Mike Davis: 'Urban Control: the Ecology of Fear' 1994 Is there any need to e !

lain "hy fear eats the so#l of $os %ngeles& 'he c#rrent obsession "ith !ersonal safety and social ins#lation is only e ceeded by the (iddle)class dread of !rogressive ta ation* In the face of #ne(!loy(ent and ho(elessness on scales not seen since 19+,- a bi!artisan consens#s insists that the b#dget (#st be balanced and entitle(ents red#ced* .ef#sing to (ake any f#rther !#blic invest(ent in the re(ediation of #nderlying social conditions- "e are forced instead to (ake increasing !rivate invest(ents in !hysical sec#rity* 'he rhetoric of #rban refor( !ersists- b#t the s#bstance is e tinct* '.eb#ilding $%' si(!ly (eans !adding the b#nker* %s city life- in conse/#ence- gro"s (ore feral- the different social (ilie# ado!t sec#rity strategies and technologies according to their (eans* $ike 0#rgess' original dart board- the res#lting !attern condenses into concentric 1ones* 'he b#ll's eye is Do"nto"n* In another essay I have reco#nted in detail ho" a secretive- e(ergency co((ittee of Do"nto"n's leading cor!orate lando"ners 2the so)called Co((ittee of 345 res!onded to the !erceived threat of the 1964 7atts .ebellion* 7arned by la")enforce(ent a#thorities that a black 'in#ndation' of the central city "as i((inent- the Co((ittee of 34 abandoned redevelo!(ent efforts in the old office and retail core* 'hey then #sed the city's !o"er of e(inent do(ain to ra1e neighborhoods and create a ne" financial core a fe" blocks f#rther "est* 'he city's redevelo!(ent agency- acting virt#ally as their !rivate !lanner- bailed o#t the Co((ittee of 34's s#nk invest(ents in the old b#siness district by offering h#ge disco#nts- far belo" (arket val#e- on !arcels in the ne" core* 8ey to the s#ccess of the entire strategy 2celebrated as Do"nto"n $%'s 'renaissance'5 "as the !hysical segregation of the ne" core and its land val#es behind a ra(!art of regraded !alisades- concrete !illars and free"ay "alls* 'raditional !edestrian connections bet"een 0#nker 9ill and the old core "ere re(oved- and foot traffic in the ne" financial district "as elevated above the street on !ed"ays "hose access "as controlled by the sec#rity syste(s of individ#al skyscra!ers* 'his radical !rivati1ation of Do"nto"n !#blic s!ace ) "ith its o(ino#s racial #ndertones ) occ#rred "itho#t significant !#blic debate or !rotest* $ast year's riots- (oreover- have only see(ed to vindicate the foresight of Fortress Do"nto"n's designers* 7hile "indo"s "ere being s(ashed thro#gho#t the old b#siness district along 0road"ay and :!ring streets- 0#nker 9ill lived #! to its na(e* 0y flicking a fe"

