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CCSCAL2
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1 Variables, Constants, and Notations

In mathematics we deal with two types of quantitiesconstants and variables. A constant

3
is a quantity whose value is fixed. For example, 4 , 2, 3, sin 4 are constants. A
variable is a quantity whose value changes. For example, the velocity of a body dropped
from the top of a building is a variable.
It is a practice to denote constants by a letter in the first few places in the English alphabet. For example, a, b, c, . . . denote constants. Sometimes, Greek letters are also used
to denote constants. For example, is a constant and the symbol is a Greek letter.
On the other hand, variables are denoted usually by the last few letters of the English
alphabet such as u, v, w, x, y, and z.
In the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, the symbols a, b, and c denote constants while x is
a variable. In the equation y = mx + b, the symbols m and b are constants while x is a
variable.
Actually, we can use any letter to denote a constant and any letter can also be used to
denote a variable. However, when we do this, it must be made clear whether the letter
denotes a constant or a variable. For example, if we are dealing with the area of a square

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with variable side, then we can denote the area of the square by A for convenience. We
used A for the simple reason that the word area starts with the letter A.

2 Variables: Dependent and Independent

Suppose that we have an equation of the form y = f (x) where f (x) is an expression
in terms of x. For example, if f (x) = x2 x + 3, and y = f (x), we say that y is a
function of x. This means that if x is given or known, then y is completely determined.
For example if x = 5 then y = (5)2 (5) + 3 = 33. In this example, we see that
the value of y depends or is completely determined by the value of x. Since y depends
of x, we call y a dependent variable. On the other hand, x is called an independent
variable.

3 Increment and Differential

The term increment means change and we will use the term increment in a precise
mathematical way.
Definition 1.
Suppose that v is a variable. If v changes from an initial value of v1 to a final value of
v2, we define the increment of v as v2 v1.

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REMARK: By increment of a variable therefore, we mean final value initial value.

increment of v = (final value of v) (initial value of v)
If v is a variable that changes from an initial value to a final value, then the increment of
v is denoted by v. Likewise, x denotes the increment of x, while y denotes the
increment of y.
Example 1. Increment
Suppose that y = x2 x + 3 and x changes
from x = 2 to x = 2.1, Find x and y.

To make our solution clear, let us tabulate the result of computations.

variable
x
y

initial value
2
5

final value
2.1
5.31

increment
x = 0.1
y = 0.31

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Example 2. Increment
Let y = x2 x + 3 and suppose that x changes from 2 to 1.9. Find x and y.
Verify that x = 1.9 2 = 0.1. Now, the initial value of y is 22 2 + 3 = 5 and the
final value is 4.71. Therefore, y = 4.71 5 = 0.29
Example 3. Increment
A square has a variable side s. If A is the area of the square, then A = s2. Find A
if the side s changes from 4 to 3.8.

ANSWER: Verify that A = 1.56.

Definition 2. Differential of an independent variable
Let x be any independent variable. The differential of x, denoted by dx, is defined
to be dx = x. Thus, the differential of an independent variable is equal to its
increment.

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Definition 3. Differential of a dependent variable

Let y = f (x), i.e., y is a dependent variable. The differential of y, denoted by dy, is
defined by dy = f 0(x)x.
REMARK: Since dx = x, then dy = f 0(x)dx. It should be remembered that in
evaluating dy, we use the initial value of x in the formula dy = f 0(x)dx.
Exercises 1. Find (a) y, (b) dy, (c) y dy
1. y = 3x2 5x; x = 4; x = 0.03
2. y = 3x2 5x; x = 1; x = 0.02
3. y = 3x2 5x; x = 1; x = 0.01
2
4. y = ; x = 3; x = 0.1
x

SOLUTIONS:

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1. y 0 = 6x 5, x = 2, x = 0.03.
variable
x
y

initial value
4
28

final value= x + x
4.03
28.5727

Note that final value=initial value+increment. Therefore, 4 + x = 4 + 0.03 =

4.03 is the new value of x.
In the case of y, the initial value is the value corresponding to the initial value of
x. Thus, we compute y = 3(42) 5 4 = 28. The final value of y is y =
3(4.032) 5 4.03 = 28.5727.
Therefore, y = 28.5727 28 = 0.5727. We compute for dy using the formula
dy = y 0x. Here we should always use the initial value of x when computing for y 0.
Now, y 0 = 6x 5. Therefore dy = (6 4 5)(0.03) = 0.57
Lastly, y dy = 0.5727 0.57 = 0.0027.
2. y 0 = 6x 5, x = 1, x = 0.02. Since the initial value of x is 1, then the initial
value of y is 3(1)2 5(1) = 8. Since the increment of x is 0.02, then the new

