Communication: The rational process of creating and interpreting messages that evoke a response.

Text: A record of a message which can be analyzed by others (e.g. film, book)

Basic communication model: Sender has a thought encodes it into a message message is transmitted through a channel Receiver decodes the message Receiver internalizes the message

Two kinds of theories and worldviews

Objective Theorist Singular Truth Nature and Nurture (determinism people are results of heredity and environment) Universal laws Preference for quantitative methods ( data is recorded in numeric form) Empirical evidence rules ( data collected through direct observation) Realist (only believes in what can be touched, smelled, seen, heard or tasted) Research methods: Applies scientific method to describe, predict and explain recurring forms of human behavior Unbiased sensory observation Experiments (control groups ect.) Surveys Interpretive Theorist Truth is relative Responsibility and voluntarism

Interpretive guides Qualitative methods ( data is recorded in linguistic form) Evidence and ideology (e.g. emancipation) Nominalist Research methods: Studies the ways in which symbolic forms can be used to identify with people or to persuade them toward a certain point of view Assigns meaning and value to communicative texts Textual analysis Ethnography (participation into a culture to observe behavior)
A good interpretive Theory Gives a new understanding of people Unmasks values behind behavior Has an aesthetic appeal (elegant, rhetorical) Is agreed on by the community Reforms the society

A good objective Theory Explains behavior Predicts future events Is as simple as possible Can be proven false Is useful

They might be different, but both ways of making a theory can be combined and lead to each other!

Symbolic Interactionism
Symbolic interaction = Communication through symbols; people talking to each other Herbert Blumers three core principles of symbolic Interactionism Meaning Humans act towards things on the basis of the meanings they assign to those people or things (we see people in terms of symbols) Example: Nell Some see her as a symbol for freedom, some think she ought to be crazy Language Meaning is negotiated through the use of language. Meaning arises out of social interaction that people have with each other. A person can only learn the meaning of things if he is taught them through language Thought An individuals interpretation of symbols is modified by his own thought process. Thinking is an inner dialogue Minding: Inner dialogue used to test alternatives, rehearse actions and anticipate reactions before responding.

Mead: Human beings have the unique capacity to take the role of others (mentally imagine to be the other person and how that person sees you) Mead: Meaning of any language is socially learned. (E.g. Geography: Desert, Alaska...) Looking-glass self = The mental self image that results from taking the role of the other, the objective self; me!

I
Spontaneous driving force which fosters all that is novel, unpredictable and unorganized The self (Mead)

Me
The objective self; the image of self seen when one takes the role of others

Expectancy Violation Theory

Space: Size and shape of our personal space depend on our cultural norms and individual preferences (space is invisible)

Public distance Social distance Personal distance

Intimate distance

Proxemics:

The study of peoples use of space as a special elaboration of culture.

Core concepts of EVT: Expectancy, Violation valence, Communication reward Major claims: expectancies have a significant influence on peoples interaction patterns Violation of expectancies arouse & distracts more attention to the violator & violation Well regarded people safer, engaging in violations (e.g. beautiful, high-status) Context (cultural norms, settings) Relationship (family, status) Communicators characteristics (age /sex /beauty)

Expectancy
Expectancy is violated If valence is negative one does less than is expected If valence is positive one does more than is expected

Violation Valence

Communicator Reward Valence

positive or negative value we place on a specific unexpected behavior evaluation: trying to interpret the meaning of the violation + figure out if we like it

The sum of positive and negative attributes brought to the situation plus the potential to reward or punish in the future (what can you do for/to me?)

Interaction Adaption Theory:

A systematic analysis of how people adjust their approach when anothers behavior does not mesh up with whats needed, anticipated or preferred. Human beings are predisposed to adopt to each other

Interception position: A persons initial stance toward an interaction as determined by a blend of personal requirements, expectations and desires (RED) If not fulfilled Reciprocity: A strong human tendency to respond to anothers action with similar behavior.

Walters Social Information Processing Theory

Computer- mediated communication = uncertainty reduction; people form an image of the other, they draw closer if both like the image that they have formed Interpersonal Information Impression Formation Relationship Development

Unlike the lack of social context cues theories, Walter thinks that the loss of nonverbal communication and context is not necessarily fatal. Positive about it: 1. Verbal cues: When motivated to form impressions and develop relationships, communicators employ any cue system that is available. CMC users can create fully formed impressions of the others based only on the linguistic content of CM messages. 2. Extended time: Exchange is much slower than in face-to-face situations. Impressions are formed at a reduced rate. Two other factors which can contribute intimacy on the internet: 1. Anticipated future interaction Way of extending psychological time: likelihood of future interaction motivates CMC users to develop relationships 2. Chronemics Peoples systematic handeling of time in their interactions with others Hyper personal perspective: Claim that CMC relationships are often more intimate than those developed when people are physically together. Four effects of the lack of face to face contact in interpersonal communication: Sender The selective self- presentation: people can create an overwhelming positive impression

Channel

Opportunity to interact relationally without having to attend to each other at the same time = asynchronous channel Overattribution of similarities: The receiver overestimates his similarities to the self presentation of the sender Self- fulfilling prophecy tendency for a persons expectation of others to evoke a response from them that confirms what was initially anticipated.

