UNDERSTANDING THE GREATER CONTEXT

Understanding the Greater Context: National and State Policy Actors Katie E. Sine Saginaw Valley State University

UNDERSTANDING THE GREATER CONTEXT Understanding the Greater Context: National and State Policy Actors The policy process is multifaceted and there are many features that influence the development of new laws. Major drivers of policy and change in policy are individuals and groups called policy actors (Fowler, 2013). Other factors in the policymaking process are policy values and ideologies or theories. Throughout history, the ideology and values of the country have dictated which laws are enacted. Additionally, it is important to look at the values and ideologies of policy actors because they influence the policymaking process as well. Policy actors are the people and groups that impact policymaking. As Fowler states, Collectively, they make up the dramatis personae, or cast of characters, who play major or minor roles in the ongoing drama of policy development, adoption and implementation (Fowler, 2013, p. 125). Policy actors exist at all levels of government; local, state, and federal.

The policy actors closest to the action are the branches of government, departments of education, school boards, and superintendents (each at the local, state, and federal levels). In addition, nongovernmental policy actors include interest groups, foundations, lobbyists, think tanks, and the media. Nongovernmental policy actors have become an important influence on the policy process. Interest groups attempt to persuade public opinion in their favor by collaborating with one or more lobbyists (Fowler, 2013). There are educational and noneducational lobbyist groups that have significant power when it comes to policymaking. Private foundations which can sometimes be funded by the government [as] a nonpartisan, clearinghouse it is an important source of information on educational policy for government officials (Fowler, 2012, p. 138). Think tanks usually not government funded; their job is to gather numerical and observational

UNDERSTANDING THE GREATER CONTEXT data on public policy issues. The think tank then passes this information on to the government (Fowler, 2013). The final policy actor to consider, the media, reports on policy issues through print, broadcast, local and national news, and the Internet. Many policy actors hold different values regarding policymaking. Typically, values are separated into three ideologies conservative, liberal, or a combination of both. For this purpose, the nine policy values will be explained by categorizing them with an ideology. The two values that are associated most commonly with conservatives are order and efficiency. The mantra is (order), a secure and orderly environment; and (efficiency) cost-effective and

maximum output. Liberals usually relate more with the values of individualism, which celebrates diversity but also keeps ones own interests in mind; fraternity proclaims brotherhood and solidarity; and choice allows options or selections. The following values are seen as a combination of both conservative and liberal values liberty (freedom), economic growth (expansion), equality (equal right to participate), and quality (excellence or high standards) (Fowler, 2013). Entity Description The Skillman Foundation Rose Skillman established the Skillman Foundation in 1960. The Skillman Foundation is a private grant-making foundation that is a charitable, tax-exempt organization. Like most private foundations, Skillman does not raise money but uses its resources to support 501(c)(3) nonprofit organizations (The Skillman Foundation, 2012). The mission of the Skillman Foundation is to continue to touch Detroit area childens lives by improving their neighborhoods,

UNDERSTANDING THE GREATER CONTEXT schools, and homes. Through this mission, the foundation is able to disperse approximately $22 million a year in grants to the Detroit area (2012). Under the good school initiative, the Skillman Foundation focuses on four areas: creating a city-wide school infrastructure, ensuring high-quality early care and education opportunities, improving schools in target neighborhoods, and generate a parent public will for high-quality education (The Skillman Foundation, 2012). As part of its goal of generating a parent public will for higher education, the foundation provides parents the necessary tools to choose the right school for their child.

When looking at the Skillman Foundation, it is apparent that the organization has a strong set of core values. Many of the foundations values line up with policy values; what Skillman Foundation (2012) calls excellence, equal opportunity, and effectiveness equate to Fowlers policy values of quality, equality, and efficiency (2013). With this in mind the Skillman Foundation has an ideology that is a mixture of both conservative and liberal views; leaning more toward the conservative side. Mackinac Center for Public Policy The Mackinac Center for Public Policy is a think tank that uses its resources to support 501(c) (3) nonprofit organizations, and provides data on current and potential policy issues. The center prides itself on the fact that it is funded through outside sources and does not accept funding from the government. The Mackinac Center assists policy makers, scholars, business people, the media and the public by providing objective analysis of Michigan issues. The goal of all Center reports,

UNDERSTANDING THE GREATER CONTEXT

commentaries, and educational programs is to equip Michigan citizens and other decision makers to better evaluate policy options. (2012) Additionally, it the center believes that government is the solution and that it aids the process by offering comprehensive approaches to policy issues. These approaches take into consideration the institutions, the people, the diverse disciplines and the consequences, (Mackinac Center for Public Policy, 2012). In looking at the Mackinac Center for Public Policy, it is easy to see many of its values through its agenda initiatives. One policy issue that is essential to the center is expanding school choice by allowing more virtual and charter schools to open. This idea complements Fowlers values of liberty (or choice), allowing parents to have options and efficiency, allowing districts to provide education to students in a more cost-effective manner. Another school issue on the centers agenda is paying teachers based on effectiveness, not seniority; this agenda issue demonstrates the values of efficiency and quality. National Education Association The National Education Association (NEA) is one of the most well-known educational interest groups. Founded in 1875, the National Education Association began with one hundred educators [answering] a national call to unite as one voice in the cause of public education. At the time, learning to read and write was a luxury for most childrenand a crime for many Black children (National Education Association, 2012). Since its inception, the association has been ahead of is time with the mission to not only provide public education that allows every child to succeed, but also to advocate for education professionals.