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value of x is 1+0.02 = 0.98. The new value of y is 3(0.98)2 5(0.98) =

7.7812
y = 7.7812 8
= 0.2188
y 0 = 6(1) 5
= 11
dy = y 0dx
= (11)(0.02)
= 0.22
y dy = 0.2188 (0.22)
= 0.0012

3. (Exercise) y = 0.1103; dy = 0.11; y dy = 0.0003

4. (Exercise) y = 0.0215; dy = 0.0222; y dy = 0.0007

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Let us observe that the difference y dy is small when x is sufficiently small. Equivalently, y and dy have almost equal values. In symbols, y dy. This is read as y
is approximately equal to dy.

4 Application
Let us recall that if y = f (x) and x is sufficiently small, then y dy. This fact is a
good basis in approximation, one application of differentials.
Example 4. Application of Differential

Use differentials to approximate 3 124.5.

SOLUTION: Observe that 125 = 5. Let us think of 125 as the initial value of a variable
and 124.5 as the final value. This variable may be denoted by x and we shall consider it

as our independent variable. The quantity we are interested in is 3 x.

Let y =
is y?

x. We know that when x = 125, the value of y is 5. When x = 124.5, what

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The situation we are dealing with is summarized in the table below:

variable
x
y

initial value
125
5

final value
124.5
?

First of all let us note that x = 124.5 125 = 0.5. The final value of y (value of

y at x = 124.5) is equal to the initial value plus the increment. Therefore, 3 124.5 =
5 + y. But y dy. Therefore,

3
124.5 5 + dy
Let us now compute for dy.

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y=

= x1/3
1 x2/3
y0 = 3
1
=

3 ( 3 x)2
1

=
3 ( 3 125)2
1
=
3 52
1
=
75

dy = y 0x
0.5
=
75
= 0.00667
Hence,

124.5 y + dy = 5 0.00667 = 4.99333.

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Example 5. Application of Differentials

A spherical metal ball has a diameter of 80 cm. The ball is to be coated with 0.1 cm of
asphalt as an insulation. Use differentials to estimate the amount of asphalt needed
for insulation.

SOLUTION: Note that before and after insulation we have a sphere. We are after the
volume of asphalt in this problem. Without insulation, we have a sphere of diameter 80
cm. After insulation, we have a sphere with diameter 80.2 cm. Clearly, we are dealing
with a variable diameter. The volume of the sphere is also a variable. Let
x = diameter of the sphere
y = volume of the sphere
Then y = 6 x3. The increment in diameter is x = 0.2 cm. The increment in volume is

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clearly the volume of asphalt needed. We shall approximate y by dy.

y = 6 x3
2
x
y 0 = 3
6
= 2 (802)
= 3200
dy = y 0x
= 3200 0.2
= 640

Thus, the amount of asphalt needed is approximately 640 cubic centimeters.

REMARK: In Example 5, our answer is y + dy. In Example 5, our answer is just dy.
Some students would ask: When do we have to add dy to the initial value of y and when
do we just take dy as the answer? Can you explain this?

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Exercises 2. Application of Differentials

1. Each side of a solid metal cube measures 10 inches. By grinding, the cube is
made smaller where each side measures 9.97 inches. Use differentials to find
the approximate volume of the new cube.
2. A water reservoir is in the form of a right circular cylinder with radius of 2 meters
and altitude of 3 meters. The present depth of water in the reservoir is 2 meters.
Use differentials to approximate the amount of water (cubic meters) to be pumped
out of the reservoir to decrease the water level by 1 centimeter. (For a right
circular cylinder with radius r and height h, the volume V is given by the formula
V = r2h.)
3. Find an approximation to (1.00005)1020 using differentials. (Do not use a calculator.)

ANSWERS
1. 991 in3

m3
2. 25

3. 1.051