CHAPTER 1 LASER BEAM SECURITY ALARM:1.

1 Introduction A security alarm is a system designed to detect intrusion unauthorized entry into a building or area. Security alarms are used in residential, commercial, industrial, and military properties for protection against burglary (theft) or property damage, as well as personal protection against intruders. Cars likewise protect vehicles and their contents. Prisons also use security systems for control of inmates. Some alarm systems serve a single purpose of burglary protection; combination systems provide both fire and intrusion protection. Intrusion alarm systems may also be combined with closedcircuit television surveillance systems to automatically record the activities of intruders, and may interface to access control systems for electrically locked doors. Systems range from small, selfcontained noisemakers, to complicated, multi-area systems with computer monitoring and control. The most basic alarm consists of one or more sensors to detect intruders, and an alerting device to indicate the intrusion. However, a typical premises security alarm employs the following components:

Premises control unit (PCU), or panel: The "brain" of the system, it reads sensor inputs, tracks arm/disarm status, and signals intrusions. In modern systems, this is typically one or more computer circuit boards inside a metal enclosure, along with a power supply. Sensors: Devices which detect intrusions. Sensors may placed at the perimeter of the protected area, within it, or both. Sensors can detect intruders by a variety of methods, such as monitoring doors and windows for opening, or by monitoring unoccupied interiors for motions, sound, vibration, or other disturbances. Alerting devices: These indicate an alarm condition. Most commonly, these are bells, sirens, and/or flashing lights. Alerting devices serve the dual purposes of warning occupants of intrusion, and potentially scaring off burglars. Keypads: Small devices, typically wall-mounted, which function as the human-machine interface to the system. In addition to buttons, keypads typically feature indicator lights, a small mulch-character display, or both. Interconnections between components. This may consist of direct wiring to the control unit, or wireless links with local power supplies. Security devices: Devices to detect thieves such as spotlights, cameras & lasers.

In addition to the system itself, security alarms are often coupled with a monitoring service. In the event of an alarm, the premises control unit contacts a central monitoring station. Operators
1

at the station see the signal and take appropriate action, such as contacting property owners, notifying police, or dispatching private security forces. Such signals may be transmitted via dedicated alarm circuits, telephone lines, or Internet. During the olden days a watchman would be hired to take care of property and offer needed security in the home. Some homes also had fierce dogs that would be let out only at night. The two were supposed to provide security to our belongings even in the absence of the owner. However, hiring a watchman was not an effective method since most of them would be killed in the line of duty. Sometimes dogs would attack even visitors while some watchmen looted property. The circuit is divided into two parts i.e. the transmitter and the receiver. The transmitter circuit is nothing but a laser diode driven by a battery connected to the diode In order to ensure that the current remains constant in the diode a 5V or 7.5V is applied to the diode. The laser diode here can be the one typically used in laser pointers emitting in red. This would be more economical than buying one. A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The nonconductive region is called the dielectric or sometimes the dielectric medium. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical conductor. Examples of dielectric mediums are glass, air, paper, vacuum and even a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device. The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:

1.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig 1.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig 1.2 RELAY CIRCUIT

COMPONENT COST LIST 1.3 Component list Table 1 Name IC 555 Timer Resistor(10kohm) Resistor(470ohm) Resistor(100kohm) LED Laser Light Push Button Speaker(4ohm) Wooden mirror PCB Board Wire Resistance(22K) LDR Relay(6v) Transistor Report File TOTAL COST The total cost of project is about 900Rs 2 5m 1 1 1 2 1 20 10 5 10 50 10 200 40 50 5 10 50 20 200 Quantity 1 3 1 2 1 2 2 1 Cost Per Piece 50 5 5 10 10 40 5 30 300 Total Cost 50 15 5 20 10 80 10 30 300

Block+ 1

CHAPTER 2 RESISTOR
2.1 Introduction A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its terminals that is proportional to the electric current through it in accordance with Ohm's law:

[V = IR]
Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance, the maximum working voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance the value below which power dissipation limits the maximum permitted current, and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance is determined by the design, materials and dimensions of the resistor. .

Fig 2.1 SYMBOLS OF RESISTORS

2.2 TYPES OF RESISTOR 2.2.1. Carbon film A carbon film is deposited on an insulating substrate, and a helix cut in it to create a long, narrow resistive path. Varying shapes, coupled with the resistivity of carbon, (ranging from 90 to 400 n m) can provide a variety of resistances. Carbon film resistors feature a power rating range of 0.125 W to 5 W at 70 C. Resistances available range from 1 ohm to 10 mega ohm. The carbon film resistor has an operating temperature range of -55 C to 155 C. It has 200 to 600 volts maximum working voltage range. Special carbon film resistors are used in applications requiring high pulse stability.[1]

Fig2.2 CARBON FILM RESISTOR 2.2.2. Wire Wound Wire wound resistors are commonly made by winding a metal wire, usually nichrome, around a ceramic, plastic, or fiberglass core. The ends of the wire are soldered or welded to two caps or rings, attached to the ends of the core. The assembly is protected with a layer of paint, molded plastic, or an enamel coating baked at high temperature. Because of the very high surface temperature these resistors can withstand temperatures of up to +450C. Because wire wound resistors are coils they have more undesirable inductance than other types of resistor, although winding the wire in sections with alternately reversed direction can minimize inductance. Other techniques employ bifilar winding, or a flat thin former (to reduce cross-section area of the coil). For most demanding circuits resistors with Ayton-Perry winding are used.

