsattheMontevideanbranchesoftheNationalCityBankofNewYorkandtheNational BankofBostonbuttheagitationintheUruguayancapitalhaddieddown.ThoughGrantSmith protestedtheshowingofamovingpictureentitledSaccoandVanzettiandfoundhimself exacerbatedattheUruguayangovernmentfornotstoppingthispropagandaofhate,after December1927,theUruguayananarchistsagitationabated.Thecityaddedextraguardsto theUSlegationandconsulateonthefirstandsecondanniversariesofSacco&Vanzettis deathsbutnoviolenceoccurred.Likewise,proposedriotsandstrikesthosedaysfailed miserably.By1930,theUruguayanfarleft,inconcertwiththeirbrethreninotherstates,had forgottenthetwoItaliananarchistsfromoutsideBoston.34 Commerce OtherthanUSpoliticsandUruguayanpolitics,onemustlookatcommercetoexplain thedeclineinUSUruguayanrelationsinthe1920s.Asnotedabove,UnitedStatestraders madegreatinroadsintoUruguayinthefirsttwodecadesofthetwentiethcentury.Before Batllecametopower,thelackofsteamshipservicetotheUnitedStates,amongotherfactors, surrenderedtheRiverPlatetoBritishcommercialdominance.OnceBatlleamanwho lamentedthepowerofthepoundsterlinginhiscountrycametopowerin1903,he encouragedUScommercialpenetrationoftheOrientalRepublictocounterbalanceandoffset
GrantSmithtotheSecretaryofState,29December1927,DecimalFile,file311.6521Sa1/959;GrantSmithto theSecretaryofState,7September1928,DecimalFile,file833.00GenConditions/17;GadetotheSecretaryof State,29August1929,DecimalFile,file833.00B/23;GadetotheSecretaryofState,6September1929,Decimal File,file833.00GenConditions/37.
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Britishpower.Indeed,inthelate1900sandearly1910s,NorthAmericantradeincreased absolutely,ifnotrelatively,butmoreimportantly,Yankeefirmsinvestedheavilyinthe Uruguayanbeef,railroad,andoilindustries.WorldWarImarkedawatershedmomentinUS UruguayanrelationsasthewarhandicappedEuropeancommerceand,forthefirsttime,theUS goodsoutdistancedallotherimportsintoUruguayandtheUSheldasteadytradesurpluswith Uruguay. Duringthe1920s,thistrendlargelycontinuedinabsoluteterms.USgoodsentered Uruguayinsteadilyincreasingnumbers,growingfromapproximately$15.1millionin1923to peakat$28.2millionin1929.UruguayangoodsenteredtheUSmuchmoreunevenly.They increasedsteadilybetween1921and1923beforedecliningin1924inlightofrevivedEuropean demandforUruguayanbeef,wool,andhides.ThequantityofUruguayanexportstotheUS roseagainin1925butfluctuatedthroughouttheremainderofthedecade,peakingat$18.7 millionin1929.Regardless,theUSmaintaineditstradesurpluswithUruguaystartingin 1924.35 Despitevacillationsinabsoluteterms,theUnitedStatesmaintaineditsrelative dominanceintheUruguayaneconomyfromWorldWarIonward.In1919,theUSbyfar importedmoregoodsintoUruguayandpurchasedmoreofitsexportsthananyothercountry. Thattendencyremainedin1920,whentheUScontrolledaboutonequarterofallUruguayan trade.Thetrendcontinuedin1921.AstheEuropeanmarketsrecoveredandpricesimproved
U.S.DepartmentofCommerce,BureauofForeignandDomesticCommerce,StatisticalAbstractoftheUnited States,vol.52,1930(Washington:GovernmentPrintingOffice,1930),492493;U.S.DepartmentofCommerce, BureauofForeignandDomesticCommerce,StatisticalAbstractoftheUnitedStates,vol.49,1926(Washington: GovernmentPrintingOffice,1927),458459;U.S.DepartmentofCommerce,BureauofForeignandDomestic Commerce,CommerceReports(Washington:GovernmentPrintingOffice,19151940)[hereafterCR]1924,no.36 (8Sept1924):635.
35

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inEuropestartingin1922and1923,USexportstoUruguaydeclinedinrelativeterms.By 1924,thoughtheUSstillimportedmoregoodsintoUruguaythananyothercountrybutfellto sixthinexportsfromUruguayafterEngland,Germany,France,Belgium,andArgentina.This developmentcharacterizedUSUruguayancommercefortherestofthedecade:theUSserved astheprincipalimporterofgoodsintoUruguaybutUruguayanexportswentinmuchgreater quantitiestoothercountries.Notsurprisingly,suchatendencycharacterizedcommercial relationswiththeremainderoftheSouthernConeaswell.36 JustasUScapitalsupplantedBritishcapitalinUruguay,italsodisplacedtheBritish population.Forone,TheMontevideoTimes,theEnglishlanguagedailyofMontevideos Britishcommunity,lamentedthedeclineoftheBritishinMontevideoin1925.Inanarticle thatyear,thewriterconcernedhimselfwiththefactthatwhenhewalkeddownaMontevideo streetandheardEnglish,thediscussionmorelikelycenteredonbaseballratherthancricket. Likewise,whiletheBritishcommunityusedtoliveunitedinthecenterofthecity,nearthe seatofpower,theyhadscatteredtotheoutskirtsofthecapitalandfracturedbysocialclub andchurch.Intheirstead,onefoundYankees.37 ThoughthesedevelopmentauguredwellfortheaccountsofUSfirmsandUS merchants,Uruguayanpoliticalleaders,especiallythosefromtheantiBatllistaforcesthatnow heldsomepower,attackedtheUSforthesamereasonBatllistasattackedBritaininthe1910s theirunwillingnesstoseeUruguayseconomycontrolledbyoneforeignpower.Inthe1910s,
U.S.DepartmentofCommerceandLabor,BureauofManufactures,DailyConsularandTradeReports (Washington:GovernmentPrintingOffice,19101921)[hereafterDCTR]24,no.17(21January1921):395;DCTR 24,no.103(4May1921):709;CR1922,no.18(1May1922):321;CR1924,no.36(8September1924):635;CR 1925,no.14(6April1925):55.
37 36

O.GaylordMarshtotheSecretaryofState,24August1925,DecimalFile,file833.401/1.

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BatlleandhisfollowerswentafterBritishcommercialinterests.Forexample,asoneofhisfirst actsduringhisfirstterm,BatllecreatedtheStateInsuranceBank,whichhadthesolepowerto issueinsurancepolicies,asegmentoftheUruguayaneconomytheBritishcontrolled.In1914, thegovernmentauthorizedtheconstructionofastateownedrailway,theconstruction contractforwhichBatllegavetotheUSFarquharsyndicate,toparalleltheBritishowned CentralUruguayanRailwayinanefforttounderminethatfirmsbusiness.38 Bythe1920s,USeconomicpower,havingsupplantedBritishinterestsindominatingthe Uruguayaneconomy,causedUruguayannationaliststoattackNorthAmericanfirms.Thefact thatproYankeeBatllewaslosingpowerinfavorofgroupstraditionallyhostiletotheUnited States,namelytheBlancosandthesocialists,didnotaidthestandingofUScapital.Inthree industriestelephone,oil,andmostimportantlybeefactionsofUruguayanpoliticians demonstratethedistrustthatUSeconomicsengenderedbycontrollingtheOrientaleconomy. First,inbuildingtheundergroundtelephonesystemforMontevideo,theUruguayan governmentrepeatedlystalledinitsobligationstoWesternElectricuntilfinallyabrogatinga contractitsignedsevenyearslater.Inlate1920,WesternElectricsubmittedabidtoconstruct anundergroundtelephonesystemforMontevideo,whichthecitywouldthenown.After delaysowingtothelegalrestrictionsonthenumberofbids,theDepartmentofPosts, Telegraphs,andTelephonesacceptedtheWesternElectricbidinJune1921,pendingtheability ofthegovernmenttoprocurealoantofundtheproject.Tothatend,theEquitableTrust CompanyofNewYorkofferedUruguaya$10million(US)loanat8%annuallyforatermof30 years.WhentheUruguayangovernmentdeemedthisloanunsatisfactory,WesternElectric
Vanger,143151.

