Early China: A Survey of Cultures-~-

Neolithic period Hongshan culture Dawenkou culture Henan Longshan culture Shandong Longshan culture Liangzhu culture Majiabang-Songze culture Xia dynasty Erlitou culture Shang dynasty Zhou dynasty Western Zhou Eastern Zhou Spring and Autumn period Warring States period Qin dynasty Han dynasty Three Kingdoms S k Dynasties Sui dynasty

c. 6000-1600 BC
c. 4000-2200 BC

c. 4500-2300 BC c. 2800-1900 BC c. 2300- 1700 BC c. 3400-2250 BC c. 5000-2900 BC c. 2100-1600 BC

c. 1900-1600 BC c. 1600- 1100 BC

1100-220 BC 1100-771 BC 770-220 BC 770-481 BC 480-220 BC 221-207 BC 206 BC-AD 220 221-265 265-589 589-618

Taste & Technique in Collecting Jade

ollecting Chinese jade is a continuous tradition which extends in time to the beginning of this form of art itself. The reasons for collecting jade are as varied as the many individuals who pursue and acquire works of art. Among its desirable qualities, Chinese jade is tactile, which a delicate porcelain vase is not. Jade works of art are sculptural and three-dimensional, features the surface of a painting lacks. Also, the material itself may have great value regardless of indifferent workmanship.

As for myself, I was introduced to Chinese and Japanese antiquities at a very early age. My parents were collectors of Oriental works of art, and they instilled in me a deep respect for the ancient culture and rich artistic tradition of Asian people. I acquired my first Chinese jade work of art from a gallery in New Orleans when I was eleven years old, thus igniting my personal passion for collecting. Upon graduation from universit!-, I ioined n~!. fan~il:,'s Oriental art business in Dallas. Then in 1978, I accepted a position with a leading San Francisco Oriental art gallery which specialized in Chinese jade, before establishing S. Bernstein 8r Co. Jade 8- Oriental Art in July 1991.

MYsailer! features Chinese iade works of art from the Neolithic period (7000-1600RC) through Jadr froln Dlsta~ltCcrltrrrics, was published in the Kineteenth century. An inaugural catalogue, Clti~icsc 1997. The collector of jade today has more factual information available than during an!, prelvious generation. Literature from the 1930's and 1940's is viewed with some skepticism based on more recent archaeological finds. The reporting and printed documentation of these remarkable discoveries has accelerated in the past decade. Of particular interest to collectors of early iades is the literature regarding the Neolithic Liangzhu (circa 3400-2350 BC) and Hongshan (5000-2200 BC) cultures. For the first time, the importance and use of ritual iades in Neolithic culture are graphically explained. Axe blades and beads have been discovered intact and exactly as the!. w7ereoriginally placed with the tomb occupants.
The discovery of the Han period (302 BC-AD 330) tomb of the \Western King of Nanyue in 1983, and subsequent publication of Jades fro171 tlte tonlb o f tlic King o f Nar-tyue in 1991, is an exciting example of the short time period between a discovery and printed documentation of the find. This tomb contained many remarkable jade objects which were previously believed to date from later periods. In particular, a

Figure One. Water Purification Bowl

well-preserved jade rhyton vessel, a subject traditionally thought to be of the Tang dynasty (618-907AD), was discovered in s i t t ~ in this Han tomb. The av .ilability of such imp01 .ications has resulted n a re-evalu.ation recent of the dating of jade objects already catalogued and held in public and private collections. Taste in Jade C o l l e c t r n ~ In America and Europe taste in jade ; as evolved s~ :eadily. A itute colh collect the century ;admired :he finely the tui spinach green jades of the Eighteenth century. I Through the early 1950's, white nephrite jade Figure Two. HafiI Bi Disc renderings of the Ming Dynasty ( 1368- 1644) to the end of the Eighteenth century were highlv sought after. The 1980's saw an increased interest in brilliantly colored renderings of Burmese jadeite and a corresponding increase in prices. These late Nineteenth and Twentieth centurv works were bringing world-record prices at the auction houses. The dominant buyers in this market were collectors from Hong Kong and Taiwan. While this trend has continued, the focus is now on exceptional jadeite pieces, rather than examples of lower to middle quality. Recently, fine white nephrite jade works have again captured the eves of.4sian collectors who value it very highly. The material of an Eighteenth centurv water purification bowl (figure one) intended to light to easily pass through the body of adorn a scholar's table is a warm white color. The design ~llo\\is the bowl. Presently. rvhite iades of this period which are clssociated \\.ith scholarl\~pursuits are commanding significant values. It has been said that one high price realized for a work of art is a record, two record prices become a trend, and three record prices represent a market. Since the late 1980's, auction salesrooms have been the most visible indication of this emerging phenomenon which has become eLrenmore Jpparent during the past two years. Since the mid-198O's, jade collecting has become J worldwide activity. .Asian collectors watch with interest the jade collecting trends in America and Europe. As most economic reports of manufacturing activities show, the growth of wealth is increasingly centered in a handful of -Asian countries. With this new wealth comes the urge to collect and acquire that which is special and unique. There is no question that the flow of Oriental works of art to American and European collections has reversed, with art objects now moving back toward Asia. Who is collecting jade works of art at the top level? Reviews of the past two years of Christie's and Sotheby's sales in London, New York and Hong Kong would indicate that collectors from Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, Japan and Thailand are emerging as primary buyers. As values rise, there is little doubt this trend will continue. In everyday terms, this means that as jade works of art in Western collections change hands, it is likely these works will find their way into private and public collections in Asia. Technique in Jade Collecting One of the most frequently asked questions is, "How do you date a jade work?" There are several ,l~proaches. However, these may be simplified into two main methods. The first is a physical inspection, .ad the second is a stvlistic examination of the jade as a work of art. There have been two malor -,..,'..-.-,,.1,1,4,~., \ . r - T1.,,-,,n,-3 Chl:prTrrlT,. r?l;Dt' I - l l r ? t n r ErT7pr;tllS +be A - \ T ~ ~ T , T - 7 . .. -- . .
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fifteen years. Mr. Shangraw places great emphasis on the physical condition of a work of art, and his method has been a valuable tool in arriving at accurate evaluations. Dr. James C.Y. Watt, of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, has emphasized a of knowing each stylistic examination of jade and the in~portance period of Chinese history as a context in which to interpret a jade work. The physical approach to dating jade involves a careful examination of the appearance of the object - not just a perusal, but really concentrating on and looking at the condition of the piece. One should look carefully at the texture and color of the stone for evidence of age, usually appearing as alteration of the surface. Tool marks left by the artist in making the piece are another clue to authenticitv. The Han period pi disc (figure t~voiis an example of the random coloration and alteration of jades when buried for long periods of time. This coloration results from contact with minerals in the jade's natural environment. Artificial coloration looks just as the name implies (the coloration is manipulated so that is appears "too perfect"). A piece with very neat discoloration may be contrived to look old by subjectins it to chen~icals to alter its appearance. These pieces are obvious and may be identified with experience.
Figure Three. Liangzhu Axe Blade