Fig2.3 TYPES OF WINDING IN WIRES RESISTER

2.3 COLOR CODING How can the value of a resistor be worked out from the colors of the bands? Each color represents a number according to the following scheme: The first band on a resistor is interpreted as the FIRST DIGIT of the resistor value. For the resistor shown below, the first band is yellow, so the first digit is 4. The second band gives the SECOND DIGIT. This is a violet band, making the second digit 7. The third band is called the MULTIPLIER and is not interpreted in quite the same way. The multiplier tells you how many naught you should write after the digits you already have. A red band tells you to add 2 naught. The remaining band is called the TOLERANCE band. This indicates the percentage accuracy of the resistor value. Most carbon film resistors have a gold-colored tolerance band, indicating that the actual resistance value is with + or - 5% of the nominal value. Other tolerance colors are COLOR CODING
Tolerance 1% 2% 5% 10% Colour Brown Red Gold Silver

Fig 2.4 TOLERANCE TABLE

Fig 2.5 COLOR CODING SYSTEM

CHAPTER 3 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

3.1 Introduction LEDs are basically light emitting diodes. They are used as indicator bulbs in many devices. They are basically semiconductor devices. When a light emitting diode is forward bias electrons are able to recombine with holes with in the device releasing energy in the form of photons .this effect is called electroluminescence and the colour of the light is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor

Fig3.1 SYMBOL OF LED 3.2 Function Of LED LEDs emit light when an electric current passes through them. 3.3 Color Of LED LEDs are available in red, orange, amber, yellow, green, and blue and white. Blue and white LEDs are much more expensive than the other colors. The color of an LED is determined by the semiconductor material, not by the coloring of the 'package' (the plastic body). LEDs of all colors are available in uncolored packages which may be diffused (milky) or clear (often described as 'water clear'). The colored packages are also available as diffused (the standard type) or transparent

Fig 3.2 COLOR OF LED

3.4 Connecting And Soldering LEDs must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be labeled a or+ for anode and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!). The cathode is the short lead and there may be a slight flat on the body of round LEDs. If you can see inside the LED the cathode is the larger electrode (but this is not an official identification method). LEDs can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the risk is small unless you are very slow. No special precautions are needed for soldering most LEDs. 3.5 Connecting LED In Series If you wish to have several LEDs on at the same time it may be possible to connect them in series. This prolongs battery life by lighting several LEDs with the same current as just one LED. All the LEDs connected in series pass the same current so it is best if they are all the same type. The power supply must have sufficient voltage to provide about 2V for each LED (4V for blue and white) plus at least another 2V for the all the LED voltages and use this for V L. resistor. To work out a value for the resistor you must add.

Fig 3.3 LED IN SERIES CONN. Avoid Connecting LED In Parallel Connecting several LEDs in parallel with just one resistor shared between them is generally not a good idea. If the LEDs require slightly different voltages only the lowest voltage LED will light and it may be destroyed by the larger current flowing through it. Although identical LEDs can be successfully connected in parallel with one resistor this rarely offers any useful benefit because resistors are very cheap and the current used is the same as connecting the LEDs individually.

10

CHAPTER 4 LASER
4.1 Introduction A laser is a device that emits light (electromagnetic radiation) through a process of optical
amplification based on the stimulated emission of photons. The term "laser" originated as an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. The emitted laser light is

notable for its high degree of spatial and temporal coherence.[2]

Spatial coherence typically is expressed through the output being a narrow beam which is diffraction-limited, often a so-called "pencil beam." Laser beams can be focused to very tiny spots, achieving a very high irradiance, or they can be launched into beams of very low divergence in order to concentrate their power at a large distance.

Temporal (or longitudinal) coherence implies a polarized wave at a single frequency whose phase is correlated over a relatively large distance (the coherence length) along the beam.[3] A beam produced by a thermal or other incoherent light source has an instantaneous amplitude and phase which vary randomly with respect to time and position, and thus a very short coherence length.

Fig 4.1 COMPONENTS OF LASER 4.2 Components of a typical laser 1. Gain medium 2. Laser pumping energy 3. High reflector 4. Output coupler 5. Laser beam
11

4.3 Working of laser Lasers are possible because of the way light interacts with electrons. Electrons exist at specific energy levels or states characteristic of that particular atom or molecule. The energy levels can be imagined as rings or orbits around a nucleus. Electrons in outer rings are at higher energy levels than those in inner rings. Electrons can be bumped up to higher energy levels by the injection of energy-for example, by a flash of light. When an electron drops from an outer to an inner level, "excess" energy is given off as light. The wavelength or color of the emitted light is precisely related to the amount of energy released. Depending on the particular lasing material being used, specific wavelengths of light are absorbed (to energize or excite the electrons) and specific wavelengths are emitted (when the electrons fall back to their initial level).