s"itches on their co((and consoles- the sec#rity staffs of the great bank to"ers "ere able to c#t off all access to their e !ensive real estate* 0#llet)!roof steel doors rolled do"n over street)level entrancesescalators instantly sto!!ed and electronic locks sealed off !edestrian !assage"ays* %s the Los Angeles Business Journal recently !ointed o#t in a s!ecial re!ort- the riot)tested s#ccess of cor!orate Do"nto"n s defenses has only sti(#lated de(and for ne" and higher levels of !hysical sec#rity* In the first !lace- the bo#ndary bet"een architect#re and la" enforce(ent is f#rther eroded* 'he $%;D have beco(e central !layers in the Do"nto"n design !rocess* <o (a=or !ro=ect no" breaks gro#nd "itho#t their !artici!ation- and in so(e cases- like the recent debate over the !rovision of !#blic toilets in !arks and s#b"ay stations 2"hich they o!!osed5- they o!enly e ercise veto !o"er* :econdly* video (onitoring of Do"nto"n's redevelo!ed 1ones has been e tended to !arking str#ct#res- !rivate side"alks- !la1as- and so on* 'his co(!rehensive s#rveillance constit#tes a virt#al scanscape>a s!ace of !rotective visibility that increasingly defines "here "hite) collar office "orkers and (iddle)class to#rists feel safe Do"nto"n* Inevitably the "ork!lace or sho!!ing (all video ca(era "ill beco(e linked "ith ho(e sec#rity syste(s- !ersonal '!anic b#ttons'- car alar(s- cell#lar !hones- and the like- in a sea(less contin#ity of s#rveillance over daily ro#tine* Indeed- y#!!ies' lifestyles soon (ay be defined by the ability to afford electronic g#ardian angels to "atch over the(* 2In the (eanti(e these hard ti(es are boo( years for the (akers of video s#rveillance technology* 'he leading (an#fact#rer- a :"edish conglo(erate- is no" the official s!onsor of the h#ge $ondon (arathon*5 'hirdly- tall b#ildings are beco(ing increasingly sentient and !acked "ith deadly fire!o"er* 'he skyscra!er "ith a co(!#ter brain in Die 9ard I 2act#ally F* :cott ?ohnson's Fo );ereira 'o"er5 antici!ates a !ossible genre of architect#ral antiheroes as intelligent b#ildings alternately battle evil or beco(e its !a"ns* 'he sensory syste( of the average office to"er already incl#des !ano!tic vision- s(ell- sensitivity to te(!erat#re and h#(idity- (otion detection- and- in so(e caseshearing* :o(e architects no" !redict the day "hen the b#ilding's o"n %I sec#rity co(!#ter "ill be able to a#to(atically screen and identify its h#(an !o!#lation- and- even !erha!s- res!ond to their e(otional states 2fear- !anic- etc*5* 7itho#t dis!atching sec#rity !ersonnel- the b#ilding itself "ill (anage crises both (inor 2like ordering street !eo!le o#t of the b#ilding or !reventing the( fro( #sing toilets5 and (a=or 2like tra!!ing b#rglars in

an elevator5* 7hen all else fails- the s(art b#ilding "ill beco(e a co(bination of b#nker and fire)base* 7hen the federal .esol#tion 'r#st Cor!* recently sei1ed the assets of Col#(bia :avings and $oan %ssociation they discovered that the CE@- 'ho(as :!iegel- had converted its 0everly 9ills head/#arters into a secret- 'terrorist)!roof fortress* In addition to elaborate electronic sec#rity sensors- a so!histicated co(!#ter syste( that tracked terrorist incidents over the globe- and an ar(s cache in its !arking str#ct#re- the ,9AA 7ilshire b#ilding also has $os %ngeles' (ost #n#s#al e ec#tive "ashroo(:
Tom Spiegel s office, in addition to the bullet-proof glass, was designed to have an adjoining bathroom with a bullet-proof shower. In the event an alarm was sounded, secret panels in the shower walls would open. behind which high-powered assault rifles would be stored.

Free fire 1one 0eyond the scansca!e of the fortified core is the halo of barrios and ghettos that s#rro#nd Do"nto"n $os %ngeles* In 0#rgess'original Chicago)ins!ired sche(a this "as the '1one in transition': the boarding ho#se and tene(ent streets- inter(i ed "ith old ind#stry and trans!ortation infrastr#ct#re- that sheltered ne" i((igrant fa(ilies and single (ale laborers* $os %ngeles' inner ring of free"ay)sliced $atino neighborhoods still reca!it#late these classical f#nctions* 9ere in 0oyle and $incoln 9eights- Central Bernon and Mac%rth#r ;ark are the !orts of entry for the region's !oorest i((igrants- as "ell as the lo")"age labor reservoir for Do"nto"n's hotels and gar(ent s"eatsho!s* .esidential densities- =#st as in the 0#rgess diagra(- are the highest in the city* 2%ccording to the 199A Cens#s- one district of Mac%rth#r ;ark is nearly +AC denser than Midto"n ManhattanD5 Finally- =#st as in Chicago in 193E- this tene(ent 1one 2'"here an inordinately large n#(ber of children are cro"ded into a s(all area'5 re(ains the classic breeding gro#nd of teenage street gangs 2over one h#ndred according to $% school district intelligence5* 0#t "hile Fangland in 193As Chicago "as theori1ed as essentially interstitial to the social organi1ation of the city >Gas better residential districts recede before the encroach(ents of b#siness and ind#stry- the gang develo!s as one (anifestation of the econo(ic- (oral- and c#lt#ral frontier "hich (arks the interstice'>a gang (a! of $os %ngeles today is coe tensive "ith the geogra!hy of social class* 'ribali1ed teenage violence no" s!ills o#t of the inner ring into the older s#b#rban 1onesH the 0oy1 are no" in the '9ood "here @11ie and 9arriet #sed to live* For all that- ho"ever- the inner ring re(ains the (ost dangero#s sector of the city* .a(!arts Division of the $%;D- "hich !atrols the salient

