GROUP 6

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
It has become a truism that no two individual are exactly alike. This fact is all too often overlooked in spite of varied attempts to focus attention on the individual rather than on the group to which the individual belongs. It has complicated the task of the schools who have to deal efficiently with a sizable portion of its learners. Attempts to meet this problem will, in a sense, remain completely unresolved in spite of special programs because everyone is, in a sense, exceptional and no special program will truly be able to meet the varieties of individual who composes the group. Meaning and Nature of Individual Differences Individual differences are deviations of individuals from the average or from one another. While the old concept of individual differences was equated with intelligence and achievement, i.e., mastery of subject matter, the emphasis is now more focused on any measurable aspect of the total personality. Hence, updated researches on individual differences in a trait by which any individual may be distinguished from other individuals. Individuals vary in physical as well as psychological characteristics. Variability range from intravariability to inter-variability. Intra-variability concerns differences within the individual as for example, a record of variability of ones performance in tests. This is sometimes referred to as trait variability. Inter-variability concerns differences among individuals or between individuals with regards to environment, as for instance, the performance of one individual compared with another in an intelligence test. Every trait, physical or psychological, is the result of the interplay of both hereditary and environmental influences. While these traits seem to show some continuity from generation to generation, the fundamental involvement is rather what proportion of the variation in a given trait is attributed to heredity and what proportion is accounted for by environment. Therefore individual differences can be characterized by the following attributes. 1. Variability and Normality. We have mentioned how even organisms within a species vary greatly in their pattern of adaptive behavior and how anatomical, physiological and psychological differences exist among different people. Virtually all measures of individuals manifest characteristics that can be distributed in the form of a normal probability curve. 2. Differential rates of growth and learning. Development schedules vary for all individuals. These variations can be seen in cognitive abilities, in physical, emotional and moral aspects of growth. 3. Interrelation of traits. The growth of personality for instance, is the result of the continuing interaction of many factors biological, social or environmental and we cannot accurately attribute the causations of behavior to one factor alone.

4. Hereditary and environmental factors. Hereditary and environmental contributions can never be completely separated because they are in continuous interplay in the production of every physical and psychological trait. The relative contribution of one, depends on the specific context of the other. The proportion of trait variance that is accounted for by genetic factors is a function of the variability of the relevant environmental and genetic influences in the particular population being studied. Factors Affecting Individual Differences 1. Physiological factors. Endocrine gland activity, brain tissue damage, as a result of accidents, illness, infection or chemical stimulation can cause changes in intellectual functioning, mood and relations with others. The effects of drugs and alcohol are well-known to alter personality, to influence control and judgment. 2. Cultural influences. In some cultures, physical stature and muscular strength are socially attractive. Notice, for instance, the hero-worship for basketball players in the Philippines this is a culture construct which accounts for variations of standards among different culture groups. These norms affect individual self-concepts as well as social adjustments. These norms affect individual self-concepts as well as social adjustments. These values can also change within a society. 3. Interaction between biological and social factors. An individual being a complex product of many interacting variables is really more than the simple sum of different influences. One physiological characteristic may produce a different effect in another social context or given social context will affect an individual differently depending on the physical conditions imposed, i.e., may physiological variations are affected by attitudes, needs and motives in the environment. An overactive child may disturb or annoy some people. Or a very attractive girl will feel successful in a culture where much value is placed on appearance.

THE MEANING AND NATURE OF INTELLIGENCE

Meaning of Intelligence Engel defines intelligence as the ability of an organism to adapt to its environment. It consists of mental abilities valuable in almost any type of learning or thinking. Terman says intelligence is a general capacity of an individual to adjust his thinking to new requirements; it is a general adaptation to new problems. It is the ability to learn in terms of abstract ideas. Thurston says intelligence is both general ability and a number of specific abilities Stagner refers to intelligence as learning ability, and the ability to see learning in new situations.