For a ruby laser, a crystal of ruby is formed into a cylinder. A fully reflecting mirror is placed on one end and a partially reflecting mirror on the other. A high-intensity lamp is spiraled around the ruby cylinder to provide a flash of white light that triggers the laser action. The green and blue wavelengths in the flash excite electrons in the chromium atoms to a higher energy level. Upon returning to their normal state, the electrons emit their characteristic ruby-red light. The mirrors reflect some of this light back and forth inside the ruby crystal, stimulating other excited chromium atoms to produce more red light, until the light pulse builds up to high power and drains the energy stored in the crystal.

Fig 4.2 WORKING OF LASER

12

CHAPTER 5 BUZZER
5.1 Introduction A buzzer or beeper is an audio signaling device, which may be mechanical, electromechanical, or piezoelectric. Typical uses of buzzers and beepers include alarm devices, timers and confirmation of user input such as a mouse click or keystroke. 5.2 Mechanical A joy buzzer is an example of a purely mechanical buzzer. 5.3 Electromechanical Early devices were based on an electromechanical system identical to an electric bell without the metal gong. Similarly, a relay may be connected to interrupt its own actuating current, causing the contacts to buzz. Often these units were anchored to a wall or ceiling to use it as a sounding board. The word "buzzer" comes from the rasping noise that electromechanical buzzers made.

Fig 5.1 PIEZOELECTRIC BUZZER

5.4 Piezoelectric disk beeper A piezoelectric element may be driven by an oscillating electronic circuit or other audio signal source, driven with a piezoelectric audio amplifier. Sounds commonly used to indicate that a button has been pressed are a click, a ring or a beep.

13

CHAPTER 6 BATTERY
6.1 Introduction

Fig.6.1 BATTERY An electrical battery is one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy.[1] Since the invention of the first battery (or "voltaic pile") in 1800 by Alessandro Volta, batteries have become a common power source for many household and industrial applications. According to a 2005 estimate, the worldwide battery industry generates US$48 billion in sales each year, with 6% annual growth. There are two types of batteries: primary batteries (disposable batteries), which are designed to be used once and discarded, and secondary batteries (rechargeable batteries), which are designed to be recharged and used multiple times. Batteries come in many sizes, from miniature cells used to power hearing aids and wristwatches to battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby power for telephone exchanges and computer data centers.

14

6.2 Principle Of Operation

Electrochemical cell

Fig.6.2 ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL A voltaic cell for demonstration purposes. In this example the two half-cells are linked by a salt bridge separator that permits the transfer of ions, but not water molecules. A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy. It consists of a number of voltaic cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate, i.e., the anode or negative electrode; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which cations (positively charged ions) migrate, i.e., the cathode or positive electrode. In the redox reaction that powers the battery, cations are reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode, while anions are oxidized (electrons are removed) at the anode. The electrodes do not touch each other but are electrically connected by the electrolyte. Some cells use two half-cells with different electrolytes. A separator between half cells allows ions to flow, but prevents mixing of the electrolytes.

15

CHAPTER 7
PRINTTED CIRCUIT BOARD 7.1 Introduction In electronics, printed circuit boards, or PCBs, are used to mechanically support electronic components which have their connection leads soldered onto copper pads in surface mount applications or through drilled holes in the board and copper pads for soldering the component leads in thru-hole applications. A board design may have all thru-hole components on the top or component side, a mix of thru-hole and surface mount on the top side only, a mix of thru-hole and surface mount components on the top side and surface mount components on the bottom or circuit side, or surface mount components on the top and bottom sides of the board. The boards are also used to electrically connect the required leads for each component using conductive copper traces. The component pads and connection traces are etched from copper sheets laminated onto a nonconductive substrate. Printed circuit boards are designed as single sided with copper pads and traces on one side of the board only, double sided with copper pads and traces on the top and bottom sides of the board, or multilayer designs with copper pads and traces on top and bottom of board with a variable number of internal copper layers with traces and connections. Single or double sided boards consist of a core dielectric material, such as FR-4 epoxy fiberglass, with copper plating on one or both sides. This copper plating is etched away to form the actual copper pads and connection traces on the board surfaces as part of the board manufacturing process. A multilayer board consists of a number of layers of dielectric material that has been impregnated with adhesives, and these layers are used to separate the layers of copper plating. All of these layers are aligned and then bonded into a single board structure under heat and pressure. Multilayer boards with 48 or more layers can be produced with today's technologies.

16

7.2 Types Of PCB

7.2.1 Breadboard Temporary, no soldering required This is a way of making a temporary circuit, for testing purposes or to try out an idea. No soldering is required and all the components can be re-used afterwards. It is easy to change connections and replace components. Almost all the Electronics Club projects started life on a breadboard to checks the circuit worked as intended

. Fig 7.1 BREADBOARD 7.2.2 Strip Board Permanent, soldered:- Strip board has parallel strips of copper track on one side. The strips are 0.1" (2.54mm) apart and there are holes every 0.1" (2.54mm). Strip board requires no special preparation other than cutting to size. It can be cut with a junior hacksaw, or simply snap it along the lines of holes by putting it over the edge of a bench or table and pushing hard.