UNDERSTANDING THE GREATER CONTEXT The National Education Association has grown over the years and currently has 3.2 million members across fifty-one states. Included in its members are President, Dennis Van Roekel; Vice President, Lily Eskelsen; Secretary -Treasurer, Rebecca S. Pringle; Executive Director, John C. Stocks; an Executive Committee; and a Board of Directors. The National Education Association has a very strong set of core values that guide its mission: 1. Equal OpportunityWe believe public education is the gateway to opportunity. All students have the human and civil right to a quality public education that develops their potential, independence, and character. 2. A Just SocietyWe believe public education is vital to building respect for the worth, dignity, and equality of every individual in our diverse society. 3. DemocracyWe believe public education is the cornerstone of our republic. Public education provides individuals with the skills to be involved, informed, and engaged in our representative democracy. 4. ProfessionalismWe believe that the expertise and judgment of education professionals are critical to student success. We maintain the highest professional standards, and we expect the status, compensation, and respect due all professionals.

5. PartnershipWe believe partnerships with parents, families, communities, and other stakeholders are essential to quality public education and student success. 6. Collective ActionWe believe individuals are strengthened when they work together for the common good. As education professionals, we improve both our professional

UNDERSTANDING THE GREATER CONTEXT status and the quality of public education when we unite and advocate collectively. (2012)

The NEA shares many of Fowlers policy values. For example, Fowlers definition of equality is equal opportunity and Fowlers definition of fraternity is brotherhood of partnership. Additionally, the mission and values of the NEA drives its agenda. Currently on the NEAs agenda is getting teachers competitive pay, securing bully-free schools, increasing school funding to improve schools, and providing needed programming, and closing the achievement gap. The ideology of the NEA is more liberal based on its values, policy issues, and its agenda. Michigan Education Association The Michigan State Teachers Association was founded in 1852, and is known today as the Michigan Education Association (MEA). This association is a small, tax-exempt organization or educational interest group. The MEA represents more than 157,000 members, ranging from teachers to school staff, including President, Steven B. Cook; Vice President, Nancy Strachan; and Secretary-Treasurer, Rick Trainor [The] MEA is committed to creating and maintaining an effective education system that: supports the development of successful, empowered students; advances the principles of democracy, human and civil rights; meets the needs of our global society; and improves the quality of life for all. (2012) Additionally, the mission of the MEA is to establish specific high-quality student education and school working environments. Through the mission and commitments of the MEA illustrate, Fowlers policy values equality and quality (2013). The MEA has an agenda MEA A+ that

UNDERSTANDING THE GREATER CONTEXT addresses five areas of need: career and college-ready students; accountability across the board; increase district efficiency; good stewardship of taxpayer dollars; and restructuring Michigans old-fashioned tax structure. Compare and Contrast A commonality among all of the policy actors studied above was that they are all nonprofit organizations. The majority of the policy actors, including the Skillman Foundation, the Mackinac Center for Public Policy, and the Michigan Education Association are tax-exempt organizations. Both the Skillman Foundation and the Mackinac Center for Public Policy receive the 501(c)(3) which, according to the Internal Revenue Service, restricts the amount of legislative lobbying (2012). All four policy actors encompass the policy values of quality and that means wanting a better education for students of the future. Additionally, the NEA and the MEA tended to be the only groups that seemed to be pro teacher, fighting for teacher rights and work environments. In contrast, the policy actors have a wide range of focus area. The Skillman Foundation zeroes in on the Detroit area, whereas, the National Education Association focuses on the whole

country. The Mackinac Center for Public Policy differs from the other three policy actors in their beliefs. They want more choices for students and believe that education should include more charter and virtual schools. In addition, the Center used data and viewed the government as the only answer; this was not always the case with the policy actors.

UNDERSTANDING THE GREATER CONTEXT Resource

Fowler, F. C. (2013). Policy study for educational leaders: An introduction. New York: Pearson. Internal Revenue Service. (2012, July 29). Internal Revenue Service. Retrieved from http://www.irs.gov Mackinac Center for Public Policy. (2012, July 29). Retrieved from Mackinac Center for Public Policy: www.mackinac.org Michigan Education Association. (2012, July 30). Retrieved from Michigan Education Association: http://www.mea.org National Education Association. (2012, July 30). Retrieved from National Education Association: www.nea.org The Skillman Foundation. (2012, July 29). Retrieved from The Skillman Foundation: http://www.skillman.org/