38

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attemptedtoprocurealoanforthegovernmentthroughInternationalTelephoneand Telegraphtocommenceworkontheprojectbutthegovernmentlikewiserejecteditsterms. Citingrepeatedholdupsandthegovernmentsunwillingnesstosettleonloanterms,in1923, theUSministersuggestedthatanulteriormotivelaybehindUruguayanintransigence:their oppositiontograntingaconcessionwhichwouldinvolveoftheprojectedsystembyaforeign corporation.In1925,aftermoredelays,theUSlegationhadverygoodevidencetosuspect thatBritishfirmsthatcontrolledthedilapidatedoverlandtelephonesystemtheninplace regularlysubsidizedcertainpoliticiansforthepurposesofdelayingand,ifpossible,of preventingthefulfillmentonthepartoftheUruguayangovernmentoftheWesternElectric contract.Afterthreemoreyearsofprotests,theNationalAdministrationCouncilabrogated theagreementofthefirmbynowrenamedtheInternationalStandardElectricCompany (ISEC)citingtheprovisioninthecontractforfunding.Inadditiontolegalfees,theISEClost themoneyitpaidtosurveythecityforitsinitialproposal.39 Second,justlikeWesternElectric,theWestIndiaOilCompany,theStandardOil subsidiaryinLatinAmerica,likewisewasnotimmunefromthe1920sYankeephobiainUruguay; thoughinthiscase,theagitationcamenotfromthegovernmentbutfromthenewly empoweredradicalmovement.In1925,thefirmfiredachaufferand,deemingthedismissal unfair,theChaufeersUnionofMontevideowentonstrikeagainstWestIndiaOil.Thisboycott entailedselling10centsimoticketstoaidthenonworkingmen,someofwhichunknowingly thestrikerstriedtoselltotheUSchargdaffaires.Thechargreportedthatthecompany
HarrimantotheSecretaryofState,21June1921,DecimalFile,file833.75/3;PhiliptotheSecretaryofState,19 July1921,DecimalFile,file833.75/17;GrantSmithtotheSecretaryofState,15September1925,DecimalFile,file 833.75/40;GrantSmithtotheSecretaryofState,4May1926,DecimalFile,file833.75/57;GrantSmithtothe SecretaryofState,9August1928,DecimalFile,file833.75/61.
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expectedtobreakthestrikebutthatheshouldnotintervenediplomatically,citingthe socialistictendenciesofthegovernment,oftheavowedsympathyoftheworkingclasses,[and] thefavoringoftheunionoflaborersandofthemanyutterancesofBatlleyOrdoezintheir support.Thoughthestrikecontinuedformonths,itresultedinlittlemorethananannoyance forWestIndiaOilbeforeitfinallyfizzledout.Despiteitsshortduration,thestrikefurther demonstratedhowgroupspreviouslysubsumedundertheweightofBatllespoliticalinfluence, inthiscaselabor,actedwhenfreefromthatimpulseafterthe1910s.40 Thirdandmostimportantly,inthe1920sYankeephobestargetedthegreatestsymbolof YankeecommercialimperialismthemostvehementlytheArmourandSwiftfrigorficosin Montevideo.WhentheYankeefirmsmovedinthe1910s,notallUruguayanssupportedthem. Forexample,theElSiglosconservativeeditorsopinedthatveryvastplan...toimplementa monopolyofthecoldbeefindustryintheRiodelaPlataregion,onthepartofYankee interests.Nonetheless,thepoliticalhegemonyoftheBatllistasatthetimemutedanycriticism andstatesupportfortheYankeefrigorficosremainedprominentthroughthe1910sandthe worldwar.Highpricesperheadofcattlebeforeandduringthewar,whentheEuropean marketdemandedmuchbeef,alsomutedcriticismoftheYankeefrigorficos.41 Intheearly1920s,thepriceofbeeffell,owingtothelimitedpurchasingpowerofthe principalconsumersEuropeans;assuch,thenewlyprominentenemiesoftheNorth AmericanfrigorficosbegantochargetheUSfirmswithcollusiontoundermineprices.Asearly as1923,Dr.IruretaGoyena,anexpresidentoftheRuralFederation,apowerfulorganizationof

HofertotheSecretaryofState,20April1925,DecimalFile,file833.5045/10;HofertotheSecretaryofState,20 May1925,DecimalFile,file833.5045/11.
41

40

GuillermoBernhard,ComerciodeCarnesenelUruguay(Montevideo:AguilareIrazabal,1958),65.

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Blancoleaningranchers,gaveaspeechatwhichhearguedthattheYankeefrigorficos,growing morepowerfuleveryday,organizeveritabletreasuresofwarwiththeobjectofdestroying competitionthusproducingnationalruin.BuildingonthestatesactionsagainstBritish railwayandinsuranceinterestsinthe1910s,Goyenaadvocatedastatesupportedfrigorficoto competewiththeUSfirms,despitehisconcernsovertheinefficiencyofsuchstaterun enterprises.Overthenexttwoyears,theRuralAssociationadvocatedthatthelegislature adoptsuchproposalsforastatesupportedfrigorfico,ownedbyacooperativeofthe estancieros.42 WhentheCongresstookuptheproposalin1925,itbecameoneofthedominant domesticissuesinthelate1920s.TheBlancossupportedthemeasurebyarguingthattheUS firmshadestablishedanactualmonopoly,byvirtueofexplicitagreementsormutualinterest inMontevideothroughcollusionandintriguetomaintainlowpricesforheadsofcattle.While theBlancossupportedtheestablishment,theBatllistasdidnot.Theyarguedthattheproposed legislationcreatednotastateownedenterprisebutastaterunenterpriseforthebenefitof thefew,inthiscaseranchers.DespitetheBatllistaopposition,thegovernmentcreatedthe FrigorficoNacionalon6September1928,showingjusthowimpotenttheBatllistamovement hadbecomebythelate1920s.43 Twodaysbeforethepassageofthislaw,theRuralAssociationaskedMinisterVarela AcevedoinWashingtontoinquireoftheYankeefirmstheirexplanationforthelowerpricesper head,especiallyvisvisArgentinecattle.Whilethedelayinsendingtheletter,muchlessthe timeittooktorespondandforwardthoseresponseshadnoeffectontheongoinglegislation,
42 43

PhiliptotheSecretaryofState,27March1923,DecimalFile,file833.6582/16. GadetotheSecretaryofState,7June1928,DecimalFile,833.658/2;Bernhard,74,77.

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theresponsesoftheArmourandSwiftfirmsnonethelessallowedforthepresentationoftheir sideofthestory.EdwardSwiftrepliedfirst,citingsimplythattheBritishmarketprefers ArgentinebeefovertheUruguayansortandtheBritishformedFrigorficoMontevideos principalcustomers.W.W.Shoemaker,replyingforArmour,blamedthreefactorstheBritish preferenceforArgentinebeef,thehighercostofdoingbusinessinUruguayespeciallyinlightof themanyBatllistataxesandrestrictionsonworkhours,andfinallythatduringthewinter monthsintheOrientalRepublic,thefatteningofcattlestops,leavingtheFrigorficoArtigas runningatfullstaffbuthalfinputofcattle.Nonetheless,bythetimetheseresponsesreached theRuralAssociation,thenewstatealreadycommencedconstructiononthenewcooling plant.44 ThisnewstaterunFrigorficoNacionalhadmanyadvantagesovertheArmourandSwift establishments,createdtoaffectamorecompetitivemarket.Forexample,thestategavethe NationalFrigorficoanexclusivemonopolyonthedomesticmarket;theforeignfirmscouldnot selltoUruguayansbutonlycouldexporttheirbeef.Moreover,thestateexemptedthe FrigorficoNacionalfrommosttaxes.WhiletheFrigorficoArtigaspaidapproximately280,000 pesosperyear,orapproximately$250,000US,thenewstatesupportedfirmonlyneededto paythreequartersofthreeminortaxes:municipaltaxes,oldagefunds,andexporttaxes. Finally,unliketheYankeeplants,thenewfrigorficocouldselltobothwholesalersandretailers.

CesarG.GutirreztoVarelaAcevedo,4September1928,AHD/Washington,caja131,carpeta21929;Edward SwifttoVarelaAcevedo,26October1928,AHD/Washington,caja131,carpeta21929;SwifttoVarelaAcevedo,31 December1928,AHD/Washington,caja131,carpeta21929;WWShoemakertoVarelaAcevedo,4January1929, AHD/Washington,caja131,carpeta21929.

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MinisterGrantSmithclaimedtheseprovisionsrepresentedaclearcaseofintended discriminationforeignpackingplants.45 Initially,NorthAmericaninterestshopedthatthenewplantwouldfailandindeedinits firstfewyears,itstruggled.ThesubdirectoroftheSwiftplantinMontevideo,forexample, predictedthatthenewfrigorficowouldfailwithineighteenmonths.Shortlythereafter,it seemedthebusinessmanforecastedcorrectly.Bytheendof1930,theUSlegationreported thattheFrigorficoNacionalhasbeensteadilylosingmoney.46 AfterafewyearsanddespitethepredictionsoftheYankeebusinessmen,theFrigorfico Nacionalsurvived.Usingitsstategrantedmonopolyondomesticmeatconsumptionandits taxexemption,thestatesupportedcoolingplantunderminedtheNorthAmericanowned houses,forcingtheirclosureinthe1950s.TheFrigorficoNacionallasteduntilthe1970s,when thestateabandoneditinlightofmoretechnologicallyadvancedforeigncompetition.Assuch, itrepresentedthefirstinaseriesofprivatizationreformsthroughoutUruguayduringtheLost Decadeofthe1980sundertheauspicesofstructuraladjustment.47 Eventsinthesethreeindustriesinthe1920stelephones,oil,andbeefdemonstrated howmuchtheUSfirmsbegantotaketheplaceoftheBritishfirms,thebaneoftheBatllista stateinthe1910s.NolongerthedarlingsoftheliberalBatllistastate,onceNorthAmerican enterprisespredominatedinUruguay,theybecamethetargetsofnewlypowerfulgroupsas enemiesoftheUruguayannation.Forexample,thedissidentBatllistasinalliancewiththe
GrantSmithtotheSecretaryofState,2October1928,DecimalFile,file833.658/3;C.CarrigantotheSecretary ofState,4December1927,DecimalFile,file833.6852/32. GadetotheSecretaryofState,29December1930,DecimalFile,file833.658/5;C.CarrigantotheSecretaryof State,4December1927,DecimalFile,file833.6852/32. BarryKrissoff,MaryBohman,andJulieA.Caswell,GlobalFoodTradeandConsumerDemandforQuality(New York:KluwerAcademic,2002),131.
47 46 45

