History Review for Test # 3

Compiled by Julian Heidt

Scientific Revolution (Pages 71 77)

Definitions: Cosmology Epistemology Geocentric A branc of science and!or p ilosop y t at deals "it t e structure and order of t e ea#ens and $art % & e branc of p ilosop y t at deals "it t e origin and nature of 'no"ledge( and o" "e ascertain t at somet ing is true or false% )elief t at t e $art "as centered by *ree' p ilosop ers t ousands of years ago% & is belief "as supported by t e +oman Cat olic C urc ( and to pro#e t e c urc "rong "ould be eresy% (also 'no"n as t e Ptolemaic model) )elie#ed t at t e sun "as center of t e uni#erse( t e adopted model of today,s solar system% Alt oug t e idea of a eliocentric model ad been around as early as -.. )%C%( it did not gain popularity until t e 1/t century% t e fundamental t eoretical basis of modern astronomy( first demonstrated in t e early 1/t century by Copernicus( " o s o"ed t at t e eart and t e ot er planets orbit around t e sun% & e #ie" t at e0perience( especially of t e senses( is t e only source of 'no"ledge%

Heliocentric

Copernicanism

Empiricism

Comparison: *alileo,s trial to Diet of 1orms%

2saac 3e"ton publis ed 4Principia 5at ematica6 (5at ematic Principles) in 1/77% His boo',s p ilosop y "as based on mat ematics and not beliefs of t e c urc % He created t e famous 48a" of *ra#ity6% *alileo and 3e"ton formed a ne" "orld #ie"%

3e" 2deas about 9no"ledge Galileo Galilei (1:/; 1/;-) 3o account of *alileo,s importance to p ilosop y can be complete if it does not discuss *alileo,s condemnation and t e *alileo affair (<inocc iaro 1=7=)% & e end of t e episode is simply stated% 2n late 1/>-( after publis ing Dialogues on t e &"o C ief 1orld ?ystems( *alileo "as ordered to go to +ome to be e0amined by t e Holy @ffice of t e 2nAuisition% 2n January 1/>>( a #ery ill *alileo made an arduous Bourney to +ome% <inally( in April 1/>> *alileo "as called before t e Holy @ffice% & is "as tantamount to a c arge of eresy( and e "as urged to repent (? ea and Artigas( 17>f)% ?pecifically( e ad been c arged "it teac ing and defending t e Copernican doctrine t at olds t at t e ?un is at t e center of t e uni#erse and t at t e eart mo#es% & is doctrine ad been deemed eretical in 1/1/( and Copernicus, boo' ad placed on t e inde0 of pro ibited boo's( pending correction% *alileo "as called four times for a earingC t e last "as on June -1( 1/>>% & e ne0t day( -- June( *alileo "as ta'en to t e c urc of ?anta 5aria sopra 5iner#a( and ordered to 'neel " ile is sentence "as read% 2t "as declared t at e "as 4#e emently suspect of eresy6% *alileo "as made to recite and sign a formal abBuration: 2 a#e been Budged #e emently suspect of eresy( t at is( of a#ing eld and belie#ed t at t e sun in t e centre of t e uni#erse and immo#eable( and t at t e eart is not at t e center of same( and t at it does mo#e% 1is ing o"e#er( to remo#e from t e minds of your $minences and all fait ful C ristians t is #e ement suspicion reasonably concei#ed against me( 2 abBure "it a sincere eart and unfeigned fait ( 2 curse and detest t e said errors and eresies( and generally all and e#ery error( eresy( and sect contrary to t e Holy Cat olic C urc % (Duoted in ? ea and Artigas 1=;) *alileo "as not imprisoned but ad is sentence commuted to ouse arrest% 2n December 1/>> e "as allo"ed to retire to is #illa in Arcetri( outside of <lorence% During t is time e finis ed is last boo'( Discourses on t e &"o 3e" ?ciences( " ic "as publis ed in 1/>7( in Holland( by 8ouis $lEi#ier% & e boo' does not mention Copernicanism at all( and *alileo professed amaEement at o" it could a#e been publis ed% He died on January 7( 1/;-% & ere as been muc contro#ersy o#er t e e#ents leading up to *alileo,s trial( and it seems t at eac year "e learn more about " at actually appened% & ere is also contro#ersy o#er t e legitimacy of t e c arges against *alileo( bot in terms of t eir content and Budicial procedure% & e summary Budgment about t is latter point is t at t e C urc most probably acted "it in its aut ority and on FgoodG grounds gi#en t e condemnation of Copernicus( and( as "e s all see( t e fact t at *alileo ad been "arned by Cardinal )ellarmine earlier in 1/1/ not to defend or teac Copernicanism% & ere "ere also a number of political factors gi#en t e Counter +eformation( t e >. Hears 1ar (5iller -..7)( and t e problems "it t e papacy of Irban J222 t at ser#ed as furt er impetus to *alileo,s condemnation (5c5ullin( ed% -..:)% 2t as e#en been argued (+edondi 1=7>) t at t e c arge of Copernicanism "as a compromise plea bargain to a#oid t e truly eretical c arge of atomism% & oug t is latter ypot esis as not found many "illing supporters%