Receiver

Feedback

Social judgment theory

Three Latitudes: Acceptance, Rejection, and Noncommitment Social judgment involvement: Perception and evaluation of an idea by comparing it with current attitudes. 1. Latitude of acceptance: the range of ideas that a person sees as reasonable or worthy of consideration 2. Latitude of rejection: the range of ideas that a person sees as unreasonable or objectionable. 3. Latitude of noncommitment: the range of ideas that a person sees as neither acceptable nor objectionable. Ego-Involvement: How much do I care? Ego-involvement refers to how crucial an issue is in our lives. Wide latitude of rejection is a typical sign of high ego-involvement. Judging the Message: Contrast and Assimilation Errors Contrast : a perceptual error whereby people judge messages that fall within their latitude of rejection as further from their anchor than they really are The receiver doesnt have to deal with it as a viable option! Assimilation: a perceptual error whereby people judge messages that fall within their latitudes of acceptance are closer to their anchor than they really are. Discrepancy and Attitude Change Once weve judged a new message to be within our latitude of acceptance, we will adjust our attitude towards it the greater the discrepancy, the more hearers will adjust their attitudes. Boomerang effect : attitude change in the opposite direction of what the message advocated; listeners driven away from rather than drawn to an idea. Evidence that Argues for Acceptance 1. A highly credible speaker can stretch the hearers latitude of acceptance 2. Ambiguity can often serve better than clarity. 3. There are some people who are dogmatic on every issue.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

The Central and Peripheral Route to Attitude Change Central Route: Careful thinking about the given argument Peripheral Route: a mental shortcut process that accepts or rejects a message based on irrelevant cues Cues for travelling on the peripheral route on auto pilot: 1. Reciprocation You owe me. 2. Consistency Weve always done it that way. 3. Social Proof Everybodys doing it. 4. Liking Love me, love my ideas. 5. Authority Just because I said so. 6. Scarcity Quick, before theyre all gone. Message elaboration: the extent to which a person carefully thinks about issue-relevant arguments contained in a persuasive communication. Motivation for Elaboration: Is it Worth the Effort? We have a large-mesh mental filter that allows items we regard as less important to flow through without being processed very carefully; Statements about things that are personally relevant get trapped and tested. Need for Cognition: an enjoyment of thinking through ideas even when they arent personally relevant. Type of Elaboration: Objective versus Biased Thinking Biased Elaboration top-down thinkingpredetermined conclusions color the supporting data Objective Elaboration bottom-up thinking lets facts speak for themselves Elaboration Arguments: Strong, Weak, and Neutral Strong arguments claims that generate favorable thoughts when examined. Weak arguments will give a negative effect on the listener. Neutral arguments dont have any effect what so ever. Choosing a Route: Practical Advice for the Persuader Needs to determine the likelihood that the listeners will give their undivided attention to evaluating the proposal. If it appears that they have the motivation and ability to elaborate the message, she had best come armed with facts and figures to support her case. If the speaker determines that the hearers are unable or unwilling to think through the details of her plan, shell be more successful choosing a delivery strategy that emphasizes the package rather than the contents. Most persuaders avoid the central route because the audience wont go with them or they find it is too difficult to generate compelling arguments.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Dissonance: Discord between Behavior and Belief Cognitive Dissonance: Mental state that deals with the contrasts of two beliefs, or the contrast between belief and action. Health-Conscious Smokers: Dealing with Dissonance 1. Smoking is dangerous to my health 2. I smoke cigarettes. The smoker is concerned about his health but keeps on talking smoking into a good thing Reducing Dissonance between Action and Attitudes Selective Exposure Prevents Dissonance: 1. Selective exposure the tendency people have to avoid information that would create cognitive dissonance because its incompatible with their current beliefs. People tend to select information that line up with what they already believe and ignore facts that run counter to those beliefs. Postdecision Dissonance Creates a Need for Reassurance: 1. Three conditions heighten postdecision dissonance: (1) the more important the issue, (2) the longer an individual delays in choosing between two equally attractive options, and (3) the greater the difficulty involved in reversing the decision once its been made. 2. Postdecision dissonance: strong doubts experienced after making an important, close-call decision that is difficult to reverse. Minimal Justification for Action Induces a Shift in Attitude: 1. A claim that the best way to stimulate an attitude change in others is to offer just enough incentive to elicit counterattitudinal behavior. 2. Festingers minimal justification hypothesis reversed the conventional wisdom from: changing Attitude change Behavior, to: changing Behavior change Attitude. The Cause and Effect of Dissonance A Attitude/Behavior Dissonance Inconsistency B Dissonance Created C Attitude Change D

Reduced

Face and Politeness

Language is ambiguous by nature: Never full control over the meaning of the things we say or write We must draw inferences about meaning

Inferences out of the language that is used quickly Inferences out of knowledge of the world

tend to be fixed, not tentative

(otherwise constant thinking about meaning)

drawn very

Why are people polite? 1. To match hearers expectation of how he should be addressed 2. Most speech acts are face-threatening. My face depends on the maintaining of the others face. 3. To avoid/minimize face-threatening acts. Use independence and involvement strategies. Face: negotiated public image Independence/ Negative Face Everybody wants to do what they want to do. Threats: e.g. Orders, Requests, Advice Would you..? / Id be eternally grateful if Involvement/Positive Face Everyone wants to be accepted and normal. Threats: e.g. Complaints, Bad news, Interruptions Hows it going? / Take care, buddy.

Social distance / Power / Weight = Determine our Politeness - Strategies