Neolithic blades with holes invariably show some signs of encrustation along the interior wall of is present, another 1001; at tht. the hole which ei7ena good cleaning ma! no[ remove. I i surface ~lteration texture and pattern is in order. If some edges on early blades are beyeled, carefully inspect the beveling itself. Does it continue to the edge of the blade? Is it rendered with one continuous line? Is the angle of the bevel consistent, without hesitation? The magnificent Liangzhu blade shown (figure three) is an example with this consistency of line and delicate surface polish. Note the slight tool marks toward the top of the blade which are the result of the original working. Recent archaeological evidence would suggest that great care was taken in the making of blades since they were intended to be purely ritualistic and burial was regarded with great importance to the community. A physical examination of the piece of correctness. should reveal a consistent in~pression The stylistic approach to dating jades is more subjective and requires a greater understanding of the approach of each period to the mahng of jades. It has been said that the Chinese have produced a few periods of artistic inspiration and originality, while during many periods they have emulated and reinterpreted, Hence, a collector first has to look at a piece with fresh eyes and decide what the piece suggests. Is it'from the Han dynasty or is it a Song dynasty (960-1279 AD) revival of a popular subject which originated in Han? As early as the Shang period (circa 1600-1100 BC) artists were copying and reinterpreting early periods. This author has encountered Eighteenth century jades emulating Ming works. which in turn emulate Song works. The key to deciding on a date is to understand the peculiarities of each period's approach to working. Bear in mind that when a style is first introduced it is in its most potent and pure form. We indicate this by saying a work of art has originality and powerful rendering style. Later periods which copy these original forms invariably inject their own distinctive, stylistic shorthand into the composition. Therefore, Eighteenth century brushwashers with bats may be equally as powerfully or naturalistically rendered as Ming examples. The collector must isolate stylistic elements from the work of art and concentrate on evaluating each and every one.

I believe that in an effort to date a jade object, use of both physical and stylistic examination is the .- best and most reliable approach possible. Each method acts as a check and balance on the other.

~f a

collector encounters an inconsistency in his review, this will require some resolution. Furthermore, one should keep in mind the powerful tool of comparison with similar objects in other media. For example, the shape of a jade vessel from the Song dynasty may bear similarities to the same subject in porcelains of the same dynasty. The ewer with dragon handle illustrated (figure four) is an example of this similarity between jades and porcelain. Note the gently tapering mouth of the ewer which tlares rather than merely protrudes. The surface rendering is delicate, archaistic and understated. The foot of the vessel flares slightly outward and is neatly indented on the underside. These are characteristics seen in Song porcelains. Based on this comparison, the sum of these factors would date the piece to the Song dynasty, rather than Ming or later. Datin? a jade is always a challenge and a bit like detective work or solving a riddle. It is useful to approach dating from the perspective of the culture that proaucca [he work of art. Undersc~nciin~ ihe context of the object and its importance to that culture increases the enjoyment of collecting. Evaluation of a Jade How does one begin to evaluate a Chinese jade? The answer is important because the price of a jade work of art rests upon the significance and rarity of the object within its cultural context. The following discussion is intended only as a rough guide and each collector will emphasize some points more than others. This is natural and desirable since collecting is a very personal experience for most of us. The subject matter of J Chinese jade work of art is probably of greatest importance since this determines how we will interpret the work. Jade wedding bowls, mountains, brushpots and rhytons been highlv admired by the Chinese themselves as have ~lways well as Western collectors. The very first piece collected by the Heber Bishop, the first maior American collector of jade, was an Eighteenth century brushpot which is now in the lLIetropolitan A,luseuin in New Tiork City. Some subjects 3re more difficult to render than others. The delicately rendered jades of the Liangzhu period with depictions of faces sometimes have nine distinct lines within only one-siuteenth of an inch of surface. For a Neolithic work, this is 3 distinct ~ n remarkable d achievement. Workmanship is the next element in the evaluation of a jade. Again, the quality of workmanship will, of necessity, reflect the thinking of the period. Superbly refined renderings of the Eighteenth century demonstrate a strong attention to technical Figure Four' Ewer with Dragon perfection. Song renderings are refined in workmanship and design and have strong archaistic flavor which was highly prized in the period. Yuan dynasty works are simple, direct and powerfully rendered in a style of workmanship that is not hesitant. Perhaps this is a reflection of the political and economic times of the Thirteenth century. An archaistic phoenix headed htlang or pendant of large, powerful size is a very good example of he Yuan dynasty jade artist's approach (figure five). There is a strong archaic feel to the design and form that is reminiscent of Zhou (1100-256 BC) and later Han dynasty works. In fact, in the late 1970's this piece was exhibited and published as a Zhou work. The blunt, etched pattern, chamfered edges, large size and archaistic approach are the clues to establish a Yuan date. The age of a jade object is of some importance to a collector, though it is not the most important concern in evaluating jade Come collect only very early jades and forgo any example later than the Warring States period (480-220 BC). There is, no doubt, a premium to be paid for an outstanding early jade or rare subject matter and excellent -rkmanship. However, merely being of great age does not make a poorly rendered piece better. Passage

of time does not reward common or poorly executed works. The age and period are factors in placing the work in the correct historical context. In evaluating Chinese jade there are two final factors to consider which may be less significant, but remain important to identify: the quality of the jade material and the provenance of the work of art. Presently, Asian collectors place great emphasis on the quality of the jade stone. Extremely white nephrite jades are bringing very high prices at~auction, an-d this Figure Five. Phoenix Headed Huang trend is extending into dealer's showrooms. The perfection of white jade is perceived to be an Eighteenth century peculiarity. However, it is my opinion that Eighteenth century collectors prized white jade in part because of the rarity of a fine white nephrite seen in some earlier Song jades. The archaistic subject matter of many Eighteenth century jades supports this theory. An extremel!. white nephrite Song dynasty cup (figure six) shows understated refinement in the placement of the dragons. There are numerous examples of Ming and Qins ( 1644-191 1 ) jades emulating Song style and material. Invariably the technical aspects of these later pieces override the aesthetic elegance of the material. The provenance of a jade refers to former ownership and any history of publication or exhibition. Although this is an extrinsic factor in evaluating a work of art, some collectors feel more confident when a piece has been published or has been a part of an important collection. Bear in mind that everyone makes mistakes in collect in^, and a famous name does not guarantee the date or quality of the work itself. One must evaluate each work of art on its own merits and failings. Suggestions to the Jade Collector The trends described earlier in this chapter will most likely continue well into the next century. A collector of jade should al~%.ays keep priorities in mind. Collect what speaks ~vith eloquence to you, and buy the best quality you can afford. Choose subjects which intrigue the imagination and are most pleasant to touch. Jades were meant to be handled and caressed. Learn the characteristics of each jade within this context, along with its intended use. period, and tr). to e\~aluate Ask yourself how well the artist achieved what he set out to do. Does the rendering style demonstrate an elegance and confidence? Does the composition flow masterfully and is it consistent? These are questions of aesthetics which each collector must answer.