Fig 7.2 STRIP BOARD

17

7.2.3 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD: Permanent, soldered Printed circuit boards have copper tracks connecting the holes where the components are placed. They are designed especially for each circuit and make construction very easy. However, producing the PCB requires special equipment so this method is not recommended if you are a beginner unless the PCB is provided for you.

Fig.7.3 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD

18

CHAPTER 8 LIGHT DIPENDENT RESISTOR

The general purpose photoconductive cell is also known as LDR light dependent resistor. It is a type of semiconductor and its conductivity changes with proportional change in the intensity of light. The complete principle of an LDR is as follows. In a semiconductor an energy gap exists between conduction electrons and valence electrons. As an LDR is also known as semiconductor photoconductive transducer, when light is incident on it, a photon is absorbed and thereby it excites an electron from valence band into conduction band. Due to such new electrons coming up in conduction band area, the electrical resistance of the device decreases. Thus the LDR or photoconductive transducer has the resistance which is the inverse function of radiation intensity.

Here we must note that any radiation with wavelength greater than the value obtained in above equation CANNOT PRODUCE any change in the resistance of this device.Construction of a Light Dependent Resistor: there two common types of materials used to manufacture the photoconductive cells. They are Cadmium Sulphide (CdS) and Cadmium Selenide (CdSe).The band gap energy of Cadmium Sulphide is 2.42eV and for Cadmium Selenide it is1.74eV. Due to such large energy gaps, both the materials have extremely high resistivity at room temperature. Hence, these materials are widely used in LDR for practical purpose.A long, thin and narrow strip of CdS is fixed on the surface of ceramic substrate in the form of zigzag wire as shown in following figure. This construction gives minimum area and maximum length. Then the structure is enclosed in round metallic or plastic case and two terminals (made up of either tin or indium) are taken out for external connections. The structure is covered with glass sheet to protect it from moisture and dust and allows only light to fall on it.

19

Fig 8.1 LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTER Now when the device is dark, its resistance is called as dark resistance. This resistance is typically of the order of 1013 ohms. When light falls on it, its resistance decreases up to several kilo ohms or even hundreds of ohms, depending on the intensity of light, falling on it. The spectral response characteristics of two commercial cells were compared in our laboratory. And we found that there is almost no response to the radiation of a wavelength which was shorter than 300nm. It was very interesting to note that the Cadmium Sulphide cell has a peak response nearer or within the green color of the spectrum within a range of 520nm. Thus it can be used nearer to the infrared region up to 750nm. It was found that the maximum response of Cadmium Sulphoselenide is in the yellow-orange range at 615nm and also it can be used in the infra-red region up to about 970nm.
20

Mathematical analysis of photoconductive cell The sensitivity of photoconductive transducer is defined as the ratio of change in resistance to the proportional change in the irradiation level. Thus, the spectral response of the sensor must match with the appropriate response from light source. Mathematically

Since the photoconductive cell has relatively large sensitive area, a small change in light intensity will cause a large change in its resistance. Generally, all photoconductive cells show the property of change in resistance in the ratio of 1000:1 for dark to light irradiance change of 0.005W/m2 to 50W/m2. But it is also interesting to note that the the relation between irradiance and its resistance is NOT LINEAR. It is actually exponential relationship, as follows

Where, Rf = dark resistance in ohms, Ri = final resistance when light is incident on it and finally Rt = resistance at any time (t). Though this all discussion sounds good for a photoconductive cell i.e. an LDR, it has a disadvantage that when its temperature changes, its resistance changes drastically for a particular light intensity. Hence, this device is not suitable for precise measurements in analog applications.

21

CHAPTER 9 IC 555 TIMER

9.1 Pin Wise Functioning Of 555 Timer Pin-1, GROUND: It is the GROUND PIN of the IC. The negative terminal of DC power supply or battery is connected to this pin. Here note that IC555 works always on single rail power supply and NEVER on dual power supply, unlike operational amplifiers. Also note that this pin should be connected directly to ground and NOT through any resistor or capacitor. If done so, the IC will not function properly and may heat up and get damaged. This happens because all the semiconductor blocks inside the IC will be raised by certain amount of stray voltage and will damage the IC. Refer the block diagram of the IC for more details. For more details read elaborate collection of FAQ on this IC.

Fig 9.1 IC 555 TIMER Pin-2, TRIGGER It is known as TRIGGER PIN. As the name suggests in triggers i.e. starts the timing cycle of the IC. It is connected to the inverting input terminal of trigger comparator inside the IC. As this pin is connected to inverting input terminal, it accepts negative voltage pulse to trigger the timing cycle. So it triggers when the voltage at this pin less than 1/3 of the supply voltage (Vcc). In number of applications, the IC must be triggered by a pulse. The amplitude and minimum pulse width required for triggering depend on operating temperature and supply voltage of the IC. Generally the current required for triggering is about 0.5uA for a period of 0.1uS. The triggering voltage may be in a range from minimum 1.67V when Vcc=5V to maximum 5V when
22