A. I. Gates refers to intelligence as a composite or organization of abilities to learn, to grasp broad and subtle facts, especially abstract facts, with alertness and accuracy, to exercise mental control, and to display flexibility and ingenuity in seeking the solution of problems. Colvin says that an individual possesses intelligence in so far as he has learned or can learn to adjust himself to environment. Most definitions emphasize certain capacities as basic, to wit: 1. The ability to learn to deal with abstract symbols, concepts and relationships 2. Learning or the ability to profit from experience 3. The ability to adopt new situations, or problem solving. Because research has borne out that learning is not a unitary capacity, the term intelligence has been replaced in scientific usage such as terms as scholastic aptitude, verbal comprehension, arithmetic reasoning and maze learning. The nature of Intelligence The component traits that make up personality are based upon the study of the interrelationships of behavior, one of which is intelligence. To sum up the nature of intelligence: Intelligence is an aggregate of relatively independent attitude as a. Verbal comprehension b. Word fluency c. Skill in numerical computation d. Perceptual speed and accuracy e. Associate memory f. Spatial visualization g. Mechanical reasoning

Theories of Intelligence
What is Intelligence? How would you know that someone is intelligent? List the characteristics or behaviours that you associate with intelligence. Some Classic Definitions Spearman (1904) A general ability which involves mainly the eduction of relations and correlates Binet & Simon (1905) The ability to judge well, to understand well, to reason well Terman (1916) The capacity to form concepts and grasp their significance

Thurstone (1921) The capacity to inhibit instinctive adjustments, flexibly imagine different responses, and realize modified instinctive adjustments into overt behaviour Wechsler (1939) the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment Sternberg (1985) the mental capacity to automatize information processing and to emit contextually appropriate behaviour in response to novelty; intelligence also includes metacomponents, performance components, and knowledge-acquisition components Gardner (1986) the ability or skill to solve problems or to fashion products which are valued within one or more cultural settings Cultural Differences in Views of Intelligence China (Yang & Sternberg, 1997) Emphasis on benevolence & doing what is right Importance of humility, freedom from conventional standards of judgment, knowledge of oneself Africa (Ruzgis & Grigorenko, 1994) Conceptions of intelligence revolve largely around skill that help to facilitate and maintain harmonious & stable intergroup relations E.g., in Zimbabwe, the word for intelligence, ngware, actually means to be prudent & cautious, particularly in social relationships Lay vs. Expert Conceptions of Intelligence Sternberg et al. (1981) Contacted people In a train station Entering a supermarket Studying in a university library Asked them to list behaviours characteristic of an intelligent person then took this list and had both lay-persons & psychologists rate the importance of each of the behaviors in describing the ideally intelligent person.

Results

Cornelius & Caspi, 1987 The Everyday Problem Solving Inventory Examinees indicate their typical response to everyday problems E.g., failing to bring money, checkbook, or credit card when taking a friend to lunch

Galton & the Brass Instruments Era of Psychology the only information that reaches us concerning outward events appears to pass through the avenues of our senses; and the more perceptive the senses are of difference, the larger is the field upon which our judgment and intelligence can act (Galton, 1883) Spearman & the g factor Proposed that intelligence consisted of 2 kinds of factors: a single general factor, g, and numerous specific factors (s1, s2, s3, etc.) g factor was the most important; s factors were very specific to particular tests

Thurstone & Primary Mental Abilities Invented factor analysis When he applied factor analysis to items making up intelligence tests, discovered several broad group factors, about a dozen of them The seven which have been frequently corroborated are referred to as the primary mental abilities: verbal comprehension word fluency number space associative memory perceptual speed inductive reasoning problem primary mental abilities correlated with one another Vernon, more recently, said g was the single factor at the top of a hierarchy that included two major group factors: verbal-educational practical-mechanical-spatial-physical under these were the primary mental abilities Recent research provides some support for the factor idea of intelligence; if there were just one g factor, then all the different abilities Thurstone said were separate should decline at the same rate; this doesnt happen; things like verbal comprehension, word fluency, inductive reasoning, decline much more slowly than space and number abilities

Cattell: Fluid & Crystallized Intelligence Also used factor analysis, discovered 2 major factors: Fluid Intelligence: Non-verbal & culture-free form of intelligence Related to a persons inherent capacity to learn & solve problems Used in adapting to new situations Crystallized Intelligence: What one has already learned through the investment of fluid intelligence in cultural settings Highly culturally dependent Used for tasks which require learned or habitual response

Triarchic Theory Sternberg Analytic ability to judge, evaluate, compare, contrast Creative ability to invent, discover, imagine Practical ability to apply knowledge to practice Gardner & Multiple Intelligences Argues for existence of several relatively independent human intelligences Criteria for an autonomous intelligence includes: potential isolation by brain damage faculty can be destroyed or spared in isolation existence of savants who are talented in area but in no others