I!

There are many resources which can provide further information to continue the inquiry into taste and technique in the collection of Chinese jade. The best resources are other collectors. I have never met a collector who did not enjoy ,,.. 1 **.. jndes . s l - ' ,,A. .,. ,,.. tc 2:: i!?tt~pstec! ft.!!n\*- r o ! l x t o r . ,,, . , . ; : ; I -:, Museums and their curatorial staffs are another source of valuable information. Dealers who specialize in jades are always happy to spend time with collectors who seek to increase their knowledge. Indeed, I believe it is the obligation of dealers to assist in educating collectors. Only knowledgeable collectors may fully appreciate and enjoy the works of art which they acquire. Various international magazines are also useful in providing . reporting - of - timely auction sales and market trends, as well as informative articles.
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Figure Six. Song Dynasty Cup

Five Favorite Pieces

uring the past twenty years I have been fortunate to pursue my love of Oriental art and to earn a living doiiig ivliat 1 nost enjoy. U'lli:L :I;c ;dllccting Inndscape has changed and evolved d~irini. thiq period, the basic motivations have remained constant. My friend Raymond Bushell, the noted collector of Japanese netsuke, snuff bottles and Chinese jade, succinctly described in his volume, Netsuke Familiar and Unfamiliar, the differences between the motivations of the investor, the dealer and the collector. The investor buys at a low price with the expectation of holding the work of art for a period of time and realizing a profit at the time of sale. Aesthetic considerations play a minor role, only becoming significant during the selection process. The collector buys art for the enjoyment of owning an artifact. Gains made at the time of selling the collector's objects are not a primary consideration, although at least maintaining the price paid for a work of art is desired. The dealer acquires an object with the expectation of selling it at a profit to cover the cost of doing business.

The dealer must choose carefully and fully research the artifact under consideration to avoid making a costly mistake. Dealers with integrity and a high level of connoisseurship often add to the knowledge of the marketplace by sharing their research with collectors and the academic community. The necessary flow of information, which is the lifeblood of the art market, is therefore enhanced. The academic community provides an important contribution in this process through seminars, publications and articles which are the intellectual by-product of often long, arduous, years of research and study. In the everyday world of handling great works of art, the collector, dealer, academic and art historian enjoy an important symbiotic relationship. During my career I have handled, examined and studied more than 20,000 jade works of art. I am commonly asked which objects I consider to be my most favorite of those that I have handled as a specialist dealer. I would like to share with you five of my "favorites among the favored" that I have been privileged to have pass through my hands. Like every collector I have met during my career, I too can remember vividly the first encounter with a superior work of art. Minute details such as time of day, season of the year and the thrill of acquisition remain clearly in my memory. Indeed, of the five pieces I will share with you, only one was purchased to keep for myself. I have steadfastly observed an unwritten rule among dealers that it is a conflict to collect what you are engaged in selling. The c~llector always wonders if he is being offered the best that the dealer has to offer. My own interests have tended to focus on related areas such as rare books and building a three thousand volume reference library over the past twenty , years. ,

Figure I . Crystal Buddha

Each of these objects is significant because they embody the three criteria which I prize above all others. The first criteria simply stated, is it a work of fine art? Secondly, is the object rare? Rarity simply refers to scarcity.Am I likely to encounter another example equal to or better than the object at hand? And lastly, is the object historically significant? Does it reflect, for example, the best of a particular period in history? It is my own determination that an object which is beautiful, rare and historically important combines the best of all worlds. It sometimes may be hard to elucidate, but an experienced collector, dealer or academic knows it instinctively when they see it. In the words of the collector Foster Goldstrom, "if it speaks to you, jump on it!" The quartz crystal figure of Buddha (Figure 1 ) stands fifteen inches tall and is rendered from a solid boulder of material. I first encountered this remarkable sculpture in 1986 when it was acquired by an heir to a manufacturing fortune. It evidently had sold at auction in London during the 1980's catalogued as Indian and of the Eighteenth century. In the center of the forehead was a natural speck of black inclusion suspended at the midpoint suggesting the third eye of Buddha. I grasped at the opportunity to discreetl!. handle this remarkable object. Therese Bartholomew, Curator of Indian and Himalayan Art and Patricia Berger, then Curator of Chinese Art, both at the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, served as a beginning point in reaching a determination of the origin of the workmanship. Patricia remembered seeing something related in a volume cataloguing the Dalai Lama's collection of Tibetan artifacts. Stylistic analysis strongly suggested a twelfth centur). date and a Tibetan origin. The production of small images of Buddha rendered in quartz crystal (considered a healing stone in Asia) was centered along the Sino-Tibetan border area. The object in the Dalai Lama's collection was remarkably similar to this example and was given a twelfth century date.

Figure 2. "C" Shaped Dragorz

During my exhibition, Endtlring Imager in 1993, the quartz crystal Buddha quickly found a new home in the collection of a first rate collector with eclectic taste. At the time, I had the realization that I would never have the opportunity to handle such a breathtaking example of Tibetan art again. To have enjoyed the feel and allure of this remarkable statue, if only for a short time, was satisfaction enough. Occasionally in my career I have encountered an object which has opened my eyes to a whole new direction of inquiry and study. The "C" shaped jade dragon (Figure 3) is just such a piece. I first saw this remarkable Neolithic culture (4000-2200 BCE) jade while on a trip to the Far East. Having had a rather dismal trip, I decided to rest poolside at my hotel for the afternoon the day before departure. A hotel porter approached me carrying a small wrapped box saying that an acquaintance had left it with the hotel concierge for mv attention.

I carefully opened the box and my eyes took in the beauty of this sensuous jade from pre-history.
The soft, delicate surface polish and gentle curving lines with rounded edges instinctively told me that this was the real thing. There were no inconsistencies or ambiguities whatsoever. The natural sunlight danced on the surface of the jade showing a creamy surface iridescence which shimmered. The translucency, ever so slightly affected by water and soil minerals, was unmistakable. There was a slight area of exceptional shiny smoothness near the top fin of the dragon which was curious. I raced to the phone to call a highly respected local collector and invited him to my hotel. From the sound of my voice he sensed my urgency. Within half an hour my friend joined me by the poolside. As I placed the dragon into his hands, he pulled a pocket magnifier from his jacket. I was struck by the

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incongruity that 1 was In swlmmlng trunks and robe while my friend was wearing the usual businessmanS summer attire in Asia of a navy blue suit, white shirt and smart English public school tie. We were both mesmerized by the delicacy of the jade and the elegant simplicity. My friend quietly suggested that the piece had been cleaned with mercury to improve the appearance. Otherwise, the piece was correct and consistent with known excavated examples.