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BlancosontheNationalAdministrativeCouncilunderminedWesternElectricattemptstobuild theMontevideoundergroundtelephonesystem.SocialistsstruckoutagainstWestIndiaOil. TheBlancocontrolledRuralAssociationexertedenoughauthorityin1928tocreateastate supportedenterprisetocompetewiththeNorthAmericanmeatpackers,justasBatllehaddone withtheBritishrailwaysin1914. EvenBatllistas,generallysupportersoftheUS,wouldhavefoundcauseforconcernif theyknewthatNorthAmericandiplomatsdidnotunderstandthedynamicsoftheproblem. Foolishly,MinisterGrantSmithwrotetoWashingtonin1927thathefeltthatthefundamental interestsoftheUnitedStatesandGreatBritaininUruguay,andinfactallLatinAmerican countries,areidentical.Thoughthediplomatmarkedthedispatchconfidentialandno evidencesuggestsBatllistasgotwindofit,itnonethelessshowsthatatleastoneUSagentdid notquiteunderstandtheerrorsthatassociatingwiththecommercialbaneoftheRiverPlate couldbringevenfortheUSsrelationswiththeregion.48 Reformisminthe1920s TheproblemsinUSUruguayanrelationsimpactedtheadoptionofUSideasevenasthe Batllistareformimpulsedissipatedduringthe1920s.Batllesstrugglestocontrolhisownparty andtheremovalofProgressivesfromofficeintheUnitedStatesmeantthatculturalintercourse betweenthetwostatesabatedbutdidnotdisappear.Duringthe1920s,theBrum,Serrato, andCampisteguyadministrationsmaintainedtheBatllistadesireforProgressiveUSreformers,
GrantSmithtotheSecretaryofState,22April1927,DecimalFile,file711.33/9.Emphasisinoriginal.