Disco#ered speed of acceleration for gra#ity% *alileo,s "or' set t e stage for t e formulation of 3e"ton,s t eory of gra#ity% <ound e#idence to pro#e Copernican t eory% 2n#ention of *alileo,s more po"erful telescopes using Dutc Perspecti#e *lass% Ising t e ne" tec nology of t e telescope( *alileo disco#ered t e moons of Jupiter: 2o( $uropa( Calisto( and *anymede( t us pro#ing t at not all t ings orbit around t e $art ( lending great support to t e Copernican model of t e eliocentric system% & ese four moons are called t e *alilean moons to t is day% Publis ed Dialogue on Concerning t e &"o C ief 1orld ?ystems Compared Ptolemaic model to Copernicanism% Persecuted in 1/>> by t e inAuisition% *alileo recanted is #ie"s and t en "as subBected to ouse arrest% His disco#eries contradicted t e teac ings of t e Cat olic c urc %

Tycho Brahe (1:;/ 1/.1) &yc o )ra e,s contributions to astronomy "ere enormous% He not only designed and built instruments( e also calibrated t em and c ec'ed t eir accuracy periodically% He t us re#olutioniEed astronomical instrumentation% He also c anged obser#ational practice profoundly% 1 ereas earlier astronomers ad been content to obser#e t e positions of planets and t e 5oon at certain important points of t eir orbits (e%g%(opposition( Auadrature( station)( &yc o and is cast of assistants obser#ed t ese bodies t roug out t eir orbits% As a result( a number of orbital anomalies ne#er before noticed "ere made e0plicit by &yc o% 1it out t ese complete series of obser#ations of unprecedented accuracy( 9epler could not a#e disco#ered t at planets mo#e in elliptical orbits% &yc o "as also t e first astronomer to ma'e corrections for atmosp eric refraction% 2n general( " ereas pre#ious astronomers made obser#ations accurate to per aps 1: arc minutes( t ose of &yc o "ere accurate to per aps - arc minutes( and it as been s o"n t at is best obser#ations "ere accurate to about alf an arc minute% Francis Bacon (1:/1 K 1/-/) 5aBor political leader in $ngland% <ormaliEed t e empirical met od% 2n )acon,s t oug t "e encounter a relation bet"een science and social p ilosop y( since is ideas concerning a utopian transformation of society presuppose an integration into t e social frame"or' of is program concerning natural p ilosop y and tec nology as t e t"o forms of t e ma'er,s 'no"ledge% <rom is point of #ie"( " ic "as influenced by Puritan conceptions( early modern society as to ma'e sure t at losses caused by t e <all are compensated for( primarily by man,s enlargement of 'no"ledge( pro#iding t e preconditions for a ne" form of society " ic combines scientia no#a and t e millennium( according to t e prop ecy of Daniel 1-:; (Hill 1=71( 7:1>.)% ?cience as a social endea#or is seen as a collecti#e proBect for t e impro#ement of social structures% @n t e ot er and( a strong collecti#e spirit in society may function as a conditio sine Aua non for reforming natural p ilosop y% )acon,s famous argument t at it is "ise not to confound t e )oo' of 3ature "it t e )oo' of *od comes into focus( since t e latter deals "it *od,s "ill (inscrutable for man) and t e former "it *od,s "or'( t e scientific e0planation or appreciation of " ic is a form of C ristian di#ine ser#ice% ?uccessful operations in natural p ilosop y and tec nology elp to impro#e t e uman lot in a "ay " ic ma'es t e ards ips of life after t e <all obsolete% 2t is important to note t at )acon,s idea of aLto a certain e0tentLC ristian society by no means con#eys C ristian pessimism in t e #ein of