During the next several weeks, I had the opportunity to study the "C" shaped dragon carefully. In my mind's eye 1 remember the delicacy of the etched lines on the snout of the dragon and on the underside of the chin. The tail ended in a delicate, deliciously rendered kickup or curve. The placement of the suspension hole towards the top edge of the piece was perfectly balanced when a string was placed through the hole and held in the air. I continue to be enchanted by the exquisite attention to minute detail. I can imagine the artist's excitement when the draaon was completed 6,000 years ago. It is truly a prestige object made for an individual of high status. To have owned the dragon, if only brietly, was an adventure.
I first saw the gilt bronze mythical beast (Figure 3), hereafter referred to as simply "the beast" in the home of a world famous lover of Oriental art almost a decade ago. At the time, the object was not for sale, having been given pride of place in an outstanding collection of Chinese bronzes. This remarkable

-0 research this stunning object. My inquiries focused on related archaeological examples published in Chinese scientific journals, Wenwtl and K~logu,as well as a survey of Western references.

Figure 3. Gilt Bronze mythical Beast

Photography was made for advertisement and an image of the object was placed by computer :nhancement into J miniature handmade pottery version of a Han period tomb complete with metal doors and wall texture. The idea was to suggest the historical context in which to present the object. Meanwhile, I sought opinions from curators and art historians familiar with Han period metalwork. There appeared to be a consensus of opinion by the scholars consulted that the object was consistent with an early date. However, one cautious art historian, Emma Bunker, was bothered by the appearance of the formation of cuprite on the surface. This historian recommended a scientific lab at one of America's leading museums to review the object. The next day I dispatched my gallery director to the lab with the object in hand. After a careful visual examination of the surface under high power magnification, the scientific opinion came back that the surface alteration and evidence of cuprite build-up were consistent with a Han period date. To my amazement, that was not'all we learned from this object. During the Han period, the casting of larger objects was executed in an inverted manner. Final chasing of the metal was done as a later step in the process of creating the cast image. The gold itself was a heavy mercury and gold application which had great depth of color. The surface affect evident was the result of the interaction of the surface of the bronze rather than the gold gilding itself.

The feet of the beast were the last part to be cast and, as was usual, there were repairs to the feet as well as the body at the time the object was made. In short, this beast was a case study of the technology of metal casting during the Han period. With this knowledge in hand and a certainty of dating, the object was then published and offered for sale. I shall always remember my first impression of this noble beast the first time I placed it in my hands. Subsequently, the beast was auctioned at Sotheby's in London in June 1998 and reached a winning bid of US$389,600. Perhaps someday I will have the opportunity to handle this wonderful beast again. Only once in my career have I sold a jade object which I could trace from the raw boulder to its creation as a work of art by Imperial order. Its passage through two hundred years of wars, revolutions, economic upheavals and the curious cycles of the Oriental art market was well documented. In 1774, the Qianlong Emperor received a boulder of nephrite jade as tribute from the Xinjiang region inhabited by native Muslim tribes. The Emperor examined the boulder and suggested to his court artists that a covered vase be made in an archaistic Cfanggu) design which he preferred (Figure 4). A year later the vase was completed and was prepared for review by the Emperor. He was so pleased with the result of his palace workshop that the Emperor ordered a poem he composed to be added to the vase. Fortunately, the inscription is dated 1775. The archives of the Qianlong Emperor survive, and this vase with description is contained within this ten thousand page document. In 1860, the jade vase was removed from the Summer Palace by British troops and made its way to London. After passing through several collections, the vase was sold by Spink and Son in July 1940 to an American collector in Los Angeles. From the heirs of this collector the vase eventually made its way into my hands. To my knowledge, as incredible as it seems, no one in recent times bothered to translate the remarkable inscription. The Qianlong Emperor reveals his inner thoughts by admiring this "treasured tribute from Khotan" with its "body covered with dense ancient patterns."

Figure 4. Qianlong Vase

This Emperor, arguably the greatest collector in history, rediscovers his love of the ancient literary classics. Today this outstanding vase which has survived so much is now in the collection of a jade collector living in China. It has, in fact, traveled full circle. I learned a lot from having this stately vase pass through my hands. Art follows wealth, and the wealthiest nation sets the taste in collecting. In the Eighteenth century, China with its Imperial wealth and power dictated the working of this vase. In the Nineteenth century, the British Empire grew to prominence and the art world revolved around London. After World War 11, American collectors eagerly acquired Chinese art. American museums actively scoured the world looking for marvelous objects to fill their galleries. Today, when 1 stand in the ceiltrai hail o i t h e new Shanghai hluseun~, I see thc future of collecting in my field. Perhaps in my lifetime, many of the best works of art will return to the country of their origin. This jade vase speaks volumes about the foibles of history which are reflected in art. The fifth and last object of virtue is a relatively small but exquisitely rendered open-work yellow jade pendant (Figure 5) which has been exhibited in four American museum exhibitions this past decade. Formerly in the collection of my colleague, the Hong Kong based art dealer Gerald Godfrey, it was offered in October of 1995 at auction. When I received my catalogue, I had it in mind to acquire a fondling piece for myself. Although I knew I was breaking my rule of not collecting in my area of business, I decided to "go for it." I remember waking up at 2 a.m. in the morning and bidding from my home in San Francisco by telephone.

The bidding on the previous lots of interest went well above the pre-sale estimates. I had not been successful in any other bidding before the dragon pendant came up toward the end of the sale. I suspected that the local Hong Kong collectors were in a bidding frenzy to buy up as much of Gerald's collection of jades as possible. I was frustrated and sure that the yellow dragon pendant would go for several times the high estimate. The auction house representative asked me if I wanted to bid. The rapid fire bidding on the previous lots had moved faster than my tired, sleepy brain could keep up with, but I said, "yes, bid the next ;llirenlent." The piece was aobv at ;ta high ~ 5 t i 1 l l ~ ; n t C ! ~ It , ,vL~': bid. Suddenly, she said, "Congratulations, the lot is yours." I was speechless. I owned the yellow pendant! It was hard to go to sleep after that experience.
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In a few days the pendant arrived safely and I eagerly and opened the box. My first impression was that it was larger more powerful in person than in the photography. I was totally delighted with my acquisition, piece number one in my personal collection of jade.