48

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sentUruguayanagentstotheUStostudyNorthAmericaninstitutions,andingeneral embodiedUSideasforsomestatebuilding.Nonetheless,thesheerquantitydwarfedthe amountofexchangethatoccurredbeforethewar. TheUruguayangovernmentstillsoughtatleastoneProgressiveexpertfromtheUS.In 1923,theForeignMinistryaskedMinisterVarelaAcevedotoobtainorganizationandfunction oftheUSBureauofEfficiency,aProgressiveEraagencydesignedtodecreasegovernment waste,andaskedifhecouldfindaqualifiedexperttomakesomesomethingsimilarinour country.TheUruguayanchargdaffairesdidsoandtheUruguayangovernmenthireda Yankeeexpertforthatpurpose.49 Moreover,theUruguayangovernmentsentexpertsofitsowntotheUnitedStatesto studyNorthAmericanconditions.Forinstance,in1926,PedroMendezLes,aprofessorof agronomiceducation,touredtheUStostudynewagriculturalteachingmethods.Thesame year,BernardoRietmadeatriptostudyYankeezooandthegovernmentsentEduardoGuarino tostudydairyschoolsintheUS.In1928,CrescencioCoccarovisitedUSschoolsonbehalfofthe MinistryofEducationandreturnedfavorablyimpressedaccordingtotheUSminister.50 Likewise,the1920sUruguayanadministrationssoughtUSideasinsomeareasofstate building.Forexample,in1923,theForeignMinistryorderedVarelaAcevedotoobtainallthe informationhecouldaboutnavalaviationinasmuchasUruguaywascommencingaprogram.
MinistrodeRelacionesExteriorestoLegaciondelUruguayenWashington(telegram),1July1922, AHD/Washington,caja90,carpeta434,expediente15;RobertBrowntoHugoV.dePena,3July1922, AHD/Washington,caja90,carpeta434,expediente15;AHD112,502,1 MinistrodeRelacionesExteriorestoVarelaAcevedo,24May1926,AHD/Washington,caja112,carpeta502, expediente1;MinistrodeRelacionesExteriorestoVarelaAcevedo,1December1926,AHD/Washington,caja112, carpeta502,expediente1;MinistrodeRelacionesExteriorestoVarelaAcevedo,19July1926,AHD/Washington, caja112,carpeta502,expediente1;GadetotheSecretaryofState,14June1928,DecimalFile,file833.00Gen Conditions/12.
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TheStateDepartmentforwardedasmuchdeclassifiedinformationonorganization,munitions, planes,andaviationinstructionasitcould.Laterthatyear,theForeignMinistryrequestedthat VarelaAcevedoobtainpoliceregulationsandmodeluniformsforuseinreformingthe municipalpoliceforcesinUruguay.Thediplomatcompliedandreceivedthedesired informationfromthePoliceCommissionerofNewYork.51 Otherthantheseexpertsandideas,thereformismofthe1910sfelltononstateactors andtheygenerallydistrustedUSactions.Intwokeymovements,antialcoholismandfeminism, prominentNorthAmericanreformerssoughttoexporttheirsocialrevolutionstoSouth America.Afterlongstruggles,in1919theWomansChristianTemperanceUnion(WCTU)and variousprohibitionistorganizationssucceededinpassingtheEighteenthAmendmentandthe VolsteadAct,whichprohibitedthesaleandconsumptionofalcoholicspritsintheUS.The followingyear,feministswonwiththerighttovoteinfederalelectionswiththeratificationof theNineteenthAmendment.Intheearly1920s,Yankeeteetotalersandfeministssoughtto exportthesesuccessestoSouthAmerica,Uruguayincluded.Inbothcases,owingtothe rampantantiNorthAmericansentimentandthefailureoftheBatllistaswhosupportedboth reformstomaintainpoliticalcontrolofthestate,OrientalreformerskepttheirYankee counterpartsatarmslength. Intheearly1920s,prohibitionistsattemptedtofurthertheUruguayanantialcoholic movement.Asnotedabove,in1915,theVieraadministrationhadseeminglymollifiedthemby
MinistrodeRelacionesExteriorestoVarelaAcevedo,6November1922,AHD/Washington,caja90,carpeta434, expediente7;RobertWoodsBlisstoVarelaAcevedo,6March1923,AHD/Washington,caja90,carpeta434, expediente7;BlisstoVarelaAcevedo,7March1923,AHD/Washington,caja90,carpeta434,expediente7; MinistrodeRelacionesExteriorestoVarelaAcevedo(telegram),28April1923,AHD/Washington,caja90,carpeta 434,expediente11;RichardEnrighttoVarelaAcevedo,16May1923,AHD/Washington,caja90,carpeta434, expediente11.
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proposingaweakprohibitionistlaw,whichonlyprohibitedthesaleofalcoholincertainpublic places,topolicemen,andtosoldiers,whilebanningonlyabsinthe.TheUSministerassumed thisweaklaw,finallypassedin1920,resultedfromtheinterventionofWCTUmissionary HardyniaNorvillesinfluenceinMontevideo.Evenso,the1920lawfailedtoillegalize consumptionorprivatesales,ashadtheVolsteadActintheUnitedStates.Bytheearly twenties,USreformersoftheWCTUandtheiralliesinUruguaysoughttoreinauguratethe fighttoendtheconsumptionofthedevilsbrews.Forexample,whenSecretaryofStateColby visitedinDecember1920,theWCTUaffiliatedLigaNacionalcontraelAlcoholismoaskedhim andhispartytorefusealcohol,knowinghowtheofficialsofUruguayarelookingtotheUnited Statesforexample.Colbyandhiscadredeclinedtherequestpolitely.Nonetheless,the successofUSProhibitionandthesupportofprominentteetotalersinUruguay,including PresidentBrum,whoprohibitedalcoholinthePresidentialPalaceduringhisterm,encouraged theUruguayanprohibitionistmovement.52 Assuch,in1921theWCTUsentPresidentMissAnnaGordononaSouthAmericantour, ideallytorevivethemovementforfullprohibition.LeavinginMarch,GordonandJuliaDeane, themanagingeditoroftheWCTUsorganTheUnionSignal,firstvisitedPanama,Peru,Chile, andArgentinabeforearrivinginMontevideoinearlyMay.Thewomenpublicallystatedthat ArgentinaandUruguayservedastheirchiefobjectivesinthefightagainstKingAlcohol,owing totheRiverPlatesentrenchedprohibitionistmovementsandthereformminded governments.InMontevideo,GordonmetwithmanyprominentwomenfromtheLiga
W.C.T.U.inSouthAmerica,TheNewYorkTimes,3April1921;JefferytotheSecretaryofState,6November 1915,DecimalFile,file833.114/2;DryCampaigninUruguay,TheNewYorkTimes,17May1920;ASouth AmericanHolidaySeason,TheUnionSignal,17March1921.
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NacionalcontraelAlcoholismo,includingBernardinaMuozdeMara,ManueladeSalteran, CarrievanDomselaar,andIsabelGonzlezRodrguez.Thereafter,shetouredschoolsandthe federalpenitentiarybeforespreadingherdrymessageattheAthenaeum,theAmerican WomansClub,andmostimportantlytheLigasannualconvention.Assheleft,Deanefeltthat thepredictionthatUruguayisontheroadtoprohibitionoftheliquortradeisasafeone. Thereafter,GordonandDeanevisitedBrazilandtheMadieraIslandsbeforereturningtothe UnitedStates.53 ThoughGordonpredictedadryUruguayby1925,hervisitlargelyfailedtoarousethe prohibitionistmovementinUruguay.BatllesElDafailedeventodiscernherstay,butforsmall correction,attherequestoftheLiga,ofthetimeofherAthenaeumtalkthatotherdailieshad misprinted.Moreover,politicallyimportantmen,includingBatllehimself,didnotseekto prohibitthemanufacture,distribution,orconsumptionofalcoholbutinsteaddesiredthatthe stateregulateit.Forexample,almostassoonasGordonleftMontevideo,Batlle,nowa memberoftheNationalAdministrativeCouncil,proposedanotherprojectforastatealcohol monopolybutnotlegalphrohibition.Moreover,bothheandotherBatllistasjustifiedthis projectnotonmoralbutmostlyoneconomicgrounds.Theyarguedthattherevenuefor alcoholpurchases,mostofwhichwerefromforeignfirms,almostexclusivelyleftthecountry, exacerbatingtheUruguayantradedeficit.Astatealcoholmonopoly,Batlleandothersargued, meantthatrevenuewouldstayinsidethecountrytofundsocialprogramswhileundermining foreigneconomicimperialism.Likewise,thestatecouldbetterassurethequalityofthe produceddrinks,limitingtheboozeseffectonpublichealth.Thoughastatealcoholmonopoly
HarrimantotheSecretaryofState,5May1921,DecimalFile,file833.00/150;PeregrinationsoftheW.C.T.U Pilgrims,UnionSignal,14July1921;PeregrinationsoftheW.C.T.UPilgrims,UnionSignal,28July1921.
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didnotpassuntilthelate1920s,theemphasisBatlleplacedonitratherthantemperance showedhowmuchtheUSreformershadfalleninhiseyes.54 Justlikeantialcoholism,feminismhadalonghistoryinUruguaythatpredatedthe 1920s.Onerecenthistoriantracesitbacktothe1880s,whenCatholicwomenformedgroups tocounterthegrowinganticlericalmovementamongsttheColorados.Intheearlytwentieth century,thefeministmovementstrengthenedandthreestrainsexistedthesocialist,the liberalanticlerical,andtheCatholicallwithsimilarmeansbutdifferentgoals.Batlleallied himselfwiththissecondgroup,needingtheirexperienceinsocialassistanceandpoliticalclout asananticlericalconstituency.Assuch,whiletheBatllistasdidnotpasswomenssuffragein the1910s,numerousreformsoftheareadidtargetwomen,namelydivorceattheinsistenceof thewomanandwomenseducationalfacilities,whileBatlle,throughElDa,advocatedfurther politicalandsocialadvancementsforwomen.Nonetheless,ashistorianChristineEhrickwrites, thesereformswerealwaysundertheguiseofpaternalisticprotection.55 Intheseearlydays,UruguayanfeminismbuiltonEuropeanandArgentine,notNorth American,models.Forexample,keyOrientalfeministssuchasPaulinaLuisitraveled extensivelyinFranceandaroundtheSouthernconetodiscusstheirmovementswithother womensrightsadvocates.Uponreturninghome,theybuilttheirorganizationsonaFrench modelemphasizingpositiveversusnegativeeugenictheories,forexampleandlearnedfrom Argentinemistakesinorganizationalstructure.
EnhonordeMissGordn,ElDia,4May1921;MonopoliodelAlcohol,ElDa,31May1921;ElMonopolio delalcohol,ElDa,17August1921;Ehrick,TheShieldoftheWeak,87. Ehrick,TheShieldoftheWeak,37,66,74,92,128;Ehrick,MadrinasandMissionaries:UruguayandthePan AmericanWomensMovement,Gender&History10,no.3(November1998):418.Onthedivorcereform, surprisingly,theWCTUsJuliaDeanecommentedthattheUnitedStatesmightwelladoptthisUruguayanlawto helpdecreasetheshamefulnumberofdivorces.SeeASouthAmericanHolidaySeason,TheUnionSignal,17 March1921.
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Atthesametime,USfeminismappearedonlysparinglyinElDa.Occasionally,the editorsnotedthatYankeewomencouldvoteinsomeUSstatesand,aftertheNinetieth Amendmentspassage,nationwide.Likewise,a1919articleentitledElfeminismoenel ejrcitobrieflydetailedthedutiesofMrs.HaroldDoddusingherhusbandsnameasthe firstfemaleradiotelegraphengineerintheUSArmy.MostofElDasarticlesdiscussed concurrentfeministmovementsinItaly,France,andBritainratherthanNorthAmerica.In otherwords,BatllistasandtheirliberalfeministalliesdidnotreplicateBatllesUSbasedstate buildinginthefeministarenainthe1910s.56 Duringthe1920s,thischangedslightly,whenNorthAmericanwomensoughttoaid theirLatinAmericansistersinobtainingthepoliticalsymbolofthefeministstruggle,theballot. Yankeewomenhadwontherighttovoteinnationalelectionsin1919oneofthelastofthe ProgressivereformsenactedandmanyNorthAmericanfeministssoughttoexporttheir victorytotherestofthehemispherethroughPanAmericanconferences.TheLeagueof WomenVoters(LWV)sponsoredthefirstandmostimportantofthese,the1922PanAmerican ConferenceofWomeninBaltimore.Theconferencebroughttogetherovertwothousand womenforfourdays.ProminentUSfeministCarrieChapmanCattpresidedandtheconference electedLuisivicepresident.TheLWVsoughttocounterdominantantiYankeeviewsinLatin Americabyhelpingtheirsistersgainthevoteandanequalshareoftheirnationspoliticalpie. Indeed,theconferenceledtothecreationofthePanAmericanAssociationforthe AdvancementofWomen.Nonetheless,theconferencefailedtoallayLatinAmericandistrustof
Ehrick,TheShieldoftheWeak,104,131;Ehrick,MadrinasandMissionaries,410;Elrolsocialdelamujer,El Da,18February1916;Elfeminismoenelejercito,ElDa,27April1919;Elvotofeminino,ElDa,30October 1919.
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USforeignpolicyand,owingtothearroganceoftheUSdelegationthatprominentfeminist CarrieChapmanCattled,achievedverylittleininterAmericanfemalesolidarity.57 CattattemptedtofollowuptheconferencewithatouroftheSouthernConeinlate 1922andearly1923.AftervisitstoRiodeJanieroandBuenosAires,thewomanofgreat intelligenceandofsingularenergy,accordingtoElDa,arrivedinMontevideoon25January 1923.TheoutgoingBrumgovernmentgreetedherfinelypayingforherhotelstayand providingherpartytwoluxuryautomobiles.UnlikepreviousYankeevisitors,whobidedtheir timeinbanquets,speeches,andparades,thesuffragistspentmostofhertimeconsultingwith thevariousfeministsgroups,includingtheConsejoNacionaldeMujeresandtheAlianza UruguayaparaelSufragioFemenino.Evenso,CattalsosatforaninterviewwithPresident Brum,astaunchsupporterofthefemaleballot,anduniversitystudentstoencouragethemto supportwomenssuffrage.Intheshortterm,hervisitdidrevivethedebateinUruguay.Atthe heightofherstopover,ElDaonceagainreiterateditsargumentinfavorofallowingwomen politicalauthority.Finally,on29January,shereturnedtoBuenosAiresenroutetoSantiagode Chiletocontinuehertour.58 Nevertheless,CattstourexemplifiedthefailureofYankeefeminismvisvisthe Uruguayanreform.WhileNorthAmericanwomenactiviststriedtocurryfavorwiththeirLatin Americancounterparts,theyfailedmiserablyfortworeasons.First,theculturalYankee arroganceathavingobtainedtheballotfirst,whichCattpersonified,turnedoffUruguayan
MeganThrelkeld,ThePanAmericanConferenceofWomen,1922:SuccessfulSuffragistsTurntoInternational RelationsDiplomaticHistory31,no.5(November2007):8012,819,827. Unarepresentantedelfeminismomundial,ElDa,24January1923;LosDerechosdelaMujerenelUruguay, ElDa,26January1923;MissC.ChapmanCatt,ElDa,27January1923;Lasconferencias,ElDa,28January 1923;Losderechosdelamujer,ElDa,29January1923;MissCarrieC.Catt,ElDa,30January1923;Jacqueline vanVoris,CarrieChapmanCatt:APublicLife(NewYork:TheFeministPressattheCityUniversityofNewYork, 1987),177.
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liberalfeministsincludingLuisi.Forexample,whenElDainterviewedCattonherarrivalinto Montevideo,hertreatmentoftheUruguayanfeministmovementstunkofcondescension. FocusingonUruguaysfailuresinwomensrightsratherthanitssuccesses,sheuncouthlynoted thatUruguaylosestimeeachyearthatpasseswithoutobtainingthecomplementaryactionof womenintheseatsofpower.Indeed,duringhertrip,Cattdescribedherselfasamissionary aloadedtermsignifyingculturalimperialismratherthananassistantorcatalyst.Second, thegeneraltenorofUSUruguayanpoliticalrelationsinthe1920s,thatofdistrust,madeit difficultforOrientalwomentosupportpublicallyUSeffortsatwhatmanydoubtlesslycitedas USculturalimperialism.Indeed,historianChristineEhrickcorrectlyassertsthatbythe 1920s,womensattainmentofthevoteintheUScoupledwithincreasedNorthAmerican interventioninLatinAmericanaffairsbecameasourceoftensionanddisillusionmentamong someLatinAmericanfeminists.ThisstatementespeciallyholdstrueinUruguay,where womenhadtowaituntilDecember1932fortherighttoentervotingboothslegally.59 Reproachmentinthelate1920s Bythelate1920s,bothUruguayansandNorthAmericansattemptedtohealrelations witheachother,partoftheCoolidgeadministrationslargerefforttocorrecttheantiYankee animositythroughoutLatinAmericaattheendoftheBayStatersterm.Inthislight,Coolidge namedDwightMorrowasAmbassadortoMexico(19271930),wherehebecameaconfidantto PresidentPlutarcoElasCallesandhelpedrestorediplomaticgoodwillthattheMexican
59

Ehrick,MadrinasandMissionaries,409,4189;LosDerechosdelaMujerenelUruguay,ElDa,26January 1923.