patristic t in'ers but rat er displays a clear optimism as t e result of compounding t e problem of trut "it t e scope of uman freedom and so#ereignty% ohannes !epler (1:71 1/>.) Inli'e )ra e( 9epler belie#ed firmly in t e Copernican system% 2n retrospect( t e reason t at t e orbit of 5ars "as particularly difficult "as t at Copernicus ad correctly placed t e ?un at t e center of t e ?olar ?ystem( but ad erred in assuming t e orbits of t e planets to be circles% & us( in t e Copernican t eory epicycles "ere still reAuired to e0plain t e details of planetary motion% 2t fell to 9epler to pro#ide t e final piece of t e puEEle: after a long struggle( in " ic e tried mig tily to a#oid is e#entual conclusion( 9epler "as forced finally to t e realiEation t at t e orbits of t e planets "ere not t e circles demanded by Aristotle and assumed implicitly by Copernicus( but "ere instead t e Mflattened circlesM t at geometers call ellipses (?ee adBacent figureC t e planetary orbits are only slig tly elliptical and are not as flattened as in t is e0ample%) & e irony noted abo#e lies in t e realiEation t at t e difficulties "it t e 5artian orbit deri#e precisely from t e fact t at t e orbit of 5ars "as t e most elliptical of t e planets for " ic )ra e ad e0tensi#e data% & us )ra e ad un"ittingly gi#en 9epler t e #ery part of is data t at "ould allo" 9epler to e#entually formulate t e correct t eory of t e ?olar ?ystem and t ereby to banis )ra e,s o"n t eoryN ?tudent of and assistant to )ra e% )elie#ed planets "ent in elliptical orbits% 2n#ented & ree 8a"s of Planetary 5otion% 1% & e 8a" of @rbits: All planets mo#e in elliptical orbits( "it t e sun at one focus% -% & e 8a" of Areas: A line t at connects a planet to t e sun s"eeps out eAual areas in eAual times% >% & e 8a" of Periods: & e sAuare of t e period of any planet is proportional to t e cube of t e semimaBor a0is of its orbit% Rene "escartes (1:=/ 1/:.) Deducti#e logic Deducti#e reasoning is a basic form of #alid reasoning% Deducti#e reasoning( or deduction( starts out "it a general statement( or ypot esis( and e0amines t e possibilities to reac a specific( logical conclusion% & e scientific met od uses deduction to test ypot eses and t eories 2nducti#e reasoning is t e opposite of deducti#e reasoning% 2nducti#e reasoning ma'es broad generaliEations from specific obser#ations% $#en if all of t e premises are true in a statement( inducti#e reasoning allo"s for t e conclusion to be false% HereGs an e0ample: MHarold is a grandfat er% Harold is bald% & erefore( all grandfat ers are bald%M & e conclusion does not follo" logically from t e statements% 2nducti#e reasoning as its place in t e scientific met od% ?cientists use it to form ypot eses and t eories% Deducti#e reasoning allo"s t em to apply t e t eories to specific situations%