Figure 5. Yellow Jade Dragon Pendant

A month later a good friend and client from the South Seas came to visit in San Francisco. He looked around the gallery and as he began to take his leave, I pulled the yellow dragon pendant from inside my pocket to show to him. The moment I placed it in his hand, I knew that I had made a terrible mistake. He had to own this remarkable object. Next, I heard the words that I dreaded. He wanted to give this pendant to his wife who, like myself, was born in the year of the dragon. As a dealer, it is hard to say no, as my good friend kindly pointed out.
Reluctantly, I agreed and quoted 3 price and shook hands. heartbroken. Four years went by and at :ach opportunity 1 would mention to my client that I wanted to buy back my good luck piece. He would politely shake his head and shoulders saying, "But my wife, she likes the dragon very much. It is not possible." One afternoon in February 1999, I saw my client's wife waiting in the lobby of my building for a taxi. I walked over to her to say hello. She and her husband had just arrived from Paris and would be in San Francisco for a week. I invited her to visit my gallery in the Fairmont Hotel. Then, thinking I had nothing to loose, I asked her if I might re-acquire the dragon pendant. She replied that she would come with her husband to my gallery. The following week my clients called to make an appointment to drop by. I was nervous as the appointed time approached. On time, they came in holding a distinctive small green box with my company name on it. My client's wife opened the box and took out the pendant and placed it in my hand. "Perhaps you have something for me to choose and I will return your good luck to YOU." I said, "You may pick out anything you wish from my gallery. I will agree to anything." After an hour, my client and his wife selected a Han period wooden tomb figure. As they left, she turned to me and said, 'YOU can now relax. You have your good luck dragon again." How right she was in her observation. Dealers are often collectors and collectors sometimes fancy themselves as dealers. However, whatever color hat you wear, we are all humans with needs to be met and expectations to be fulfilled. I am honored to have handled these five remarkable works of art. Each is unique in its own way. Each has taught me much about myself, my business and about human nature in general. I am especially pleased to share these objects and my experiences with you.

A Look at Scientific Testing of Jade

erhaps it is symptomatic of the age in which we live that we look to science and the technology that it propels to find answers to our questions about art. Recently, there have been attempts to apply scientifically derived techniques to the dating and evaluation of ancient Chinese jade. In 1999, a European auction house mounted a sale of jade objects in which it is claimed that " t w o years of research were invested into confirming the authenticity o f this important collection. A5 a result il nettJscientific method to establish the authenticity of ancient jades has been developed."

The basis of this "new scientific method" consists of an examination of the tool markings present and analysis of the evidence of weathering. Weathering is defined as the natural process of the alteration of the surface of jade. The sale catalogue states that sometimes in archaeological finds where no weathering may be traced the question is raised of how to establish the ase of the object. The sale if . a .jade ol~iccr Izas 110 cllidcrrcc o f \veatlrcr-irrg- ~ o ~ ~ r c t h i1i~lricI7 i r g cillllzot 11c catalogue continues, "Esscrltiall~: detcnnirlcd wit11 tllc llakcd C,VC - it 17111jt d i l t ~ fi.0111 ~\'itlliila till~ehr(~clictof 1000 J ~ C [ I I . . ; .111 S I ~ C I IR COSC, appraisal qf the wol-king teclzrriqrles and stylistic ilssessnzent ~ I Z L b ~ CS relied ~ L ~ ~ O IThe Z . " catalogue continues with the admonition that " c v c y , collector sl~ozlldrllnke use o f a nzicr-oscopc. This i.; the .first stage i r ~tlzc scielltifir flnflll~sij.'' In revie\vins the various scientific testing techniques developed over the past twent). years, several procedures have evolved into common use. Thern~alLunlinescence (TLi is the emission of light from an insulatol. or senii-conductor when it is heated. TL dating is limited b ! . the response of the samples that are a\lailable. The response is checked by irradiating the sample with a standard or kno\rn source of radiation prior to measurement of its TL. This calibration procedure enables the TL sensiti\.it\of the material to be determined. Such a calibration, along with the measured natural TL of the sample, enables a deternlination of age. This testing procedure, however, may be defeated by fakers \+rho mix older materials with ne\v. Also, it does not have applicabilitjr to jade works of art. Another technique used is X-ray Fluorescence which yields information about the constituent elements, but does not yield age data. Electron Spectroscopy (ESCA) is another way of analyzing the surface of an object and of its elemental make-up. This has been used successfully by Dr. Wen Guang in testing excavated jades from archaeological sites throughout China [See the article, "Mineralogical Inquiries into Chinese Neolithic Jades" published in The Journal of Chinese Jade. 1996. S. Bernstein, editor]. However, despite these claims of a new method to authenticate the date of manufacture of jade, the consensus of art historians and scientists that the author canvassed is that there is not, at the present time, a reliable scientific basis alone for the dating of a worked pae oD,leit. The verisimilitude of results from the testing procedures may result when scientific testing alone is applied to the dating of jade. It is the author's opinion that while it is admirable to apply scientific testing techniques to jade, the observer must understand its limitations and place these procedures into an overall methodology of stylistic as well as physical review. Science must go hand in hand with art historianship. The art historian has the visual ability to understand an object within its cultural and historical context. Scientific applications within this framework support the conclusions of the art historian, not vice versa. If the results of such testing do not support these assumptions, then further enquiry must be made to explain the discrepancy. In the auction catalogue mentioned, this key element

of art historianship in setting the age parameters is missing. Professor James Cahill remarked during the recent symposium Isstles ofAuthcnticity in Chinese P~zinting, held at the Metropolitan Museum, New York, in December, 1999, that in addition to scientific measurement we should "not forget to look at the painting." What is a scientist to test for if the object before him sits with no reference points in an historical context or archaeological background? Those individuals who produce fakes are amazingly proficient at adapting to the nuances of scientific testing [See the author's essay "Fishing in the Jade Pond" in this volume, pages 20-211. It is correct thinking that the art historian who has the benefit of supporting scientific analysis of the art object may produce a clearly reasoned and published description which adds to the body of research. Based on v i s ~ l n l nnnlvsis :.done one i a n see almost :lnvthinz without some archaeolo~icallv derived point of reference. Herein lies the flaw in this latest attempt to date jade works or 21-1 scientifically. There is a popular misconception that scientific testing is somehow "objective" while art history is "subjective." Clearly this is not the case. It is the interpretation of the results which requires expertise. Reliable results depend on a comparison with a control group. In the case of jade, this consists of comparative analysis of the results to similar testing procedures o n scientificallv excavated jades. A significant example of analysis of scientifically excavated jades are those from the tomb of the Western King of Nanyue discovered in Guangzhou in Guandong Province in 1984. Results of scientific testing suggest that the jade used to work the jades have a similar consistency of chemical makeup; i.e., the material originated from the same source. Nowhere within the results is there a claim of precise dating of the weathering of these obiects recovered bv Chinese archaeologists. 1,lore importantly, there is no basis tor the arbitrarv parameter of 1000 vears for surface alteration to take place o n a jade stone.