=#st "est of Do"nto"n- reg#larly investigates (ore ho(icides than any other neighborhood !olice =#risdiction in the nation* <earby Mac%rth#r ;ark- once the =e"el in the cro"n of $%'s !ark syste(- is no" a free)fire 1one "here crack dealers and street gangs settle their scores "ith shotg#ns and U1is* 'hirty !eo!le "ere (#rdered there in 199A* 0y their o"n ad(ission the over"hel(ed innercity detach(ents of the $%;D are #nable to kee! track of all the bodies on the street- (#ch less deal "ith co((on b#rglaries- car thefts or gang)organi1ed !rotection rackets* $acking the reso#rces or !olitical clo#t of (ore aff#ent neighborhoods- the des!erate !o!#lation of the inner ring is left to its o"n devices* %s a last resort they have t#rned to Messie#rs :(ith and 7esson- "hose na(e follo"s '!rotected by ***'on (any a !orch* :l#(lords- (ean"hile- are (o#nting their o"n !rivate reign of terror against dr#g)dealers and !etty cri(inals* Faced "ith ne" la"s a#thori1ing the sei1#re of dr#g)infested !ro!erties- they are hiring goon s/#ads and ar(ed (ercenaries to 'e ter(inateI cri(e in their tene(ents* 'he $% 'i(es recently described the s"ashb#ckling advent#res of one s#ch cre" in the ;ico)Union- Benice and ;anora(a City 2:an Fernando Balley5 areas* $ed by a si )foot)three 3,A)!o#nd 'soldier of fort#ne' na(ed David .oybal- this sec#rity s/#ad is reno"n a(ongst landlords for its efficient br#tality* :#s!ected dr#g)dealers and their c#sto(ers- as "ell as (ere deadbeats and other landlord irritants- are !hysically driven fro( b#ildings at g#n!oint* 'hose "ho resist or even co(!lain are beaten "itho#t (ercy* In a ;anora(a City raid a fe" years ago- the 'i(es notes- '.oybal and his cre" collared so (any residents and s/#atters for dr#gs that they converted a recreation roo( into a holding tank and handc#ffed arrestees to a blood)s!attered "all*' 'he $%;D kne" abo#t this !rivate =ail b#t dis(issed residents' co(!laints 'beca#se it serves the greater good*' .oybal and his gang closely rese(ble the so)called (atadors- or hired g#nslingers- "ho !atrol 0ra1ilian #rban neighborhoods and fre/#ently"hile the !olice deliberately t#rn their backs- e ec#te !ersistent cri(inals- even street #rchins* 'heir co((on coda is that 'they get the =ob done JafterK all else has failed*' %s one of .oybal's (ost aggressive co(!etitors e !lains:
Somebody's got to rule and when we're there, we rule. When somebody says something smart, we body slam him, right on the floor with all of his friends looking. We handcuff them and kick them and when the paramedics come and they're on the stretcher, we say: 'Hey, sue me.'