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Revolution,andUSpolicytowardsit,haddestroyed.Likewise,Coolidgecurriedamityamongst LatinAmericandiplomatsbypersonallyattendingtheSixthInternationalConferenceof AmericanStatesinHavanain1928,becomingthefirstpresidenttoattendsuchameeting outsidetheUnitedStates.60 LateCoolidgeerareproachmentbetweentheUSandUruguaytooktwoforms.First, thetwocountriesengagedinftboldiplomacy.Second,Coolidgeadministrationlikewisefelt thatsendingPresidentelectHerbertHooverinlate1928onagoodwilltourofSouthAmerica wouldrevivethefriendshipofthe1906visitofElihuRoot.Giventhedistrustestablished betweenthetwostates,nonetheless,eacheffortfailedtobringaboutthedesiredreturnto amicablerelations. ThefirstattemptatreproachmentinvolvedtheUruguayannationalpassionsoccer. TheUruguayannationalside,thefirstSouthAmericanteamtoparticipateandtomedalinany modernOlympicgames,hadwonthegoldmedalatthe1924OlympicsinParis,defeatingthe USteamenroute.InParis,theteamavoidedthephysicalstyleofEuropeanplayandinstead dazzleditsopponentswithshort,quick,andaccuratepassestowinthetitleoverSwitzerland. Realizingthevictorysdiplomatic,commercial,andpropagandisticvalue,theUruguayansoccer federation,theAsociacinUruguayadeFtbol(AUF),decidedtosenditsmostsuccessfulclub team,ClubNacionaldeFootball,onaEuropeantourin1925.IntheOldWorld,Nacional conqueredopponentsinFrance,Spain,Austria,Belgium,Czechoslovakia,Switzerland,Holland, andPortugal.61
AlexanderDeConde,HerbertHooversGoodWillTour,TheHistorian12,no.2(Spring1950):168.

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SportsoftheTimes,TheNewYorkTimes,8March1927;UruguayanSoccerTeamDrills,TheNewYork Times,17March1927;DavidMiller,TheOfficialHistoryoftheOlympicGamesandtheIOC(EdinburghandLondon:

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BuildingonthesuccessoftheEuropeantour,theAUFsentNacionaltotheUnited Statesin1927.Whentheside,consistingoftenmembersofthe1924goldmedalwinning team,arrivedinFebruary1927,theteampresidentJosDelgradoexplainedthattheplayers aimednottotrimyourcrackAmericanteams,buttoshowyouthatwehaveafraternal feelingtowardstheUnitedStates.Despitesuchrhetoric,NacionaldidinfacttrimtheYankee squads.InatourthatlastedthroughMayandspannednineUScitiesNewYork,Newark,Fall River,Boston,Detroit,Cleveland,St.Louis,Chicago,andPhiladelphiatheUruguayanswon9, drew2,andlost3games.Insodoing,theteamdefeatedmanyprominentNorthAmerican teams,includingIndianaFlooring,theBrooklynWanderers,andanallstarteamofUSplayers. Moreover,theUruguayansidedrewincreasedfanstothesport;initsfirstgameon20March againstIndianaFlooring,thematchdrewanunanticipated20,000fanstothePoloGroundsin Brooklyn,astadiumthatusuallywelcomedonlyhalfthatmanyfordomesticmatches.62 Nevertheless,tworiotsoccurredduringthetour.ThefirstoccurredinNewarkon27

Marchoverrulesinterpretation.UruguayanshadaccustomedthemselvestoaEuropeanrule, whichdisallowedopposingplayersfromenteringthepenaltyareawhenagoaltendertooka
MainstreamPublishing,2008),87,465,538;Someexplanationisinorderbecauseofconfusingnomenclature.The ClubNacionaldeFootballisalocalorclubteamthatcompetedwiththeotherclubteamssuchasRiverPlateand Pearol.Nacionalsucceededinthe1920sandplacedmanymembersontheUruguayannationalteambutthetwo teamsNacionalandtheUruguayannationalsoccerteamwereandaretwodifferententities. UruguaysElevenSails,TheNewYorkTimes,26February1927;SoccerOfficialsHonorUruguayans,TheNew YorkTimes,18March1927;UruguayTriumphsinSoccerDebut,TheNewYorkTimes,21March1927;Uruguayis PressedtoTieWanderers,TheNewYorkTimes,27March1927;PoliceRiotSquadEndsSoccerMelee,TheNew YorkTimes,28March1927;UruguayansDownAllStarU.S.Team,TheNewYorkTimes,3April1927; UruguayansHoldFallRivertoTie,TheNewYorkTimes,11April1927;UruguaysRallyDownsWanderers,The NewYorkTimes,17April1927;FourHurtinRiotatSoccerContest,TheNewYorkTimes,20April1927;Uruguay ConquersDetroitEleven,21,TheNewYorkTimes,25April1927;UruguayansBlankCleveland,3to0,TheNew YorkTimes,2May1927;UruguayisVictorinSoccerMatch,TheNewYorkTimes,9May1927;Uruguayan ElevenBeatsSparta,10,TheNewYorkTimes,May1927;UruguayLosesChicagoGame,HakoahTeamWinsin Detroit,TheNewYorkTimes,May1927;UruguaydefeatsPhiladelphia,TheNewYorkTimes,29May1927; UruguayDefeatsWanderers,2to1,TheNewYorkTimes,31May1927.
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freekick.AmemberoftheNewarkAmericansdidnotheedthisregulation,notthencommon intheNorthAmericanversionofthesport,tempersescalated,andthegameended prematurelywhenonethousandfansrushedthefieldwhilethesecurityforcescalledtheriot police.TheNewYorkTimessportseditor,JohnKieran,foundhumorintheevent.Henoted that,sincenorevolverswerefoundamongthespectatorsandnobodyburneddownthe stands,...thegamehasmadeactualprogresstowardbetterthingsinthiscountry.Likewise, Kierannoted,whiletheplayersfought,hesightedpoliceofficersplayingsoccerwiththe spectatorswhorushedthefieldandnotedthateveryonewasworkingatthewrongtrade. TheUruguayanconsulinNewYork,JosRichling,calmedfeelingstoallowthetourto continue.63 ThesecondmoreseriousriotoccurredinBostonon19April.TheUruguayanteam suspectedtherefereeoffavoringtheBostonsidethroughoutthegame.Whentheofficial calledahandballpenaltyagainsttheUruguayansinthepenaltyarea,leadingtoaBostongoal, theOrientalteamcomplainedvociferouslyoverthecall.Thisfracasledtotwothousandfans rushingthefield.UnliketheriotinNewark,theBostonriotinjuredfourspectatorstherioters trampledtwowomenandtwomensufferedfromkickstothegroinhardenoughtorender thenunconscious.ThepolicerushedtheNacionalplayersoffthefieldandtoprotection.The gameendedina11tieandthetourcontinueddespitethemelee.64 Overall,thetoursuccessfullydemonstratedtheUruguayanskillinthesportbutdidnot underminemanyofthetensionsprominentinUSUruguayanrelations.Truly,thetourdidopen

PoliceRiotSquadEndsSoccerMelee,TheNewYorkTimes,28March1927;SportsoftheTimes,TheNew YorkTimes,29March1927;UruguayanConsulMendsSoccerRift,TheNewYorkTimes,30March1927.
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FourHurtinRiotatSoccerContest,TheNewYorkTimes,20April1927.

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upculturalinterchangeintheUSforotherforeignteamstotourthroughouttheremainderof the1920sand1930sbuttheUruguayanscouldnotdispelmanyofthemythsofUruguayansor LatinAmericansprominentintheUS.Forexample,attheconclusionofthevisit,Kiernan embracedmanyLatinAmericanstereotypeswhenhewrotethatduringthetour,the UruguayanConsulGeneralwasbusyexplainingthatitreallywasasoccertourandnota transplantedSouthAmericanrevolution.Moreover,henotedthattheladsfromthe overheatedcountryplayedanoverheatedgame.Inotherwords,despitethesuccessofthe tour,thefutbolistascouldnotovercomethetensionsofUSUruguayanrelationsinthe1920s.65 Nonetheless,ftboldiplomacydidnotstopwiththe1927UStour.InApril1929,the

AUFaskedtheMinistryofForeignRelationstohelpitinacquiringforUruguaythehostingof thefirstWorldFootballChampionships,nowdenominatedtheWorldCup,in1930.The ministrycabledMinisterVarelaAcevedoinWashingtontopushforUSsupportatthe FdrationInternationaledeFootballAssociation(FIFA)meetinginBarcelonainMay1929. VarelaAcevedo,throughSecretaryofStateHenryStimson,PanAmericanUnionDirector GeneralLeoS.Rowe,andhisownauspices,spokewithG.RandolphManningandThomasCahill oftheUnitedStatesFootballAssociation,andconvincedthemtosupportUruguaysbid. ManningagreedtobackUruguayastheUSrepresentativeinBarcelona,butfeltitsproposal wasunlikelytoattractEuropeansupport,citingUruguaysdistanceandfinancialproblems. Nonetheless,ManningreturnedfromSpainwithgoodnewsUruguaywouldhostthefirst WorldChampionshipatitsnewEstadioCentenarioinMontevideobydefaultasalltheother biddersdroppedout.ElDacalledthisselectionagreathonor.The1930competition
SportsoftheTimes,TheNewYorkTimes,10June1927.