X laboratory test conducted by scientists at the CTniversity of ;intwerp in 1995 successfullv induced surface effect on jade over a period of several months exposure to a tomb-like environment. The results demonstrated that s u r f ~ i eLilteration ioulci be induced in a relatively short time dur;ition of several months. To quote the published paper of the experiment. "Tilis 111rl111s t / l ~ l t/le t prosCrs nlkc-s ,7/rlcr over 11 relatively short period o f tiine (i.e., rillring t l ~ c ~norld~ tlllzt s the blrricli bodies deioi~lpose!.This t q l r l i ~ 1v11)1 l~ there is no iorrel~ztionbet~veetltllc 'iegree ofrrlterrltiorr 1111ii tile rlye o f the object or t i ~ e leizgll o f rime it 11115 been buried. It is, rather, 11 fiinction of the extent and Jtirrztion of'sontrzct between the object L Z I I L ~the cllk~lline solution izi~ii tire ~iiicrorrrrr!trrreqftire iair~rml.''!Results published in Ciiinesr Jade iznd scroll Pnintingfrorn the Dongxi iollectioi.~, Nicole De Bisscop. Kredietbank, N.V. 19% Brussels. Pp. 73-74].
Without the input of the art historian or archaeologist, it is far too easv for scientific testing results :o be misinterpreted. This does J disservice to both ,irt historianship and scientific inquiry and adversely affects the jade nlarket worldtvide bv creating the impression of scientific infallibility. Comparison with archaeologically derived examples remains our strongest and most potent analytical tool. Science alone does not provide a panacea for answering our questions about the absolute dating of jade works of art.

Fishing in the Jade Pond

ne of the precise indicators of an upwardly mobile art market is an increase in spurious works of art. Fakers, above all, are denizens of the marketplace. It may truthfully be said that fakes delineate the evolution of taste and fads in collecting with surprising precision. Their creation is a response to demand which is an ever-changing reflection of human desires. Further, fakes provide an understanding of the people who make them and those for whom the fakes are made.

Chinese jade is at the present time experiencing an increase in demand and the attention of both beginning collectors and connoisseurs alike. Following each wave of archaeological discover!: spurious copies haire entered the marketplace. .A subtle difference, however, has emerged which separates the present from past trends in faker!.. .An increase in technological sophistication has been brought to bear on the efforts of the fakers. Scholars in other disciplines, such as Chinese metalwork and porcelain, have bemoaned the fact that fakers are often one step ahead of the academics and dealers \vho catch on to them. It is a dubious tribute to the ingenuity of the human mind that enables the faker to simulate both the obvious and more subtle tell-tale signs of authenticity. Sadl!., each societ~. and seneration fakes the art it covets most. Roman copies of Greek sculpture kept generations of sculptors basicall!- producing both imitations and copies. In our o\i7n lifetime, thc \vorks of Picasso, Degas, I<enoir,\.an Gogh, hlonet, and Dali haire been copied and imitated. Indeed, man!. paintings which Lord Joseph Duveen sold to American millionaires earl!. in this century were copied so that the seller would have a replica to hang on the mantle. Fakers move quickl!, to take advantage of the high prices produced by a new collecting trend before their activities undermine the market altogether. Witness the strong auction record prices of white eighteenth century iades. This writer has begun to encounter an increasing number of spurious copies executed with amazing sophistication. Consider for a moment what constitutes a fake. Aside from a question of interest on the part of the faker, there are copies, imitations, and replicas. Copies are executed based on an original work of art. Many fake jades in the market place toda!. are copied from published examples of excavated artifacts. The copy at first appears enticing, but under close scrutiny is less than convincing. Once the spell is broken, the ugly and unsatisfying truth emerges. Imitations are sinlulations which mimic the attributes of the original. Again, the imitation is less than satisfying if viewed in the bright light of day. Replicas of art objects attempt with varying degrees of success to reproduce a work of art. The replica is a place holder, not meant to imitate or copy.
.~--:~ln:il?r :Y:lr7 lL)n& RC-.4T) ??n\li2(jC ? I , ~ ill ,~ ic im170rtnllt t p undel-c+:ll..' t'.:' :. ::..rl,Song period (960-1279) is not the same thing as a fake. In Chinese art, the dominant mode of activity is a desire to maintain and rework traditional forms and subjects. Nostalgia for the past and emulation of its achievements is desirable. Emulation is good since it allows each period to interpret and modify traditional forms. Misrepresentation of an imitation as "the real thing," however, is fakery.
Tt

Unfortunately, when a fake is discovered, it severs a direct link with the hand that made it. Even though the work remains the same, the aesthetic response to it is profoundly changed. If we are smart, we will learn from the experience and avoid making the same mistake twice.

From experience, most buyers know that the price paid for a seeming bargain cannot be for the real thing. They are buying an illusion and delude themselves. This is the faker's main weapon in perpetrating his fraud on the collector. If the work is too good to be true, then it usually is. The buyer of the fake keeps the faker in business. The real loss resulting from the discovery of a fake is not only monetary. For the person cheated, it loosens the hold on our perception and understanding of the past. One of the strongest tools a collector possesses for uncovering fakes is the most obvious. This is simply the fact that a faker, whether he copies, imitates, or replicates, can never assume the mind-set of the artist of an original work and period. Fakers add flourishes and details without really understanding the symbolism and purpose behind the original concept. Familiarity with jades of a particular period enables the iolleitor to uilcierstand why ~1i-i~ r t i s t used certain motifq :I< 1veJJ ;I< the stylistic and physical approach to the jade. Finally, our concept of authenticity depends on the relationship between the work of art itself and the period to which it is attributed. Determination of authenticity requires a methodology counting on a consistency of both stylistic and physical analysis of the object. Looking at the work of art with a critical eye is the number one defense for detecting fakery. It is misleading to think that scientific advances and scholarly expertise alone can solve all problems. However, an open, questioning mind can eliminate many of the more obvious pitfalls. Ask yourself, is this work of art convincing? Is it stylistically and physically consistent? What is the artist trying to convey? Does the object exhibit logicality? Does it make sense? Be cautious, selective, and assume the work of art is guilty until proven correct. The thrill and passion of collecting outweighs its negative side. Never for a moment let the faker deny you the pleasure of collecting. We are all seekers of truth about works of art and the direct link with those who made them.

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Neolithic Jade Blades: Feast and Ritual

uch of what we know about early Chinese jade is undergoing change in light of recent archaeological discoveries. This article will focus on jade ritual blades specifically, reflecting on one area of Neolithic jade working. Using individual examples, I will suggest a fresh approach to the study and evaluation of ritual blades that is based upon the most current thinking. The jade collector may find this methodoloa practical and beneficial in understanding the significance and chronological history of this art form.