Vcc=15V. The triggering circuit inside the IC is very sensitive and may be accidently activated due to surrounding noise. To avoid this, the pin is always connected to a pull-up resistor (10kohm), if this pin is used separately. Pin-3, OUTPUT This is the OUTPUT PIN of the IC. It can sink or source a maximum current of 200mA. Sinking the current means, when the output of the IC is at logic-0 state i.e. low and so it can absorb current into its output. Similarly sourcing the current means, when the output of the IC is at logic-1 i.e. high and so it can give out current from its output. Due to this property of the IC, we can use it in number of typical digital applications also. Also note that the output voltage of the IC is slightly greater than zero, when it is in logic-0 state. Similarly it is slightly less than supply voltage (Vcc), when output of the IC is in logic-1 state. Pin-4, RESET It is the RESET PIN of the IC. When it is connected to positive terminal of battery, the IC works normally. However, when it is grounded (either directly or through a maximum of 100k-ohm resistor), the IC stops its working completely and its timing cycle stops i.e. the charging or discharging of the external capacitor stops, so output of the IC is locked in logic-0 state. It is interesting to note that the reset voltage required by this pin is typically 0.7V at a reset current of 0.1mA. However in general applications, this pin is always connected to positive terminal so that the IC works normally. Pin-5, C. VOLTAGE This is known as the CONTROL VOLTAGE pin. The 2/3 of supply voltage point on the terminal voltage divider is brought out to pin-5, known as the control terminal of the IC. The timing cycle can be modified by applying external DC control voltage to this pin. This allows manual or electronic remote controlling of the time interval of the IC. The control terminal is frequently used when the timer is operated in MMV mode. But if you are not using this pin for any such purpose, then this pin must be grounded through a capacitor of

23

0.01uF. This prevents the time interval from being affected by picking up of stray AC or RF noise from the surrounding. Also note that, when the IC is used as an oscillator, in AMV mode, we can modulate the output waveform of the IC by applying a variable DC control voltage to this pin, as shown below.

Fig 9.2 CIRCUIT CONNECTION Pin-6, THRESHOLD This is known as the THRESHOLD PIN. It finalizes the timing cycle of the IC, when its voltage is equal to or greater than 2/3Vcc, the output is at logic-0 state. Since this pin is connected to non-inverting terminal of threshold comparator inside the IC, it accepts positive going pulse to end up the timing cycle, also. Note that the typical value of threshold current is 0.1mA, just like the RESET PIN. The time width of this pulse should be greater than or equal to 0.1uS. Refer the block diagram of the IC for more details. For more details read elaborate collection of FAQ on this IC. Pin-7, DISCHARGE It is known as DISCHARGE PIN. It discharges the external capacitor into itself, but when fully charged! It is connected to the collector of an NPN transistor inside the IC. Due to this, the discharging current going into this pin must not exceed 50mA, otherwise the internal transistor may get damaged.

24

It is interesting to note that this pin can also be used as output pin with open collector output. I am working on one such practical circuit and will publish the circuit very soon. Pin-8, +Vcc It is known as the +ve supply terminal of the IC. The battery voltage connected across this pin and ground pin should not exceed 18V. Generally the range of operating voltage of the IC is 3V18V. 9.2 Working Principle Basically, 555 timer is a highly stable circuit capable of functioning as an accurate time-delay generator and as a free running multi vibrator. When used as an oscillator the frequency and duty cycle are accurately controlled by only two external components, a resistor (R) and a capacitor (C), The circuit may be triggered and reset on falling wave forms. Its prominent features are summarized below:

Timing from micro seconds through hours Mono stable and A stable operation Adjustable duty cycle Ability to operate from a wide range of supply voltages Output compatible with CMOS, DTL and TTL (when used with appropriate supply voltage) High current output that can sink or source 200 mA Trigger and reset inputs are logic compatible Output can be operated normal ON and OFF High temperature stability

Let us see the internal details and operation of IC555 and see how the various features can be developed into practical circuits. The SE and NE versions are similar except for maximum temperature ratings. The precision type SE maintains essential characteristics over a temperature range of -55C to +125C while the general purpose type NE operates reliably only over a range of 0C to 70C. Some manufactures use the suffix C to indicate the commercial version for general purpose applications. Both types have a maximum rating of 18 volts and can handle power dissipation of up to 600 mW.
25

A functional block diagram of 555 timer is given below.

Fig 9.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF 555 TIMER The device consists of two comparators two transistors, a flip-flop and buffered outputs stage. The reference voltages for the two comparators inside the 555 are produced across a voltage divider consisting of three equal resistors of 5K ohms each. Look at the block diagram of the IC, to see that there are three resistors of 5kohm each (highlighted with yellow pen) connected in series. These three resistors produce 1/3 and 2/3 voltage levels for controlling the action of trigger and threshold comparators inside the IC. Due to this arrangement of the three resistors, the IC has a typical code number as IC555. The threshold comparator is referenced at 2/3 Vcc and the trigger comparator is referenced at 1/3Vcc. The two comparators control the flip-flop which, in turn, controls the state of the output i.e. either ON or OFF states. When the timer is in the quiescent state, the internal transistor T1 is conducting and represents a short circuit across timing capacitor C. The level of the output terminals in this state is low. In practical circuits voltage at pin-2 is kept above the trigger point by a resistor connected to Vcc. When a negative going trigger pulse on pin-2 is applied, it causes the potential at this point to fall below 1/3Vcc and thus the trigger comparator RESETs the flip-flop. Now transistor T1 is cut-off and the thus the output level of the IC goes HIGH to a value slightly less than Vcc. Capacitor (C) now starts to charge and the voltage across it rises exponentially until it reaches 2/3Vcc. At this point, the threshold comparator resets the flip-flop