42 t in' t erefore 2 am6 Descartes concluded( if e doubted( t en somet ing or someone must be doing t e doubting( t erefore t e #ery fact t at e doubted pro#ed is e0istence% M& e simple meaning of t e p rase is t at if one is sceptical of e0istence( t at is in and of itself proof t at e does e0ist%M 2n#ented Cartesian geometry made 2saac 3e"ton say: 42f 2 a#e seen furt er it is by standing on t e s oulder of giants6 referring to +ene Descartes%

Sir #saac $ewton (1/;> 17-7) & e Principia @ne of t e most important "or's in t e istory of modern science is P ilosop iae 3aturalis Principia 5at ematica (1/77C 5at ematical Principles of 3atural P ilosop y)( composed by $nglis p ysicist and mat ematician ?ir 2saac 3e"ton% & e Principia "as re#olutioniEing because it pro#ided an e0act Auantitati#e description of t e motions of #isible bodies( t e significance of " ic is apparent in 3e"tonGs la"s of motion:
(1) that a body remains in its state of rest unless it is compelled to change that state by a force impressed on it; (2) that the change of motion (the change of velocity times the mass of the body) is proportional to the force impressed; (3) that to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

2ncorporated astronomy of Copernicus and 9epler "it p ysics of *alileo% As a student at Cambridge Ini#ersity (1//1/:)( 3e"ton encountered t e scientific re#olution( a mo#ement in t e 1/t and 17t centuries in " ic scientists c allenged and reBected t e *ree' #ie" of nature t at ad long dominated scientific t oug t% He "as introduced to t e "or' of Jo annes 9epler( *alileo( and +enO Descartes% He immersed imself in t e study of p ilosop y( learned of c emistry t roug t e "or' of +obert )oyle( and read of t e alc emy and magic t at formed t e basis of t e Hermetic tradition% & ree 8a"s of 5otion( as stated abo#e% Defined gra#ity and its la"s% 2n#ented optics and calculus( or did 8eibniEP

Politics

?cientific +e#olution leads to t e $nlig tenment and t e political re#olutions in later years%

& ese ne" t eorists enabled $uropeans to see t emsel#es as capable of sol#ing problems in ne" "ays "it out referring to ancients or t eology% A ne" confidence "as de#eloping in mastering t e uni#erse%

%&solutism (Pages 7: 77)

Absolutism ga#e t e Auestion of t e legitimacy of aut ority% &ime period: 8ate 17t century to early 17t century% Absolutism by Di#ine +ig t 2ts most elaborate form "as in <rance% Definitions: %&solutism A form of go#ernment in " ic all po"er is #ested in a single ruler or ot er aut ority%

%&solutism an' (ouis )#* (Pages 7: 77)

CentraliEed Aut ority & e )ourbon monarc y of <rance( especially t e rule of 8ouis Q2J (1/;> 171:)( led t e de#elopment of absolutism% 8ouis Q2J "as 'no"n as 48e +oi ?oleil6 or t e ?un 9ing% He belie#ed t at e "as *od,s #iceKregent on eart ( ruling by di#ine rig t (absolutism)% +ulers t roug out $urope emulated is style in "ar( economics( and culture% He created a ne" set of ci#il ser#ants 'no"n as t e intendants% & e intendants "ere recruited from t e upper middle class and t eir position and status depended on t e aut ority of t e monarc % 3e" ta0es @ld ta0es( t e taille or land ta0( "ere supplemented by a ead ta0 on eac indi#idual% Ci#il ser#ants collected indirect ta0es( on t ings suc as salt( tobacco( or "ine% &rade increased e0ports and restricted imports% (Jery regimented economy to directly <rance) CentraliEation of armed forces Hear 1//1 1//7 1//7 Army of -. ... 7- ... -1. ...