Jade Blades Mirror Neolithic Culture Neolithic Culture Hongshan culture Dawenkou culture Shandong Longshan c. 6000- 1600BC c. 4000-2200 BC c. 4500-2300 BC c. 3000- 1700BC
2400-12'0 RC

Lianazhu
Xia dynasty Erlitou culture Shang dynasty

c. 2 100- 1600 BC c. 1900- 1600 BC c. 1600- 1 100 BC

Neolithic jade blades serve' as an archaeological mirror of early~hinese culture. The obvious importance associated with them is intriguing. The pristine condition of man)- jade blades suggests that they had some social significance, rather than functioning as a purely utilitarian tool. Blades were created with specialized attributes that seem to form a foundation for err]! i,lde-\vorl;ing reii~nolilg). Asid< trom the estremc difficult!. of working \vitI~the iade stone. there must be some other conlpelling motivation for the great respect and careful attention that Neolithic artists attached to their subject matter. By 3500 BC, various distinct jade-working cultures in China appear to be devotins sisnificant amounts of wealth and artistic effort toward the creation of blades.

A New Archaeological Model

The symbolic use of Neolithic blades allows us to categorize and study various types. This is kno\vn as typology and is essential to furthering our understanding of the subject, by establishing criteria with which we define artifacts by their use. In this brief article we will refer to jade blades in a socio-technic context in order to better- understand blades in the sphere of social relations. This study contrasts with a purely technical, or utilitarian use. The student of Chinese iade may become aware of the significance and function of Neolithic blades througll t l l t lollo~111g cllilldeOlOglCdl llluilrl M l l l i l l ~ c l l iUL ~ ~ L I ~ ~ L10 C G OU1 cl1L'~. hlud). TI113 archaeological model is elegantly introduced by Brian Hayden, author of Archaeology - The Science of Once atzd Future Tl~ings, published by W. H. Freeman & Company, 1993. This model appears simultaneously in a worldwide geographical context which suggests parallel development in diverse Neolithic cultures with similar behavior. Dr. Hayden provides convincing arguments for the veracity of this model, which explains the importance, use, and significance in a larger social role.
L):

The Feasting and "Big Man" Model Brian Hayden, in Arclzneology - The Science of Otrcc and Ftlturc Things, proposes an elaboration of what he terms the "Big Man" Complex and the Feasting Model. Simply stated, the social elites, or "Big

men" emerge as a powerful force in Neolithic cultures. These individuals developed a community's resources by providing the incentive for increased production through economic competition. One activity associated with this economic competition is ritual feasting. The number and quality of the pots a n d implements required by this activity provided the incentive to produce more in order to sustain the competitive activity of entertaining each other. These objects evolved into highly prized, elaborate works of art. The incidence of pottery vessels and ritual jades during the Neolithic period in Chinese history sustains this view. The predominate use of these magnificent objects was for food and drink, and most importantly, the enhancement of one's prestige. The "Biq Man" model is built upon the idea that ambitious men could increase social and economic status by organizing the cominunity s teasts. AS 'big h1sn ' sougrlt co out-clo dii c)cllcl.s L , ~ ~ o u s ~ ~ these gatherings, they gained power by controlling the production of food and resources. All gifts received by the honored individual(s) at a feast had to be repaid with interest. Therefore, in the spirit of competition, each feast was more lavish than the last. This model is supported bv the custom of burving prestige objects with a few male adults from Neolithic communities, and by the discovery of speciakzed feasting and ritual implements. The excavation of Neolithic toinbs belonging to Chinese individuals of elevated status have vielded the richest discoveries of these implements. The Liangzhu culture (c. 3400-2250 BC) practice o t publicly displayed destruction through burial of surplus wealth was one means of exhibiting power and success. This elaborate burning burial practice \vas for the benefit of the living don~in;lntgroup , ~ n diontirn~edthe power of the deceased's living supporters as a competitive group. Role of Jade Blades in the Feasting Model Jade blades are evidence of the important practice of exchanging prestigious gifts in the feasting rituals of Neolithic Chinese cultures. The eschunse of gifts of high intrinsic value :lnd the resulting debt to be repaid by the recipient was an important feature of Neolithic societies. Jade blades ivere ;I reflection > >,lchie~.ed, r rather than clscribed,status. This is :In important ditfsrentiation in the c ~ . o i u t i o t~ ' t~ l~< soii'l1 status of elite individuals. The positioning in burial sites, phvsical size. together with pristine condition suggest blades were highly prized prestige objects. Blades were buried with prominent men and were an indication of owned property. In later periods, these elite members of societv evolved into village chiefs, regional kings, and eventuailv, emperors.

Figure 1. "Dao" Harvesting Blude

Figure 2. Detail of Harvesting Blade

Figure 3. Detail of Harvesting B l a d e

Other Aspects of Jade Neolithic Blades Jade blades as prestige obiects tell us quite a lot about what Neolithic culture was like. T h e use of blades as gift obbiects between "Bis Men" shows one aspect of social organization. Another exciting ne\\. development of social significance is the awareness that distinct individual Neolithic cultures in China existed side bv side, overlapping and forming a tapestry of interaction. Indeed, relationships and interaction betiyeen cultures is documented h!. the appearance of iade blades and potter!- in burial tombs of Neolithic cultures. For example, an illustration in GCIIIS qf LICII?~ZIIII CIII~LII.~, sho~ls a Dawenkou culture (c. 4500-2300 BC) pottery article that was found in a Lianszhu culture tomb of a social elite. The duration and seo~raphicalspread of influence is no\v much better understood as a result of the discover!. of blades. Further, the nature of I-cligiousbeliefs and the importailce of ritual is apparent thought. No\\*,we 1vjl1 examine in derail the and extends back in time much earlier than p~-e~,iousl?. development of blade technology. A Typology of Neolithic Blades Let us esamine first-hand several iade blades which may have served as prestige gifts in the feasting ritual. AS previousl~.nientinned, blades are classified b ~ characteristics . such as type, material, capable authors have explored specific aspects physical condition and particular attributes. Several 17er)~ of the sculptural development of Neolithic jade art. I t is beneficial to briefly review the more salient subiects, which will provide a backdrop to our jade blade discussion. Angus Forsyth has authored an informative article, "Five Chinese Jade May 1990), exploring Figures" (Orie?~tntio?zs, the workmanship and characteristics of Hongshan culture (c. 4000-3500 BC) jade obiects. Of particular interest is t h e

..
.

Figure 4. Trapezoidal Knife Pl~oto rolirte5y o f The Arthur M. Sarkler Mtueuni Harvard Lnini,lersit),ArtMlrsclrms, Bequest o f Grenville L. Wiilthrop 0 Preside11t arid Fello~vsof Harvard Collcsc, Harva rd U~~ivel.sit)l

.Hongshan culture jades. Mr. Forsvth also " mentions that the beveled hole technique is not used on Hongshan jades. This susgests a

possible determination of the origin of early and later Neolithic jades based o n hole types. The remarkable, elongated blade illustrated in Figure 1, which measures 50 cm (20 in) is known JS a duo, or ritual-form harvesting blade. Derivative examples of this form are well known in Shandong-Longshan culture (c. 2300- 1700 BC), Erlitou culture (c. 1900-1600 BC), and Shang culture (c. 1600-1100 BC). However, this example exhibits some characteristics which provide insight into artistic development in Neolithic China. In a&jitldn, :he ,ubjcc: , j i :hi: '-!-:': . c c c x - ; ltrcj ~trith harvesting and, therefore, is a powerful symbol for a feasting ritual.