%!art fro( these rent)a)th#gs- the Inner City also s!a"ns a vast cottage ind#stry that (an#fact#res bars and grates for ho(e !rotection* Indeed (ost of the b#ngalo"s in the inner ring no" tend to rese(ble cages in a 1oo* %s in a Feorge .o(ero (ovie- "orking)class fa(ilies (#st no" lock the(selves in every night fro( the 1o(bified city o#tside* @ne inadvertent conse/#ence has been the terrifying fre/#ency "ith "hich fires i((olate entire fa(ilies tra!!ed hel!less in their barred ho(es* 'he !rison cell ho#se has (any resonances in the landsca!e of the inner city* 0efore the :!ring #!rising (ost li/#or stores- borro"ing fro( the !recedent of !a"nsho!s- had co(!letely caged in the area behind the co#nter- "ith firear(s discretely hidden at strategic locations* Even local greasy s!oons "ere beginning to e change ha(b#rgers for (oney thro#gh b#llet)!roof acrylic t#rnstiles* 7indo"less concrete) block b#ildings- "ith ro#gh s#rfaces e !osed to deter graffiti- have s!read across the streetsca!e like acne d#ring the last decade* <o" ins#rance co(!anies (ay (ake s#ch riot)!roof b#nkers virt#ally obligatory in the reb#ilding of (any districts* $ocal inter(ediate and secondary schools- (ean"hile- have beco(e even (ore indisting#ishable fro( =ails* %s !er ca!ita ed#cation s!ending has !l#((eted in $os %ngeles- scarce reso#rces have been absorbed in fortifying school gro#nds and hiring ar(ed sec#rity !olice* 'eenagers co(!lain bitterly abo#t overcro"ded classroo(s and de(orali1ed teachers on decaying ca(!#ses that have beco(e little (ore than dayti(e detention centers for an abandoned generation* 'he schoolyard- (ean"hile- has beco(e a killing field* ?#st as their !arents once learned to co"er #nder desks in the case of an ato(ic bo(b attack- so st#dents today are 'ta#ght to dro! at a teacher's signal in case of *** a driveby shooting ) and stay there #ntil they receive an all)clear signal*' Federally s#bsidi1ed and !#blic ho#sing !ro=ects- for their !art- are co(ing to rese(ble the infa(o#s 'strategic ha(lets' that "ere #sed to incarcerate the r#ral !o!#lation of Bietna(* %ltho#gh no $% ho#sing !ro=ect is yet as technologically so!histicated as Chicago's Cabrini)Freen- "here retinal scans 2c*f* the o!ening se/#ence of Blade Runner5 are #sed to check id's- !olice e ercise increasing control over freedo( of (ove(ent* $ike !easants in a rebel co#ntryside- !#blic ho#sing residents of every age are sto!!ed and searched at "ill- and their ho(es broken into "itho#t co#rt "arrants* In one !artic#larly galling incident- =#st a fe" "eeks before the :!ring 1993 riots- the $%;D arrested (ore than fifty !eo!le in the co#rse of a s#r!rise raid #!on 7atts' I(!erial Co#rts !ro=ect* In a city "ith the nation's "orst ho#sing shortage- !ro=ect residents- fearf#l of evictionare increasingly rel#ctant to clai( any of their constit#tional

!rotections against #nla"f#l search or sei1#re* Mean"hile national g#idelines a!!roved by 9o#sing :ecretary ?ack 8e(! 2and al(ost certain to be contin#ed in the Clinton ad(inistration5 allo" ho#sing a#thorities to evict fa(ilies of alleged dr#g)dealers or felons* 'his o!ens the door to a !olicy of collective !#nish(ent as !racticed- for e a(!le- by the Israelis against ;alestinian co((#nities on the 7est 0ank* 'he half)(oons of re!ression In the original 0#rgess diagra(- the 'half)(oons' of ethnic enclaves 2'De#tschland'- '$ittle :icily'- 'the 0lack 0elt'- etc*5 and s!eciali1ed architect#ral ecologies 2'residential hotels'- 'the t"o flat area'- etc*5 c#t across the 'dart board' of the city's f#nda(ental socioecono(ic !atterning* In conte(!orary (etro!olitan $os %ngeles- a ne" s!ecies of s!ecial enclave is e(erging in sy(!athetic synchroni1ation to the (ilitari1ation of the landsca!e* For "ant of a better generic a!!ellation- "e (ight call the( 'social control districts' 2:CDs5* 'hey (erge the sanctions of the cri(inal or civil code "ith land)#se !lanning to create "hat Michel Fo#ca#lt "o#ld #ndo#btedly have recogni1ed as f#rther instances of the evol#tion of the 'disci!linary order' of the t"entieth)cent#ry city* %s Christian 0oyer !ara!hrases Fo#ca#lt:
Disciplinary control proceed[s] by distributing bodies in space, allocating each individual to a cellular partition, creating a functional space out of this analytic spatial arrangement. In the end this spatial matrix became both real and ideal: a hierarchical organization of cellular space and a purely ideal order that was imposed upon its forms.