26

and the output returns to its low state-just slightly above ground. Transistor if T1 is turned ON, discharging capacitor C so that it is ready for the next timing period. Once triggered, the circuit cannot respond to additional triggering until the timed interval has elapsed. The delay period, the time that the output is high, in seconds is given by 1.1 x C x R Where R is in Mega ohm and C is in microfarads. Following diagram shows how delays from 10 microseconds to 10 seconds can be obtained by selecting appropriate values of CT and RT in the 0.001pF to 100 pF and 1K to 10 Mega ohm ranges. In practice, RT should not exceed 20 Mega ohm. If you use an electrolytic capacitor for CT, select a unit for low leakage. The time delay may have to be adjusted by varying PT to compensate for the wide tolerance of electrolytic. An important feature to be noted here is that 555, unlike many RC timers, provide a timed interval that is virtually independent of supply voltage Vcc. This is because the charge rate of C and the reference voltages to the threshold comparator and trigger comparator are all directly proportional to the supply Voltage. Operating voltage can range from 3V to 18V. 9.3 Important formulas for calculations Frequency Calculations To calculate the output frequency of the circuit following formula is used. In this you have to put the values of R1, R2 and the value of timing capacitor C. Note that R1 and R2 are in Ohms and C is in Farad. This sounds good so far as theoretical calculations are concerned. But when you deal with practical circuits and want to use this formula, then what to do? The formula contains three unknowns! So how to calculate the output frequency? Timing Calculations The total time period, the On time and Off time period of the IC are given by the same formula.
27

The timing calculations will give you time in seconds, if the values of R1 and R2 are in Ohms and the value of timing capacitor is in Farad. Duty Cycle The duty cycle of the IC is actually a specific ratio of the two resistors used in AMV circuit. Thus the formula for duty cycle of the IC is given by the same formula. The duty cycle of the circuit is always calculated in terms of percentage. There are three main values of duty cycle of the IC. When duty cycle = 50%, we get the perfect square wave at the output of the circuit. When duty cycle > 50%, we get a rectangular wave, such that ON TIME of the circuit is greater than the OFF TIME. When duty cycle < 50%, we get a rectangular wave, such that OFF TIME of the circuit is greater than the ON TIME. Always remember that the value of duty cycle CANNOT BE equal to 100% and also it CANNOT BE equal to 0%. This is because, the value of R1 cannot be zero in the circuit of AMV.[6]

28

CHAPTER 10 CAPACITOR
10.1 Introduction

Fig.10.1 CAPACIPOR A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a device for storing electric charge. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two conductors separated by a nonconductor. Capacitors used as parts of electrical systems, for example, consist of metal foils separated by a layer of insulating film. A capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential difference across the conductors, a static electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other purposes. The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early means of construction. In practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also
29

has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance. 10.2 Working A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The nonconductive region is called the dielectric or sometimes the dielectric medium. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical conductor. Examples of dielectric mediums are glass, air, paper, vacuum and even a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device. The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:

30

CHAPTER 11 RELAY
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitting it to another. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations. A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric motor or other loads is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays".

Fig 11.1 RELAY

11.1 Basic idea

31

simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire wrapped around a soft iron core, an iron yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature, and one or more sets of contacts (there are two in the relay pictured). The armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving contacts. It is held in place by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open. Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their function. The relay in the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on the printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB. When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that activates the armature, and the consequent movement of the movable contact(s) either makes or breaks (depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was closed when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low-voltage application this reduces noise; in a high voltage or current application it reduces arcing. When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed across the coil to dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise generate a voltage spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit components. Some automotive relays include a diode inside the relay case. Alternatively, a contact protection network consisting of a capacitor and resistor in series (snubber circuit) may absorb the surge. If the coil is designed to be energized with alternating current (AC), a small copper "shading ring" can be crimped to the end of the solenoid, creating a small out-of-phase current which increases the minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle.[1] A solid-state relay uses a thyristor or other solid-state switching device, activated by the control signal, to switch the controlled load, instead of a solenoid. An optocoupler (a light-emitting diode (LED) coupled with a photo transistor) can be used to isolate control and controlled circuits.