+eligious Conformity 8ouis Q2J belie#ed all is subBects s ould s are t e same religion% <renc national Cat olic C urc ( called t e *allican C urc % Huguenots (: R of t e population) "ere pressured to con#ert% 8ouis Q2J re#o'ed t e edict of 3antes% 5any Huguenots emigrated to $ngland( *ermany( Holland( and America%

%&solutism an' (ouis )#*

The +alace of *ersailles (Page 77)

& e palace of Jersailles symboliEed 8ouis Q2J,s absolutist temperament and it modeled classical aest etics% & e monarc y needed to be surrounded by glory and ritual (center of e#eryt ing) palace "as beautiful (classical arc itectural style)% 2t "as located 1: 'm from Paris% & e construction of t e palace began in 1//= and ended in 17.1( for a total of >- years% Jersailles "as gi#en t e status t at a great cat edral mig t a#e ad se#eral undred years earlier% & e best talents of <rance "ere ired for its construction( arc itects( designers( landscape gardeners( and artisans "ere ired for its construction% >:(... people "or'ed on it at one time% & e palace costed > R of yearly state budget and in some years costed up to 1. R% 2t "as built in t e classical style to impro#e on nature by building perfection and order% & e rooms and gardens of t e palace are #ast and symmetrical to resemble perfection% +ooms "ere named after *ods and *oddesses and t e palace as t e *rand all of mirrors( " ic is 7>m long%

Englan' an' the +uritan Revolution (Page 7.)

& ere "as a conflict in $ngland t at "as bet"een t e Cat olics and t e Puritans% & e 9ing of $ngland during t is time period "as C arles t e 1st( " o go#erned by personal rule( e "as lenient to Cat olicism% Parliament decided to limit t e aut ority of t e 9ing% Ci#il 1ar bro'e out in 1/;bet"een t e Parliament and t e 9ing% @li#er Crom"ell lead t e 3e" 5odel Army in t e ci#il "ar% & e 'ing of $ngland "as e0ecuted( o"e#er t ere "as muc large dissent upon parliament% ?ome ad "anted to 'eep t e 'ing ali#e to retain a constitutional monarc y( a#e im as an image as opposed to a ruler% A +epublic "as formed for t e ne0t 11 years% 9ing C arles t e 1st "as deemed 4public enemy to t e good people of t e nation6 and "as e0ecuted in 1/;=%

The Enlightenment

Chapter ,, -pages ,./ 0 ,123

?atire "as a maBor "eapon for t e $nlig tenment( as it "as used to e0pose t e follies of society and to ridicule politicians( class structure( parliament( courts( and t e Anglican c urc % Comparison t at can be made ere: +ob <ord% ?atire "as used as a popular form of art t at people could understand and learn% 1illiam Hogart (1/=7 17/;) de#eloped a ne" popular art form( t e engra#ing( " ic narrated a tale( often in a series% His t emes included politics( t e class structure( t e ouses of parliament( t e courts( and t e Anglican C urc % He recorded t e li#es of t e middle class and t e poor( and e0tolled (praised) t e merc ant class and its social #alues of t rift( "or'( discipline( patriotism( and temperance%

& e abo#e picture is of )eer ?treet and *in 8ane% *in "as imported and sold far c eaper t an )eer( people "ould buy *in and get drun' on t e streets% & e abo#e picture demonstrates t at on t e left% @n t e rig t( it s o"s )eer ?treet " ic " ile t ere are some Bolly( sitting do"n( are still producti#e% & e use of imagery type art con#eyed different ideas to society% 5ost t in'ers didn,t concern t emsel#es about t e economic Auestions% & ose " o did( attac'ed e0isting policies( especially t e pri#ileges of t e C urc and nobility t at constrained economic acti#ity( and proposed reforms t at "ould allo" t e economy to enBoy greater freedom% 2t "as A%+%J% &urgot " o in#ented t e slogan of economic liberalism% 4laisseEKfaire( laisseEKpasseE6 meaning 4allo" t em to do( allo" t em to pass%6 2n <rance a group calling t emsel#es% Adam ?mit created t e most influential economic "or' of t e century( it "as called An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776). 2t encouraged free trade and competition in order to create more "ealt % $conomy s ould be self regulation based upon t e la" of supply and demand% & e salon "as a small group f elite "omen to satisfy t eir educational needs and e#ol#ed into meetings of intellectuals guided by indi#idual ostesses% 1as a radical departure from t e norms of contemporary society( as status "as not a dependent factor to participate in t e ?alon% A letter of introduction "as reAuired and "ere admitted on t e basis of t eir accomplis ments rat er t an t eir social status%