Gardners Multiple Intelligences Linguistic sensitivity to language, grasp new meanings easily Musical sensitivity to speech and tone Logical-Mathematical abstract reasoning & manipulation of symbols Spatial relations among objects, re-create visual images Bodily-kinesthetic represent ideas in movement Personal sensitivity and understanding of self and others feelings Social sensitivity to motives, feelings, and behaviors of others

The Binet Scales Oldest of the modern tests of intelligence Very first test, developed by Binet, used some key principles: age differentiation Binet looked for tasks that could be successfully completed by 2/3 to 3/4 of children in a particular age group, a smaller proportion of younger children, and a larger proportion of older children general mental ability conceived of intelligence as a unitary factor, not separate mental abilities, which can be represented by a single score

MENTAL RETARDATION
DEFINITION Intellectual disability is a generalized disorder appearing before adulthood, characterized by significantly impaired cognitive functioning and deficits in two or more adaptive behaviors, commonly known in the late 20th century as mental retardation (MR). It was historically defined as an intelligence

quotient score under 70. Once focused almost entirely on cognition, the definition now includes both a component relating to mental functioning and one relating to individuals' functional skills in their environment. As a result, a person with an unusually low IQ may not be considered intellectually disabled. Syndromic mental retardation is intellectual deficits associated with other medical and behavioral signs and symptoms. Non-syndromic mental retardation refers to intellectual deficits that appear without other abnormalities. The terms used for this condition are subject to a process called the euphemism treadmill. This means that whatever term is chosen for this condition, it eventually becomes perceived as an insult. The terms "mental retardation" and "mentally retarded" were invented in the middle of the twentieth century to replace the previous set of terms, which were deemed to have become offensive. By the end of the twentieth century, these terms themselves have come to be widely seen as disparaging and politically incorrect and in need of replacement. The term "intellectual disability" is now preferred by most advocates and researchers in most English-speaking countries. Signs and Symptoms The signs and symptoms of mental retardation are all behavioral. Most people with mental retardation do not look like they have any type of intellectual disability, especially if the disability is caused by environmental factors such as malnutrition or lead poisoning. The so-called typical appearance ascribed to people with mental retardation is only present in a minority of cases, all of which involve syndromic mental retardation. Children with mental retardation may learn to sit up, to crawl, or to walk later than other children, or they may learn to talk later. Both adults and children with mental retardation may also exhibit some or all of the following characteristics: Symptoms of MR/ID will vary based on the level of the disability. They can include: failure to meet intellectual standards sitting, crawling, or walking later than other children problems learning to talk or trouble speaking clearly memory problems inability to understand the consequences of actions inability to think logically childish behaviour beyond a normal age lack of curiosity learning difficulties IQ below 70 inability to lead a normal life because of the inability to communicate, take care of oneself, or interact with others

Individuals who are intellectually disabled will often have some of the following behavioural issues: aggression dependency withdrawal from social activities attention-seeking behaviour depression during adolescent and teen years lack of impulse control passivity tendency toward self-injury stubbornness low self-esteem low tolerance for frustration psychotic disorders attention difficulties Children with intellectual disability learn more slowly than a typical child. Children may take longer to learn language, develop social skills, and take care of their personal needs, such as dressing or eating. Learning will take them longer, require more repetition, and skills may need to be adapted to their learning level. Nevertheless, virtually every child is able to learn, develop and become a participating member of the community. CAUSE Among children, the cause is unknown for one-third to one-half of cases.[ Down syndrome, velocariofacial syndrome, and fetal alcohol syndrome are the three most common inborn causes. However, doctors have found many other causes. The most common are: Genetic conditions. Sometimes disability is caused by abnormal genes inherited from parents, errors when genes combine, or other reasons. The most prevalent genetic conditions include Down syndrome, Klinefelter's syndrome, Fragile X syndrome (common among boys), Neurofibromatosis, congenital hypothyroidism, Williams syndrome, Phenylketonuria (PKU), and Prader-Willi syndrome. Other genetic conditions include Phelan-McDermid syndrome (22q13del), Mowat-Wilson syndrome, genetic ciliopathy, and Siderius type X-linked mental retardation (OMIM 300263) as caused by mutations in the PHF8 gene (OMIM 300560). In the rarest of cases, abnormalities with the X or Y chromosome may also cause disability. 48, XXXX and 49, XXXXX syndrome affect a small number of girls worldwide, while boys may be affected by 47, XYY, 49, XXXXY, or 49, XYYYY. Problems during pregnancy. intellectual disability can result when the fetus does not develop properly. For example, there may be a problem with the way the fetus' cells divide as it grows. A woman who drinks alcohol (see fetal alcohol syndrome) or gets an infection like rubella during pregnancy may also have a baby with intellectual disability.