32

CHAPTER 12 TRANSISTOR
12.1 Introduction Transistor Working BJTs come in two types, or polarities, known as PNP and NPN based on the doping a types of the three main terminal regions. An NPN transistor comprises two semiconductor junctions that share a thin p-doped anode region, and a PNP transistor comprises two semiconductor junctions that share a thin n-doped cathode region.
In typical operation, the base emitter junction is forward biased, which means that the p-doped side of the junction is at a more positive potential than the n-doped side, and the base collector junction is

reverse biased. In an NPN transistor, when positive bias is applied to the base emitter junction, the
equilibrium is disturbed between the thermally generated carriers and the repelling electric field of the ndoped emitter depletion region. This allows thermally excited electrons to inject from the emitter into the base region. These electrons diffuse through the base from the region of high concentration near the emitter towards the region of low concentration near the collector. The electrons in the base are called

minority carriers because the base is doped p-type, which makes holes the majority carrier in the base. To minimize the percentage of carriers that recombine before reaching the collectorbase junction, the transistor's base region must be thin enough that carriers can diffuse across it in much less time than the semiconductor's minority carrier lifetime. In particular, the thickness of the base must be much less than the diffusion length of the electrons. The collectorbase junction is reverse-biased, and so little electron injection occurs from the collector to the base, but electrons that diffuse through the base towards the collector are swept into the collector by the electric field in the depletion region of the collectorbase junction. The thin shared base and asymmetric collector emitter doping is what differentiates a bipolar transistor from two separate and oppositely biased diodes connected in series Voltage, current, and charge control The collector emitter current can be viewed as being controlled by the base emitter current (current control), or by the base emitter voltage (voltage control). These views are related by the current voltage relation of the base emitter junction, which is just the usual exponential current voltage curve of a p-n junction (diode). The physical explanation for collector current is the amount of minority carriers in the base region. Due to low level injection (in which there are much fewer excess carriers than normal
33

majority carriers) the am bipolar transport rates (in which the excess majority and minority carriers flow at the same rate) is in effect determined by the excess minority carriers. Detailed transistor models of transistor action, such as the GummelPoon model, account for the distribution of this charge explicitly to explain transistor behavior more exactly. The chargecontrol view easily handles phototransistors, where minority carriers in the base region are created by the absorption of photons, and handles the dynamics of turn-off, or recovery time, which depends on charge in the base region recombining. However, because base charge is not a signal that is visible at the terminals, the current- and voltage-control views are generally used in circuit design and analysis. In analog circuit design, the current-control view is sometimes used because it is approximately linear. That is, the collector current is approximately times the base current. Some basic circuits can be designed by assuming that the emitterbase voltage is approximately constant, and that collector current is beta times the base current. However, to accurately and reliably design production BJT circuits, the voltage-control (for example, EbersMoll) model is required.[1] The voltage-control model requires an exponential function to be taken into account, but when it is linearized such that the transistor can be modeled as a trans conductance, as in the EbersMoll model, design for circuits such as differential amplifiers again becomes a mostly linear problem, so the voltage-control view is often preferred. For trans linear circuits, in which the exponential IV curve is key to the operation, the transistors are usually modeled as voltage controlled with trans conductance proportional to collector current. In general, transistor level circuit design is performed using SPICE or a comparable analog circuit simulator, so model complexity is usually not of much concern to the designer.

PNP

NPN

Fig 12.1 Symbol of PNP & NPN transistor

34

CHAPTER 13 WORKING PRINCIPLE

13.1 LASER BEAM SECURITY ALARM The circuit illustrated here is used as an Burglar alarm. LDR is kept at such a place that when thief enters our house then a shadow will fall on the LDR. A small beam of light source is also needed to supply continuous signal to LDR. For best Light source we can use Laser diode which will work for few KMs. For home use Infra Red LEDs will be good and will be tricky to thief and works with same efficiency at night. This circuit uses a popular timer I.C which is 555. I.C 555 is connected as comparator with pin 6 connected with positive supply, the output goes high-1 when the trigger pin 2 is at lower than 1/3 level of the supply voltage. Conversely the output goes low-0 when it is above 1/3. So small change in voltage of pin 2 is enough to change the output state of pin 3 from 1 to 0 and 0 to 1. The output has only two states high and low and cannot remain in any intermediate stage. It is power by 9V battery for portable use. The circuit is economic in power consumption. Pin 4,6& 8 is connected to the positive supply and pin 1 is grounded. To detect the present robber we have used LDR and a source of light. LDR is a special type of resistance whose value depends on the brightness of the light which is falling on it. It has a resistance of about 1 M ohms when in total darkness, but a resistance of only about 2-5 k ohms when brightly illuminated. It responds to a large part of the light spectrum. The source of light and LDR is so adjusted with a reflector that light will directly fall on the LDR but when robber enters inside then it will block the beam of light and LDR will be under darkness. We have made a potential divider circuit with LDR and 100 K variable resistance connected in series. Voltage is directly proportional to conductance so more voltage we will get by this divider when LDR is getting light and low voltage in darkness. Sensitiveness can be adjusted by variable resistance. Divided voltage is given to pin 2nd of 555. As soon as LDR gets dark the voltage of the pin 2 drops 1/3 of the supply voltage and pin 3 gets high and Buzzer Beeps.