The Enlightenment

Chapter ,,

Continue'

& e 17t century "as 'no"n as t e $nlig tenment because of t e realistic recognition of t e sad state of uman condition and t e need for maBor reform% ?ocieties of t e old regime "ere di#ided into t ree main groups 'no"n as orders( or estates% $state ,st Estate Di#ision Clergy $0planation *roup 5embers Pri#ileges Had t eir o"n courts( 5ortmain( "ere e0empt from certain ta0es Had t e rig t to carry a s"ord( "ere e0empt from certain ta0es( recei#ed special treatment in la" courts( "ere e0empt from military ser#ice ?ome local pri#ileges some guild pri#ileges Percentage of Ho" many in land o"ned group / 1. R Appro0% 1>.(... people

& ose " o Arc bis ops( pray bis ops( canons( priors( nuns( mon's( paris priests & ose " o 9ing(Aueen( fig t nobles

4n' Estate

3obility

-. -: R

+ange of S1-.(... >:.(...T people

3r' Estate

$#eryone else

& ose " o 8a"yers( toil% ("or' doctors( ard) business people( merc ants( soldiers( craftspeople( s op'eepers( peasants%

7. 7: R

Appro0% -7 million people%

5ortmain U Perpetual o"ners ip of real estate by institutions suc as c urc es t at cannot transfer or sell it% & is ran'ing "as not necessarily connected "it moneyC many members of t e t ird estate "ere ric er t an members of t e ot er t"o% & e first t"o estates usually represented less t an : percent of t e population%

& e top of po"er in t e Ancien +egime (@ld +egime) "as t e 5onarc ( constrained by t e custom of t e community and as "ell as t e nobility( " ic e0ercised po"er in local areas% 2n sense( t is is a feudal system% & e P ilosop es "ere intellectual figures of t e $nlig tenment( liberal in spirit( curious about t e "orld( ated t e e#ils of society( and ruled against intolerance% )elie#ed in progress of 'no"ledge and a better "orld for all% & e P ilosop es accepted t e scientific met od (empiricism( and rationalism) )elie#ed in po"er of reason and needed proof before belie#ing somet ing to be true%

The Enlightenment

Chapter ,,

Continue' -43

$nlig tenment( as t e 17t century came to be called( "as an age of optimism% & e sad state of t e uman condition and t e need for maBor reform "as realiEed% )elief in progress "as t e 'eynote of t at age% 3e" #alues "ere stressed: freedom( rig ts( and eAuality a s arp contrast to t e time% & in'ers belie#ed t at umanity( t roug t e po"er of reason( "as beginning to gain mastery o#er t e "orld% 1 en reason "ould triump o#er t e aut ority of tradition t e appiness of umanity "ould be assured% 8ouis Q2J designed a system of imprisonment "it out trial% Jictims "ould be presented "it a lettres de cachet( " ic "as a form of "arrant%

#n'ivi'uals Throughout History

9no"ing 5s% Hillier( s e "ill as' about at least t"o indi#iduals profiled during t e inKclass presentations% C oose a minimum of t"o to remember% Do inKdept researc on some of t ese indi#iduals in case t ere is a possibility of an essay Auestion regarding a p ilosop es or despot% Some 5uic6 names7 1illiam Hogart C arles 222 of ?pain A%+%J% &urgot JeanKJacAues +ousseau 8or6s cite'7 ?tanford Ini#ersity Plato P ilosop y 2nde0 $ncyclopedia )ritannica 1est and & e 1orld &e0tboo' & e *alileo ProBect 5s% Hillier,s "or's eets :)