'-:.

'7 7 f , T ~

The actual origin of the d ~ l o in Figure 1 is much earlier than previously believed. Figure 2 shows a close-up view of some design elements that provide important clues. The holes are evenly spaced and are biconicallv drilled from either side of the Figure 5. Longshan Culture Blade blade at an angle, meeting in the middle. This hole forming technique has left a narrow channel with an offset ridge that is not polished out. According to the previously mentioned article on hole formation, this is indicative of an earlier form of hole drilling. In earlier periods, holes were more easily drilled from an angle, rather than straight through. Perhaps, when 'ipplied at such an angle, primitive drilling tools were more resistant to breakage. Technical refinements in later periods resulted in new hole-forming techniques as evidenced by straight holes in blades. The early hole type on this tirzo ma?. reflect J date of i . 4000-3000 BC. Further, this biconical hole is not seen in later Erlitou or Shang blade examples. One may conclude that technology in Neolithic China evolved verv slowly and graduallv over an estended period of time. ;\nother clue to Neolithic technological development is the geometric pattern, detailed in Figure 3 , on the early harvesting blade. Sote the faintly etched Jnd well-spaced lines with very little slipping or overshoot of the line. The shallow, intersecting lines are reminiscent of those encountered as decoration on Hongshan culture jades. The etched line is precise, economical, and faintly executed so as not to intrude on the sculptural torm of the object itself, X s i m i l ~ rblade dating from the Shang period demonstrates a heavier, more aggressive line and compressed pattern not as precisely rendered with overshoots of the lines. I Z L I , 8 2 4 3 , plate See Wen Fong, Tlzr GI-eatBrorzze 'Age ~ ~ ' C I I I ' pages 3 . ) It is clear that although the elements are similar between these two blades, there is clearly a gradual evolution in technology which results in distinct differences in execution. In contrast, the elegant blade depicted in Figure 4 shows a large trapezoidal knife with notched edges, presently in the Harvard University Art Museum. This distinguished blade xeasures 61 cm (24 in) in length. The clear straight through drilled holes and vertical notches would suggest a late Shang or Western Zhou date ( 1200- 1100 BC). This blade demonstrates a well-established characteristic in Chinese jade workmanship of a later period emulating a familiar form from an earlier period. There is no doubt that this blade's form and design elements are descended from the blade illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 6. Shang Blade

Figure 7. Dawenkou Blade

The remarkable, estremel!- thin blade shown in figure 5 demonstrates a11othc.1.hole-formins technique; a straight-through conical hole pierced from one side. This neatly formed and finished type of hole is indicative of Longshan culture workmanship. The rounded shoulders and thin profile of the blade (this blade measures onl! 7 nim at the thickest point) are distinctive characteristics of remarkable beaut!.. The re\tel-stx sidc*slio\\..\nn ofkc't edge \rhich indiiaies the artist attempted t c make ~ the blr~d? r'\.en thinner! This technique required slicing the boulder- from onc direction, then from the other. At the point where the two cuts meet, there is usually a slight ledge or offset. The next stase invohred shaping and finishins the edges with either a bevel or slightl!. rounded form. One ma!. contrast this Neolithic approach with the sturd!. axe blade shown in Figure 6 of Shang origin. It is, in fact, the successor to the Longshan culture blade described above. Note the some\shat coarser hole opening which is, again, conically drilled from one side. The bod\. of the blade is well proportioned and gentl!. tapers towards the cuttins edse, resulting in a pleasing and functional shape. Blades of this type often served as practical tools, as well as ceremonial implements; the wear on the leading edges shows eiridence of this. The thickness is considerable, giving weight and solidity to the blade.
A third variant hole type is illustrated in Figure 7. This is a Dawenkou culture blade measuring 34.3 cm (13-112 in) in length. Note the perfectly executed hole which is pierced straisht through. The body of the blade is thin and the edges are beveled. While a number of blades of this type are known, this is an especially fine example in terms of size, coloration and finish. After a comparative study of these three early blades, the reader mav arrive at the conclusion that, among other characteristics, the type of hole plays an important part in determinins origin and date.

Conclusion
Recent discoveries of jade blades in Neolithic period archaeological sites have resulted in a significant shift in our understanding of the importance and use of these objects. Blades evolved as prestige objects which the social elite exchanged as gifts in competitive social feasting in order to increase material production and attain status. Burial with individuals indicates the emergence of the concept of owned property. Elaborate burial ritual for these "Big Men7' or social elites was an important aspect of Neolithic society. It enabled the dominant living group to confirm the power of supporters of the deceased as a competitive group.

We have examined several actual examples of jade Neolithic blades and their characteristics to arrive at a typology. The type of hole, shape, size and physical material create characteristics by which blades may be classified. This classification system may be applied to identify specific geographical locations of artistic development. Indeed, jade blades were a powerful symbol of wealth, power, and prestige in early human culture. Today, jade blades serve as a mirror reflecting to us the texture and beauty of Neolithic Chinese culture.

For Further Reading Childs- Johnson, Elizabeth. "Dragons, Masks, Axes and Blades." Orientations, April 1988. Pages 30-41. ??rnstein, S. Chinese Jadefrom Distant Centzrries, Catalogue One. San Francisco: S. Bernstein & Co., 1992. Bernstein, S. Chinese Artfronl Distant Cerztt~ries, Volume Two. San Francisco: S. Bernstein & Co., 1993. Forsyth, Angus. "Five Chinese Jade Figures." Orientations, May 1990. Pages 54-63. Hayden, Brian. Archaeology - The Science of Once and Frit~rre Things. W. H. Freeman & Company, 1993. ;I\vang-chih Chang. The 14rc/zrzt.oloyyof Aizcierzt Clzina. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986. The Shanghai Museum and the Urban Council. Gems qf Lia11gzl11~ Cz~ltz~re. Hong Kong: Museum of History, 1992. Sun Shouda and Guo Dashun. "Questions Concerning the Origins of the Dragon and Settlement of the Liao River Valley." LVen~vzr,1984, Volume 6. Pages 1 1- 17,30.
i n Fong, ed. Tlze Greizt Bronze Aye of' Clzina. New York: The hletropolitan hluseum of Art, Altred A. L<ilopf, 1980.

Wu Hung. "Bird Motifs in Eastern Yi Art." Orientations, October 1985. Pages 30-41.