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resultedinthehostswinningtheirfirstworldtitle.EventhoughManningdidnotneedtovote, hiswillingnesstodosodemonstratedsomeamitystillremainedinUSUruguayanrelations.66 WhileUruguayansattemptedtousesporttoreachanaccordwiththeYankee,US

policymakerssoughttocurryfavorwithSouthAmericansbysendingPresidentelectHerbert HoovertothecontinentinDecember1928.Afterreceivingenoughelectoralvotestosucceed Coolidge,theexSecretaryofCommercedecidedtotraveltotourLatinAmerica,oneofthefew regionstheworldlyHooverhadyettovisit.Thereasoningbehindthetripresultedfromthe sameimpulsesthatsentElihuRootaroundSouthAmericain1906tocounterdisgustamong LatinAmericansforaprecedingforcefulandarrogantforeignpolicy.LeavingaboardtheUSS Marylandon19November1928,HooverbrieflyvisitedHonduras,ElSalvador,Nicaragua,Costa Rica,Ecuador,Peru,Chile,Argentina,Uruguay,andBrazilbeforereturninghomeinJanuary 1929.67 Batllistasreceivedthepresidentelectcordiallyandenthusiastically.Onthemorningof

arrival,16December,ElDawelcomingthepresidentelecteagerly,editorializingthatUruguay receivesasagranthonorandwiththeutmostjubilation,thevisitoftheillustriouspresident electoftheUnitedStatesandconfidesfundamentallyinthejustice,respect,andfraternalspirit inwhichheproceedstotheLatincountriesofthecontinent.HooverarrivedfromBuenos Airestoarousingdemonstrationof100,000people,accordingtotheNewYorkTimes,at around8pm.AftermeetingPresidentCampisteguyatthedock,Hoovertookintheusual

MinistrodeRelacionesExteriorestoVarelaAcevedo(telegram),26April1929,AHD/Washingtoncaja131, carpeta301929;WPFlowertoLSRowe,1May1929,AHD/Washingtoncaja131,carpeta301929;Randolph ManningtoRowe,7May1929,AHD/Washingtoncaja131,carpeta301929;VarelaAcevedotoRufinoDominguez, 16May1929,AHD/Washingtoncaja131,carpeta301929;HonrosoparaNuestroPais,ElDa,19May1929;El CapeonatoMundialenMontevideo,ElDa,20May1929.
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militaryparade.Thenextday,Hooversonlyfulldayinthecity,theformerCommerce Secretaryundertookmeetings,aprivateaudiencewithCampisteguy,andatourofthealmost completePalacioLegislativo,themarblejewelofthenewBatllistaMontevideoskyline.68 Thatevening,Hooverattendedapresidentialbanquetandhisspeechthereindeserves

noticeinasmuchasitrecalledaformerperiodofUSUruguayanrelationsandhopedfora returntothatamity.Arguingthathisbriefstayrepresentedthecourtesycallofonegood neighbortoanother,thepresidentelectpraisedUruguayforitsresources,magnificentroads, publicworks,beautifulcapitalcity,multitudeofschoolsandculturalagencies,[allofwhich] bespeakapeoplealert,vigorous,andprogressive.Indeed,Hooveradvocatedthefurther exchangeofideas,findingthemevenmorevitallyimportanttohumanitythantheexchange ofcommoditieswhicharebutperishable.Hoover,itseems,foundhimselftwodecadesinthe pastwithregardstoUSUruguayanrelations.HeleftthefollowingmorningforRiodeJaniero.69 Underneaththisofficialfaade,nonetheless,Hooversvisitdidnotmimicthecordiality

thatRootreceivedin1906orColbyreceivedin1920.EvenElDa,despiteitsoverwhelming praisefortheman,nonethelessexpressedsomeconcernsinaneditorialentitledToMr. Hooveron17December.Thewriter,probablyBatllehimself,offeredsomefriendlyadvicefor HoovertoimproveUSLatinAmericanrelations,namelyendingunilateralinterventionsand rescindingtheRooseveltCorollarytotheMonroeDoctrine.MoreimportantthantheElDa articlewashowMontevideounofficiallygreetedHoover.UponHooverslanding,asmall

MontevideoHailsHooveronArrivalonArgentineShip,TheNewYorkTimes,17December1928;Hoover,El Da,16December1928;AMr.Hoover,ElDa,17December1928;LaVisitadeMr.Hoover,ElDa,18December 1928;LaVisitadeMr.Hoover,ElDa,17December1928; AddressesDeliveredduringtheVisitofHerbertHoover,PresidentElectoftheUnitedStatestoCentralandSouth America,NovemberDecember1928(Washington,D.C.:PanAmericanUnion,1929),367;HooverAdvocates ExchangeofIdeas,TheNewYorkTimes,18December1928;SeFueMr.Hoover,ElDa,2January1929.
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numberofPCUpartisansshoutedsloganssuchasVivaSandino!andDownwithimperialist America!WhenthepresidentelectofficiallymetPresidentCampisteguyattheGovernment Palace,PCUpartisansparadedproSandinobannersoutsideuntilthecityspoliceforcibly dispersedthem.GiventheradicalsreactiontotheSaccoandVanzetticaseincludinga generalstrikeandabombpoliceguardedHoovercloselyanddetainedafewirresponsible persons,accordingtothepolicechief.Despitesuchprotests,theprecautionsworkedandthe communistsonlyservedtodistractthetour.Evenso,theiractionsstandoutasnotablein comparisontheoverwhelminglyhasslefreetoursofRootandColbyanddemonstratejusthow thepost1916BatllistadeclineunderminedevenaUSgoodwilltour.70 Assuch,HooversvisitdidnotdrasticallyalterUSUruguayanrelationsashehadhoped. Intheshortterm,USchargGadereportedinJanuary1929thatMontevideosnewspapershad resisteddenigratingtheUnitedStatesforabouttwoweeks.Nonetheless,bythetimeHoover tooktheoathofoffice,themediacontinuedtolambasttheUS,thoughnotHooverpersonally, foritsimperialistpracticesinLatinAmerica.TheIowansvisitthusbroughtaboutatwoweek moratoriumtopublicYankeephobiainMontevideo,hardlyHooversdesiredresult.71 Ifteetotalers,feminists,soccer,andHerbertHoovercouldnotsaveUSUruguayan relations,whatcould?Bylate1929,itbecameclearthatMinisterGrantSmithswordsin1926 provedtrue.Thatyear,heinformedWashingtonthatfriendlyfeelingstowardstheUnited States...wereconfinedlargelytotheleadersoftheBatllistafactionoftheColoradoParty.
AMr.Hoover,ElDa,17December1928;MontevideoHailsHooveronArrivalofArgentineShip,TheNew YorkTimes,17December1928;HooverAdvocatesExchangeofIdeaswithUruguayans,TheNewYorkTimes,18 December1928.
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GadetotheSecretaryofState,25January1929,DecimalFile,file833.00GenConditions/21.

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Indeed,by1929,cracksineventhatgroupbecameevident.InMarch1929,USchargdaffaires inMontevideoGerhardGadenotedthatonlyBatlleandhislieutenantDomingoArena supportedtheUnitedStates,rememberingtheservicetheUSrenderedindissuadingthe Argentinesin1904.GadeominouslywrotethatevenBaltasarBrum,whostaunchlysupported theUSinthewarasForeignMinister,wasnowextremelyantiAmerican.72 SuchresentmentamongoneofthegreatestUSsupportedindicatedtheextentofthe declineofUSUruguayanrelationsinthe1920s.AstheUSbecamemoreconservative,Batlle lostcontroloftheColoradoParty,andUScapitalsupplantedBritishinvestors,politicalelites andreformersinbothcountriesbuiltuponafoundationofgrowingdistrust.Batllebecamea socialistinUSdiplomaticeyes.USfailurestostandupfordemocraticideals,byeither executinganarchistsorinvadingNicaragua,becamerallyingcriesforgroupsthattheColorado Partyeasilysuppressedbeforeandduringthewar.Finally,NorthAmericaninvestments becamethetarget,notthesavior,ofUruguayannationalism. Nevertheless,aslongasBatlleremainedalive,Uruguayanreformersstillsoughtto enrichthelifeofpeople,andtheworldwideeconomypermittedenoughcapitalmovementthat Montevideocouldaffordtotaxtheinteriortosupporttheballooninggovernment,the possibilitylingeredfortheimprovementofUSUruguayanrelations.Afterall,theliberal reformistimpulsethatBatllepersonifiedandthestableeconomythatunderwroteitsfinances stayedaroundinUruguay.Albeit,thisimpulsedeclinedgraduallythroughthe1920s,thesoccer tourandHooversvisitdemonstratedthatbothsidesatleastattemptedtorevivethe diplomaticunitythatexistedbeforeandduringtheGreatWar.
GrantSmithtotheSecretaryofState,1October1926,DecimalFile,file711.33/7;GadetotheSecretaryof State,19March1929,DecimalFile,file711.33/16.
72

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TwoeventsinOctober1929,nonetheless,endedanysuchhopeforarevivalofliberal amity.On20October,JosBatlleyOrdoezdiedofheartfailure.Themanwhoorganizedand ledthemostfarreachingandprogressivereformthatLatinAmericanhadyettoseeinthe 1910s,passedoninaMontevideohospital.Fourdayslater,asUruguaygrievedwhileBatllelay instateintheLegislativePalace,asecondroundofbadnewsreachedthewiresarecord numberofstockjobberssoldtheirstocksandtheNewYorkStockExchangebeganitsdescent towardstheGreatDepression.Uruguayanliberalismlostitsleaderandtheboomingeconomy tounderwriteitssocialprogramsinoneweek.USUruguayanrelations,whichhadreliedonthis liberalimpulsesince1903,thussuffered.73

BatlleHaMuerto,ElDa,21October1929;MinistrodeRelacionesExteriorestoVarelaAcevedo(telegram),21 October1929,AHD/Washington,caja131,carpeta221929;JohnKennethGalbraith,TheGreatCrash,1929,5thed. (Boston:HoughtonMifflinCompany,1988),98100.