Problems at birth. If a baby has problems during labor and birth, such as not getting enough oxygen, he or she may have developmental disability due to brain damage. Exposure to certain types of disease or toxins. Diseases like whooping cough, measles, or meningitis can cause intellectual disability if medical care is delayed or inadequate. Exposure to poisons like lead or mercury may also affect mental ability. Iodine deficiency, affecting approximately 2 billion people worldwide, is the leading preventable cause of intellectual disability in areas of the developing world where iodine deficiency is endemic. Iodine deficiency also causes goiter, an enlargement of the thyroid gland. More common than full-fledged cretinism, as retardation caused by severe iodine deficiency is called, is mild impairment of intelligence. Certain areas of the world due to natural deficiency and governmental inaction are severely affected. Malnutrition is a common cause of reduced intelligence in parts of the world affected by famine, such as Ethiopia. Absence of the arcuate fasciculus.

Mild Mental Retardation At this level, a person: takes longer to learn to talk, but can communicate well once he or she knows how fully independent in self-care has problems with reading and writing is socially immature is unable to deal with responsibilities of marriage or parenting may benefit from specialized education plans has an IQ range of 50 to 69 may have associated conditions, including autism, epilepsy, or physical disability

Moderate Mental Retardation At this level, a person: is slow in understanding and using language has only a limited ability to communicate can learn basic reading, writing, counting skills is a slow learner is unable to live alone can get around on own can take part in simple social activities

has an IQ range of 35 to 49

Severe Mental Retardation At this level, a person: has noticeable motor impairment has severe damage to and/or abnormal development of central nervous system has an IQ range of 20 to 34

Profound Mental Retardation At this level, a person: is unable to understand or comply with requests or instructions is immobile must wear adult diapers uses very basic nonverbal communication cannot care for own needs requires constant help and supervision has an IQ of less than 20 Other Mental Retardation Children in this category are often blind, deaf, mute, and physically disabled. These factors prevent physicians from conducting screening tests. Unspecified Mental Retardation Signs of MR/ID exist, but there is not enough information to assign the child to a level.

How Is Mental Retardation Diagnosed? A diagnosis of MR/ID requires that both intellectual and adaptive skills be well below average. There are three parts to the evaluation: interviews with parents observations of the child standard tests Your child will be given standard intelligence tests, such as the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test, to determine IQ. Other tests, such as the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, will be given to assess your childs daily living skills and social abilities compared with other children in the same age group. It is important to remember that children from different cultures and socio-economic statuses may perform differently on these tests.

Results of these tests will be combined with information obtained from interviews with parents and observations of the child to assist in the diagnosis. The screening process might include visits to many different professionals including the following: psychologist speech pathologist social worker pediatric neurologist developmental pediatrician physical therapist Laboratory and imaging tests may be performed as well to detect metabolic and genetic disorders and structural problems with the brain. It is important to rule out such things as hearing loss, learning disorders, neurological disorders, and emotional problems as the cause for delayed development before making a diagnosis of MR/ID. Once MR/ID has been diagnosed, the family, school, and primary care physician will use the results of these tests and evaluations to develop a treatment and education plan.

Treatment Options for Mental Retardation Ongoing counselling will often be needed to help the child cope with disabilities. Parents with intellectually disabled infants and toddlers will get a family service plan that describes their childs needs. The plan will also detail the services the child will need to help him or her with normal development. Family needs are also addressed in the plan. When the child is ready to attend school, a new plan, called the Individualized Education Program (IEP), will be put in place to assist the child with his or her educational needs. The main goal of treatment is to assist the child in reaching his or her full potential in terms of education and social and life skills. Treatment may include behavior therapy, occupational therapy, counseling, and in some cases, medication. All children with MR/ID benefit from special education, and the federal Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) requires that public schools provide free and appropriate education to children with mental retardation and other developmental disabilities. What Is the Long-Term Outlook? When MR/ID occurs with other serious physical problems, the life expectancy of the child may be shortened. In general, the more severe the cognitive disability and the more physical problems the child has, the shorter the life expectancy. However, a child with mild to moderate MR/ID has a fairly normal life expectancy. As adults, these people can often be successful at jobs that require basic intellectual skills, can live independently, and can support themselves.