C#rrently e isting :CDs 2si(#ltaneo#sly 'real and ideal'5 can be disting#ished according to their =#ridical (ode of s!atial disci!line*' %bate(ent districts- c#rrently enforced against graffiti and !rostit#tion in sign)!osted areas of $os %ngeles and 7est 9olly"ood- e tend the traditional !olice !o"er over n#isance 2the legal fo#nt of all 1oning5 fro( no io#s ind#stry to no io#s behavior* 0eca#se they are self) financed by the fines collected or s!ecial sales ta es levied 2on s!ray !aints- for e a(!le5- abate(ent districts allo" ho(eo"ner or (erchant gro#!s to target intensified la" enforce(ent against s!ecific local social !roble(s*

Enhance(ent districts- re!resented all over :o#thern California by the 'dr#g)free 1ones' s#rro#nding !#blic schools- add e tra federalLstate !enalties or 'enhance(ents' to cri(es co((itted "ithin a s!ecified radi#s of !#blic instit#tions* Contain(ent districts are designed to /#arantine !otentially e!ide(ic social !roble(s- ranging fro( that insect illegal i((igrant- the Mediterranean fr#it fly- to the ever increasing (asses of ho(eless %ngelenos* %ltho#gh Do"nto"n $%'s ho(eless contain(ent 1one' lacks the !recise- if s#rreal- sign!osting of the state De!art(ent of %gric#lt#re's 'Medfly M#arantine None'- it is nonetheless one of the (ost dra(atic e a(!les of a :CD* 0y city !olicy- the s!illover of ho(eless enca(!(ents into s#rro#nding co#ncil districts- or into the tonier !recincts of the Do"nto"n scansca!e- is !revented by their 'contain(ent' 2official ter(5 "ithin the over)cro"ded :kid ro" area kno"n as Central City East 2or the '<ickle' to its inhabitants5* %ltho#gh the recession)driven e !losion in the ho(eless !o!#lation has ine orably leaked street !eo!le into the alleys and vacant lots of nearby inner)ring neighborhoods- the $%;D (aintains its !itiless !olicy of driving the( back into the s/#alor of the <ickle* 'he obverse strategy- of co#rse- is the for(al e cl#sion of the ho(eless and other !ariah gro#!s fro( !#blic s!aces* % s!ate of :o#thland cities- fro( @range Co#nty to :anta 0arbara- and even incl#ding the ';eo!le's .e!#blic of :anta Monica'- recently have !assed

'anti)ca(!ing' ordinances to banish the ho(eless fro( their sight* Mean"hile $os %ngeles and ;o(ona are e(#lating the s(all city of :an Fernando 2.ichie Balens'ho(eto"n5 in banning gang (e(bers fro( !arks* 'hese 'Fang Free ;arks 'reinforce non)s!atiali1ed sanctions against gang (e(bershi! 2es!ecially the recent :treet 'erroris( Enforce(ent and ;revention %ct or :'E;5 as e a(!les of 'stat#s cri(inali1ation ' "here gro#! (e(bershi!- even in the absence of a s!ecific cri(inal act- has been o#tla"ed* :tat#s cri(e- by its very nat#re- involves !ro=ections of (iddle)class or conservative fantasies abo#t the nat#re of the 'dangero#s classes* ''h#s in the 19th cent#ry the bo#rgeoisie cr#saded against a Iargely !hantas(agorical 'tra(! (enace'- and- in the 3Ath cent#ry- against a hall#cinatory do(estic 'red (enace*' In the (iddle 19,As- ho"everthe ghost of Cotton Mather s#ddenly rea!!eared in s#b#rban :o#thern California* %llegations that local daycare centers "ere act#ally covens of satanic !erversion "renched #s back to the seventeenth cent#ry and the :ale( "itch trials* In the co#rse of the McMartin ;reschool (olestation case ) #lti(ately the longest and (ost e !ensive s#ch ordeal in %(erican history ) children testified abo#t (olester)teachers "ho fle" aro#nd on broo(sticks and other (anifestations of the Evil @ne* @ne legacy of the acco(!anying collective hysteria- "hich #ndo#btedly (ined h#ge veins of dis!laced !arental g#ilt- "as the little city of :an Di(as' creation of the nation's first 'child (olestation e cl#sion 1one*''his '"in);eaks)like s#b#rb in the eastern :an Fabriel Balley "as sign)!osted fro( ste( to stern "ith the "arning: '9ands @ffD @#r children are !hotogra!hed and finger!rinted for their o"n !rotection*' I don t kno" if the ar(ies of l#rking !edo!hiles in the (o#ntains above :an Di(as "ere act#ally deterred by these "arningsb#t any (a!!ing of conte(!orary #rban s!ace (#st ackno"ledge the e istence of s#ch dark- $ynchian 1ones "here the social imaginary discharges its fantasies* Mean"hile- !ost)riot :o#thern California see(s on the verge of creating yet (ore :CDs* @n the one hand- the arrival of the federal 7eed and :eed' !rogra(- linking co((#nity develo!(ent f#nds to anti)gang re!ression- !rovides a ne" set of incentives for neighborhoods to ado!t e cl#sion andLor enhance(ent strategies* %s (any activists have "arned- '7eed and :eed' is like a !olice)state caricat#re of the 196As 7ar on ;overty- "ith the ?#stice De!t* transfor(ed into the (anager of #rban redevelo!(ent* 'he !oor "ill be forced to coo!erate "ith their o"n cri(inali1ation as a !recondition for #rban aid*