73

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Chapter7Conclusion On28November1933,USSecretaryofStateCordellHullvisitedMontevideo,becoming thethirdchiefdiplomatfromtheUnitedStatestodoso.Twentysevenyearsprior,his predecessorElihuRootsteppedofftheIngenierotoroaringcrowds,toUSflagswavinginthe wind,andtomeetareformmindedadministrationinthemidstofeconomicgrowth.Thirteen yearsbeforeHull,SecretaryofStateBainbridgeColbyreceivedasimilargreeting.In1933, MontevideogreetednewpresidentFranklinRooseveltschiefdiplomat,intowntoattendthe SeventhPanAmericanConference,muchmoresomberly.Nolargeflagwavingcrowdgathered atthedock,nomilitaryparadegreetedhim,andnopopularbanquetsawaitedhispresence.1 Partly,thissolemnreceptionoccurredbecauseHull,likemanyotherWestern Hemisphericforeignministers,arrivednotonastatevisitbuttoattendthePanAmerican Conference;butitalsoresultedfromadrasticallyalteredstateofaffairsinUruguay,onein whichconservativismhadreplacedliberalism.TheOrientalRepublic,likemanyofitsLatin Americancounterparts,couldnotescapethedamagingeffectsofworldwideeconomic depressionandturnedfromdemocracytodictatorship.In1931,twoyearsafterBatllesdeath, GabrielTerrasucceededJuanCampisteguyaspresidentinafairandhonestelection.Terrahad reluctantlysupportedtheliberalBatllistaprogramintheChamberofDeputiesandtheSenate andhad,inthe1920s,servedinvariouscabinetpostsunderJosSerratoandCampisteguy. Terrapersonifiedthe1920sColoradopolicymaker:nominallywithJosBatlleyOrdoezbut, owingtoseverepoliticalcleavageswithinandwithouttheparty,theonlyofficialsuitablefor

HullandHisAidesArriveinUruguay,TheNewYorkTimes,29November1933.

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election,butonewho,onceelevatedtohighoffice,didnothaveapartyorthepeoplebehind himtoanysignificantextent. Giventhislackofbroadbasedsupport,PresidentTerraturnedtorulebyforce.On31 March1933,amereeightdaysaftertheGermanReichstagpassedtheEnablingActgiving ChancellorAdolfHitleralmostunlimitedauthority,UruguayanCongressmenarrivedatthenew LegislativePalacetofindthedoorsbarredtothem.Policecartedsomepoliticianswhohad opposedTerraofftojail,includingsevenoftheninemembersofBatllespetproject,the NationalAdministrativeCouncil.TheTerragovernmentcensoredthenewspapers,including BatllesbelovedElDa.ThestatedidallowthepaperstoprintonepieceofnewsTerrahad suspendedtheconstitutionandwouldrulebydecreeuntilfurthernotice.2 WhydidTerra,inamatterofdays,overthrowtheliberalBatllistasystemthattook almostthreedecadestobuild?Atthetime,hejustifiedtheactionbycitingtheinefficiencyof thelegislaturetogranthimextraordinarypowersinlightoftheeconomicdepression;theday beforethecoup,Terrahadaskedforandfailedtoreceivesanctiontooccupymilitarilythe waterworks,powerhouses,andcorrectionalfacilities.Thus,hesimplyremovedthe congressionalimpedimenton31March.Inreality,Terrafacedanincreasinglypolarized politicalsystem,principallytornbetweenBlancoswhowantedtodestroytheBatllistasystem andtheremainingBatllistaColoradoswhowantedtoadoptevenmoresocialistmeasures.In thislight,Terrafeltthat,toavoidcivilwar,heneededaselfcoup.3

ChristineEhrick,TheShieldoftheWeak:FeminismandtheStateinUruguay,19031933(Albuquerque:University ofNewMexicoPress,2005),87. PresidentSeizesPowerinUruguay,TheNewYorkTimes,1April1933;HubertHerring,AHistoryofLatin AmericafromtheBeginningstothePresent,3d.ed.(NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,1972),797.

3 2

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WithoutBatllearoundtosaveit,UruguayanliberalismfelltoBatllesprotgandthe shiningstaroftheWorldWarIperiod:BaltasarBrum.OnthedayofTerrascoup,Brum,asone ofthetwomembersoftheNationalAdministrativeCouncilTerraspolicedidnotimmediately arrest,grabbedhispistols,rushedoutintothestreetandattemptedtocollectforcestostorm thepresidentialpalaceandtorescuetheModelCountry.Despitehiszeal,thepopulaceof Montevideodidnotseemtoowillingtogoalong.Whentwostatepoliceofficerscameto arresthim,BrumwoundedthembothandtookrefugeintheSpanishLegation.Notwillingto hidedishonorably,Brumsnuckoutofthediplomaticpostandranthroughthestreetswith somefriendsbacktohisdomicile.Hesaidgoodbyetohiswifethenwalkedoutintothestreet, raisedhispistoltohishead,andfiredoneshotdirectlyintohisskullratherthanseeTerrarule hisbelovedUruguaybydecree.WithBrumdeadandnoBatllistaofanynotablestatureleft alive,Uruguayanliberalism,moribundsinceOctober1929,officiallysuccumbedon31March 1933.4 SuchareactiontotheglobalcrisisputUruguayonparwithotherLatinAmericanstates. Forexample,JosFlixBenitoUriburuyUriburuandGetulioVargastookpowerviamilitary coupsinArgentinaandBrazil,respectively,in1930.GeneralMaximilianoHernndezMartnez assumedtheElSalvadoranpresidencyin1931,thesameyearasJorgeUbicotookpowerin neighboringGuatemalaandArnulfoAriasMadridoverthrewdemocracyinPanama.In1933, thesameyearthatTerratookthereignsofgovernmentinMontevideo,FulgencioBatistatook powerinCubaduringtheSergeantsRevolt.

Ehrick,87;GabrielovertheFireHouse,Time,10April1933;TerraBroadensHisDictatorship,TheNewYork Times,2April1933.ThebulletthatBrumusedinhissuicideisondisplayatPalacioEstevezinMontevideo.
4

247

Subsequently,after1933UruguayfollowednottheUSleadinitsstatebuilding,asit hadsince1903,butthepathofEuropeanfascists.Forexample,historianChristineEhrick arguesthatinUruguay,manyconservativesandnationalistswereinspiredbytheriseof fascisminEuropeandembraceditsmodelsasthebestsolutionstoUruguaysdomesticcrisis. Therefore,duringthe1930stheTerraregimeusedterror,torture,andpoliticalassassinationto impartitsdictatesonthepublic.Intheruralareas,obligatoryfarming,imposedproduction quotasontheruralpopulation.Thestateeducationalsystem,thesymbolicfountainofBatllista democracy,becomeinsteadabreedinggroundforTerristapatriotismalongtheItalianmodel ofGiovanniGentileandverymuchalignedwithdominantfascistideasinGermany.5 JustasUruguayanliberalismdiedwithBrum,sodidanewperiodofUSUruguayan relationsbegin,onebasedondistrustandsuspicion.UruguayanpolicymakerskeptYankeesat anarmslength,continuingatrendthatbeganinthe1920s.OnlytheonsetofWorldWarIIand thereturnoftheGermanthreat,coupledwithanexpansive,atleastrhetorically,Peroniststate ontheothersideoftheRodelaPlata,encouragedtherebirthofUruguayanliberalismand therepairofUSUruguayanrelations.Indeed,thefortunateinstallationofTerrasbrotherin law,ideologueAlfredoBaldomir,aspresidentin1938broughtUruguaybackintotheliberal fold,whatsomehistorianscallthesecondBatllistaperiod,whichlastedintothelate1950s.6

Ehrick,87;NellydaCunha,LaFederacinRuralanteladictaduradeGabrielTerra,inElUruguaydelosAos Trienta:EnfoquesyProblemas,ed.GerardoCaetano(Montevideo:EdicionesdelaBandaOriental,1994),8487; RodolfoPorrini,LosDerechosHumanosduranteelTerrismo:VigenciayTransgresin,19331938,inElUruguay delosAosTrienta:EnfoquesyProblemas,ed.GerardoCaetano(Montevideo:EdicionesdelaBandaOriental, 1994),135138;EstherRuiz,EscuelayDictadura:LaEnseazaPrimariaduranteelTerrismo,19331938,inEl UruguaydelosAosTrienta:EnfoquesyProblemas,ed.GerardoCaetano(Montevideo:EdicionesdelaBanda Oriental,1994),207,210.

6 5

Herring,797799.