35

In this circuit the IC LM358 IC is working as a comparator and IC LM555 is wired as a Bi stable Multi vibrator. The transistor BC548 is wired as a switch to provide the negative trigger at pin 2 of LM555. The 50K pot is used to adjust the sensitivity of the circuit. When any one interrupts the laser beam, the LDR will go to darkness which increases the resistance across LDR, which in turn increases the voltage across it. When the voltage at Non-Inverting terminal (PIN 3) will greater than Inverting terminal (PIN 2) the output of the comparator goes high. Thus the output of transistor goes low and triggers the 555, which sounds the buzzer. The laser door alarm circuit has two sections. The laser transmitter is a laser pointer readily available. It should be powered with 3 volt DC supply and fixed on one side of the door frame. The receiver has a Phototransistor at the front end. L14F1 NPN Darlington phototransistor is used as the laser sensor. IC1 is used as a voltage comparator with its inverting input tied to a potential divider R2-R3. So that the inverting input is kept at half supply voltage.

The non inverting input receives a variable voltage based on the conduction of T1. The receiver should be fixed on the opposite door frame and should be properly aligned to the laser beam. Normally the laser beam illuminates the face of phototransistor and it conducts. This keeps the voltage at pin 3 lower than pin 2 of IC1.

As a result, output of comparator remains low. LED and Buzzer remain off in this state. When a person crosses the door, laser beam breaks and T1 cease to conduct. Collector voltage of T1 rises and voltage at pin 3 of comparator increases and its output becomes high. This activates LED and buzzer. Capacitor C1 keeps the base of T2 high for few seconds even after the output of IC1 becomes low again. C2 gives current to the buzzer for few seconds even after T2 turns off.

36

APPLICATION
We can use this laser-based intruder alarm conveniently at the entrance of a hall or any other similar location to protect the same from unauthorized access as and when desired. Its range can be extended further to protect the perimeter of a building from unauthorized intrusion by using a cascade arrangement of multiple alarms. The Laser Based Intruder Alarm was built to our satisfaction. This project is about how to prevent theft in homes, offices, banks, museums etc, This project can be implemented by both wired and wireless technologies. Another application of this instrument is as an "ANTI-THEFT SYSTEM", that means to protect vehicles from kidnapping. In short I am sure that this device is highly useful to mankind especially present scenario. A perimeter alarm system is one that will go into alarm before an intruder enters your home, not after. Many alarm companies (the majority being the free alarm companies) will recommend a system that focuses on protecting the main entry doors, and placing motion sensors in strategic areas around your home. The thinking is that should an intruder enter through any of the windows, they will eventually walk in front of a motion sensor and the alarm will sound. The problem with this setup is that the intruder is already inside your house! Now they have nothing to lose and grab whatever they can. This is especially a problem if you like to arm your system while youre at home. Most likely you will have to bypass some of the motion sensors to do this, so you can walk about the house without setting off your alarm. Now, you have a serious drop in your level of protection, and a false sense of security. A security alarm is a system designed to detect intrusion unauthorized entry into a building or area. Security alarms are used in residential, commercial, industrial, and military properties for protection against burglary (theft) or property damage, as well as personal protection against intruders. Cars likewise protect vehicles and their contents. Prisons also use security systems for control of inmates. Some alarm systems serve a single purpose of burglary protection; combination systems provide both fire and intrusion protection. Intrusion alarm systems may also be combined with closed-circuit television surveillance systems to automatically record the activities of intruders, and may interface to access control systems for electrically locked doors. Systems range from small, self-contained noisemakers, to complicated, multi-area systems with computer monitoring and control.

37

FUTURE SCOPE
A security alarm is a system designed to detect intrusion unauthorized entry into a building or area. Security alarms are used in residential, commercial, industrial, and military properties for protection against burglary (theft) or property damage, as well as personal protection against intruders. Cars likewise protect vehicles and their contents. Prisons also use security systems for control of inmates. Some alarm systems serve a single purpose of burglary protection; combination systems provide both fire and intrusion protection. Intrusion alarm systems may also be combined with closed-circuit television surveillance systems to automatically record the activities of intruders, and may interface to access control systems for electrically locked doors. Systems range from small, self-contained noisemakers, to complicated, multi-area systems with computer monitoring and control.

1. It is use where high level security is required. 2. It has been used where the costly part is kept. 3. The effective ability to be used indoors and outdoors. 4. It could be used as an effective alarm for the house/company boundaries.
5. It uses the normal power outlets and telephone jacks in case it used indoors.

6. It will used where low cost security is required. 7. It is used where high efficient security is required. Because it works with high efficiency.

38

CONCLUSION
. I have successfully completed and run my project LASER BASED INTRUDER ALARM which is a simple laser alarm circuit based on phototransistor and tl071 OP-AMP IC. This is easy to build and also a low-cost circuit. I sincerely thanks to Mr. RAHUL MISHRA for his invaluable guidance and all the lab assistants for their constant support throughout the making of the project.

39

REFERENCE
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/resistor

2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/laser 3. J.B. Gupta (2009), Electronic Devices And Circuit, New Delhi: S. K. Kataria and

Sons page no 56.

4. http://google.com/buzzer 5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LDR 6. http://vsagar.com/2011/12/how-ic-555-works-fundamentals-of-ic-555-its-basic-

applications/

40