@n the other hand- e(erging technologies (ay give conservativesand !robably neo)liberals as "ell- a real o!!ort#nity to test cost)saving !ro!osals for co((#nity i(!rison(ent b#ilt as an alternative to e !ensive !rogra(s of !rison constr#ction* $ed by 9eritage Instit#te ideolog#e Charles M#rray ) "hose !ole(ic against social s!ending for the !oor- $osing Fro#nd 219,45- " as the (ost !otent (anifesto of the .eagan era ) conservative theorists are e !loring the !racticalities of the carceral city de!icted in sci)fi fantasies like Escape from New York 2"hich- ho"ever- got the relationshi! of land)val#es all "rong5* M#rray's conce!t- as first ad#(brated in the <e" .e!#blic in 199A- is that 'dr#g)free 1ones for the (a=ority' (ay re/#ire social)ref#se hea!s for the cri(inali1ed (inority* 'If the res#lt of i(!le(enting these !olicies Jlandlords'and e(!loyers '#nrestricted right to discri(inate in the selection of tenants and "orkersK is to concentrate the bad a!!les into a fe" hy!er)violent- antisocial neighborhoods- so be it*' 0#t ho" "ill the #nderclass be effectively confined to its o"n 'hy!er)violent' s#!er):CDs and ke!t o#t of the dr#g)free shangri)las of the overclass& @ne !ossibility is the syste(atic establish(ent of discrete sec#rity gate"ays that "ill #se so(e bio(etric criterion- #niversally registeredto screen cro"ds and by!assers* 'he '(ost elegant sol#tion'- according to a recent article in the Economist- 'is a bio(etric that can be (eas#red "itho#t the s#b=ect having to do anything at all*' 'he individ#ally #ni/#e cart)"heel !attern of the iris- for e a(!le- can be scanned by hidden ca(eras '"itho#t the s#b=ect being any the "iser'* ''hat co#ld be #sef#l in !laces like air!orts ) to check for the eye of a 'a(il 'iger- or anybody else "hose !resence (ight (ake sec#rity g#ardsI !#!ils dilate*' %nother e(erging technology is the !olice #tili1ation of $%<D:%' satellites linked to Feogra!hical Infor(ation :yste(s 2FI:5* %l(ost certainly by the end of the decade the largest U: (etro!olitan areasincl#ding $os %ngeles- "ill be #sing geosynchrono#s $%<D:%' syste(s to (anage traffic congestion and oversee !hysical !lanning* 'he sa(e $%<D:%')FI: ca!ability can be cost)shared and ti(e)shared "ith !olice de!art(ents to s#rveil the (ove(ents of tens of tho#sands of electronically tagged individ#als and their a#to(obiles* %ltho#gh s#ch (onitoring is i((ediately intended to safeg#ard e !ensive s!orts cars and other toys of the rich- it "ill be entirely !ossible to #se the sa(e technology to !#t the e/#ivalent of an electronic handc#ff on the activities of entire #rban social strata* Dr#g offenders and gang (e(bers can be 'bar)coded- and !aroled to the o(niscient scr#tiny of a satellite that "ill track their 34)ho#r itineraries and a#to(atically so#nd an alar( if they stray o#tside the borders of

their s#rveillance district* 7ith s#ch !o"erf#l @r"ellian technologies for social control- co((#nity confine(ent and the confine(ent of co((#nities (ay #lti(ately (ean the sa(e thing* :o#rce: Davis- 1994- !!*+)13