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Nevertheless,Uruguaysrelianceontheconservativefascistmodelinthe1930sdoes notundermineitsdebttoUSProgressivesbetween1903and1929andthediplomaticamity suchaconnectionbrought.Duringthatperiod,theUnitedStatesandUruguayembracedeach othermoreorlessforthefirsttimebasedaroundEnlightenmentliberalideasofdemocracy, commerce,progress,andtherespectforinternationalsovereignty.Inthefirstyearsofthenew century,USpolicymakerspaidlittleattentiontoUruguayortoBatlle,amanwholookedtothe UnitedStatesasamodelstateworthyofemulation.Roots1906visit,though,demonstrated toBatlleandhiscadreoffollowerstoseekproactivelyUSideasandgoodsintheirquestfor modernity.Thereafter,BatllistasembracedUSProgressiveEraideasinurbanplanning, education,colonization,andpublicworks.Atthesametime,theyopenedmarketsforUS investmentandtrade. WorldWarImarkedapeakinthisliberalembrace.AsUruguayansfearedtheGerman

colonyinsouthernBrazilthecatalystfornearlyalltheiractionsinthewartheylookedto theUSforprotection.Atthesametime,theBatllistasfoundaffinitywiththePanAmericanism ofPresidentWoodrowWilson.Assuch,duringthewar,UruguaystaunchlysupportedUS policy,brokerelationswithGermany,andleasedabscondedGermanboatstoEmergencyFleet CorporationtoaidtheUSwareffort.Aspayback,USpolicymakerspushedforUruguayan representationatVersailles,wheretheOrientalRepublicfirstestablisheditselfontheworld stage. Relationssurelysouredinthe1920swhenUruguayandtheUnitedStatesretreated

fromliberalismandUSbusinessentrencheditselfdeeperintoUruguay.Republicansinthe UnitedStatesisolatedthecountryfromitsinternationalcommitments,builttariffwalls,and 249

violatedtheinternationalsovereigntyofanumberofLatinAmericanstates,mostimportantly Nicaragua.Similarly,liberalismdeclinedinUruguay,asBatllelostcontrolofthepoliticalsystem thatheguidedforoverdecade.ThedominantpositionofUScapitalinUruguayalsoalienated someBatllistaswhohadpreviouslysupportedtheUSbutalsofrettedoverforeigneconomic imperialism,thistimebyUncleSam.Evenso,aslongasBatllelivedandcommerceremained steady,liberalismhadasymbolaroundwhichtorally.Batlle,ofcourse,couldnotliveforever anddiedinOctober1929.HisdeathandtheonsetoftheGreatDepression,whichBlackFriday amerefourdayslatersymbolized,alteredUruguayandomesticlife.Liberalismgraduallyfaded, culminatinginTerrascoupandBrumsdeathinMarch1933. Nonetheless,theperiodofliberalascendencyinUruguay,thatofBatllismo,standsout

asanimportantepochinUSUruguayanrelationsfortworeasons.First,relationsstartedoff well.Firstimpressionsareasimportantwhenstatesmeeteachotherjustastheyarewhen peopleinitiallyencountereachother.TheBatllistaembraceoftheUnitedStatesrectifieda periodinwhichrelationsfoundthemselveslargelyabsentbutforafewtradersupuntil1906 andallowedforthatpositivefirstimpression.Thoughrelationsdeterioratedinthe1920sand 1930s,thatmemoryremainedaliveandithelpsexplainwhyUruguayardentlysupportedUS duringandaftertheColdWaronceliberalismreemergedasthedominantpoliticalforcein Uruguay.Suchamity,moreover,occurredwithlimitedcoercionatleastuntiltheearly1970s. Second,thisstudyunderminestheBigStickhistoriographythathascometo characterizetheviewofUSLatinAmericanrelationsbetween1898and1933.Likeany generalization,suchaviewsufferswhenplacedunderthemicroscope.Thearroganceand interventionismofUSforeignpolicyinthesethirtyfiveyears,moreorlesstheperiodunder 250

considerationhere,doesnotapplytoUSrelationswithUruguayand,forthemostpart,South Americaasawhole.Rather,whatthisstudydemonstratesisthattheUSactedarrogantlyand forcefullyinanareaofveryspecificgeostrategicimportancetheCaribbeanSeawhile maintainingideologicalaffinitywithstatesoutsidethatsphere.Assuch,totreatthiserainUS LatinAmericanrelationasonethatTheodoreRooseveltsBigStickcharacterizesignoresa significantportionoftheWesternHemisphere,Uruguayincluded. WhatgeneralconclusionscanwemakeregardingUSUruguayanrelationsbetween

1903and1929?First,forallthepositivity,NorthAmericansneverdealtwithUruguayanson UruguayantermsandinsteadputUruguayintoalargerRiverPlateorSouthAmericancontext. Washingtonpolicymakers,forexample,alwaysfocusedonBrazilandArgentinabeforeworrying aboutUruguay.Moreover,YankeestouredeithertheRiverPlateregion(forgeographic purposestoincludeRiodeJaniero),asdidSecretaryofStateColbyin1920,ormoreoften,they traversedmostofthecontinent,asdidElihuRootin1906,WilliamJenningsBryanin1910, TheodoreRooseveltin1913,CarrieChapmanCattin1923,andHerbertHooverin19281929. Whilethedifficultiesoftransportationandthesubsequentdesiretogetasmanystopsinas possibleafterlongboattripspartiallyexplainthistrend,itnonethelesscontributestothe understandingthatUSpolicymakers,tourists,anddiplomatssawUruguayasapiece occasionallyanimportantone,surely,butonlyonepieceinalargepolicyofUSinteraction withthesubregionandthecontinent. Second,realismprincipallymotivatedBatllistaforeignpolicytowardstheUnitedStates.

WhenBatlleassumedpowerin1903,Uruguayfounditselfatthepoliticalandmilitarywhimsof itstwolargerneighbors,BrazilandArgentina,andsubservientinaneocolonialrelationship 251

withGreatBritain.TheUnitedStatesservedthereforeasacounterbalancingforcetoprotect Uruguayansovereignty,asitdidin1904whenBatllesoughtaUSbattleshiptowarnthe ArgentinestodesistinaidingtheBlancorebels,duringtheGreatWar,whenUSbattleshipsand ammunitionneutralizedtheGermanthreatfromsouthernBrazil,oraslateas1923,when UruguayanpolicymakerssoughtaUSguaranteeoftheirneutrality. Third,whileBatllistapolicywasproactive,USpolicywasreactive.Batllistasactively

soughtoutUSexperts,ideas,anddiplomaticaid.Withthepossibleexceptionofmerchants generallyalwaysthemostproactivegroupofanysocietyandtheWomansChristian TemperanceUnionseffortstoendthealcoholtrade,USpolicymakersandactorslargely reactedtoUruguayanimpetuses.Washingtonwantedlittlemorethanopencommerceand politicalstability,whichtheBatllistastatereadilysuppliedwithoutUScoercion. Fourth,therelationshipdemonstratesthatculturalandideologicalaffinitycanreap

politicalrewards.OneoftheoverridingthemesofthisworkisthatBatllistasborrowedheavily, thoughnotexclusivelyorcompletely,fromUSProgressivesinthecreationoftheirwelfare state.Thishadpoliticalbenefitstobothsidesasitincreasedinteractionandsubsequently amity.Thisisnottosay,byanymeans,thattheBatllistaswereduplicitousintheadaptationof manyProgressiveideas.Theywerenot;theygenuinelylookedtotheUnitedStatesregardless ofanypoliticalreward.Nonetheless,onecannotquestionthatitbroughtpoliticalrewardsin theformofbattleships,protectionduringtheworldwar,aseatatVersailles,andindeedthe 1930WorldCup.

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VITA Personal Background Education Experience Grants Professional Memberships JamesCharlesKnarr BornJanuary24,1980,Newton,NewJersey DaughterofJamesS.KnarrandMarilynMiller MarriedMaryLynnKnarr,December22,2007 BachelorofArts,HistoryandLatinAmericanStudies,FurmanUniversity, Greenville,SouthCarolina,2002 MasterofArts,History,SouthernIllinoisUniversity,Carbondale,2004 DoctorofPhilosophy,History,TexasChristianUniversity,FortWorth, 2009 TeachingAssistant,SouthernIllinoisUniversity,20022004 TeachingandResearchAssistant,TexasChristianUniversity,20052007 GraduateInstructor,TexasChristianUniversity,20072008 ResearchAssistant,TexasChristianUniversity,20082009 OrganizationofAmericanStates,OfficeofHumanDevelopment GraduateFellowship,20072008 AmericanHistoricalAssociation SocietyforHistoriansofAmericanForeignRelations

ABSTRACT BATLLISMOANDTHEYANKEES:THEUNITEDSTATESANDURUGUAY,19031929 ByJamesC.Knarr,Ph.D.,2009 DepartmentofHistoryandGeography TexasChristianUniversity DissertationAdvisor:MarkT.Gilderhus,ProfessorandLyndonBainesJohnsonChairofHistory ThisdissertationsurveysdiplomaticrelationsbetweentheUnitedStatesandUruguay between1903and1929,whenenigmaticreformerJosBatlleyOrdoezdominatedUruguayan politicsand,accordingtomosthistorians,implementedthefirstwelfarestateintheWestern Hemisphere.IarguethatideologicalaffinitybetweenBatllistasandProgressivereformersin theUnitedStatesallowedforsignificantpolitical,economic,andsocialinterchangebetween thetwostatesintheperiodunderreview.Indeed,BatlleincopratedmanyUSexpertsand NorthAmericanideasinbuildinghismodelcountry.Thisborrowingledtodiplomaticamity betweenthetwostates,especiallyinlightofthefactthatBatllesoughttoseparateUruguay fromitsneocolonialrelationshipwithBraziland,muchmoreimportantly,Argentinaand Britain.ThisamityresultedinUruguayansupportfortheUScauseinWorldWarIand,even afterProgressivesandBatllistaslostpowerinthe1920s,somesemblanceofinternational friendshipremainedduringthatdecade.IendthedissertationinOctober1929,whenBatlle diedandtheNewYorkStockExchangecrashed.Thesetwoeventscausedaconservativeturn inUruguayandusheredinanewphaseinUSUruguayanrelations.