Terminalia catappa (tropical almond)

Combretaceae (combretum family)

alite (Solomon Islands pidgin); autaraa, aua, auarii, auariiroa (Societies); kamani haole, kamani ula, false kamani
(Hawaii); kauariki, kaukauariki, taraire (Cooks: Mangaia); maii, koaii, kouaii, taie (Marquesas); natapoa (Vanu-
atu: Bislama); tropical, beach, or Indian almond (English); talie (Samoa); talise (Papua New Guinea: Tok Pisin);
tavola, tivi (Fiji); telie (Tonga, Uvea, Futuna, Tokelau, Tuvalu)
Lex A. J. Tomson and Barry Evans
IN BRIEF
Distribution Naturally widcsprcad in sub
tropical and tropical zoncs ol !ndian and Pacic
ccans and plantcd cxtcnsivcly throughout thc
tropics.
Size Largc trcc ac m (a.c lt) tall.
Habitat Subtropical and tropical maritimc
climatcs with annual rainlall gcncrally .ccc
cc mm (c.c in), clcvations bclow cccc
m (.ccc.cc lt).
Vegetation Associatcd with coastal vcgctation,
cspccially strandlinc communitics and bcach
lorcsts including rocky shorcs and cdgcs ol man
grovc swamps.
Soils Adaptcd to a widc rangc ol lightcr tcx
turcd soil typcs.
Growth rate Fast in carly ycars, about a m/yr
(6.6 lt/yr).
Main agroforestry uses Soil stabilization, coas
tal protcction.
Main products Nuts, timbcr.
Yields Kcrncl yicld is cstimatcd to bc about kg
(.. lb) pcr trcc pcr ycar, timbcr yiclds can rcach
.ac m

/ha/yr (a.a6 lt

/ac/yr) (cstimatc).
Intercropping Short tcrm crops can bc
intcrplantcd during thc rst a ycars altcr cs
tablishmcnt.
Invasive potential Has modcratc potcntial lor
invasivcncss into disturbcd scasidc habitats.
Species Proles for Pacic Island Agroforestry
www.traditionaltree.org
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Large tree near shoreline, Apia, Samoa.
2 Terminalia catappa (tropical almond)
INTRODUCTION
Tropical almond (Terminalia catappa) is a largc, sprcading
trcc now distributcd throughout thc tropics in coastal cn
vironmcnts. Tc trcc is tolcrant ol strong winds, salt spray,
and modcratcly high salinity in thc root zonc. !t grows
principally in lrccly draincd, wcll acratcd, sandy soils.
Tc spccics has traditionally bccn vcry important lor coastal
communitics, providing a widc rangc ol nonwood prod
ucts and scrviccs. !t has a sprcading, brous root systcm
and plays a vital rolc in coastlinc stabilization. !t is widcly
plantcd throughout thc tropics, cspccially along sandy sca
shorcs, lor shadc, ornamcntal purposcs, and cdiblc nuts.
Tc timbcr makcs a usclul and dccorativc gcncralpurposc
hardwood and is wcll suitcd lor convcrsion into lurniturc
and intcrior building timbcrs. Fruits arc produccd lrom
about ycars ol agc, and thc nutritious, tasty sccd kcrncls
may bc catcn immcdiatcly altcr cxtraction.
Tropical almond is casily propagatcd lrom sccd, and is last
growing and ourishcs with minimal maintcnancc in suit
ablc cnvironmcnts. Sclcctcd cultivars ol thc spccics warrant
widcr commcrcial planting lor joint production ol timbcr
and nuts. Tc trcc has a dcmonstratcd potcntial to natu
ralizc in coastal plant communitics, but not to advcrscly
dominatc such communitics.
Tc productivity and markcting ol cultivars with largc and/
or soltshcllcd nuts nccds to bc asscsscd. Tcrc is also a
nccd lor cxpcrimcntal work to dcvclop vcgctativc propa
gation tcchniqucs and morc ccicnt tcchniqucs lor pro
ccssing lully maturc lruits including drying, storagc, and
cracking ol nuts.
DISTRIBUTION
Native range
Tropical almond has a vast natural distribution in ncar
coastal arcas ol thc !ndian ccan, through tropical Asia,
and into thc Pacic ccan. Tc cxtcnt to which its rangc
has bccn incrcascd through movcmcnt and dispcrsal by
humans is dicult to dctcrminc. !t cxtcnds lrom thc Scy
chcllcs through !ndia, thc Andamans and adjaccnt islands,
and throughout Southcast Asia (Myanmar, Tailand, thc
Malay Pcninsula, \ictnam, thc Philippincs, !ndoncsia) to
Papua Ncw Guinca and northcrn Australia as lar south
as thc Tropic ol Capricorn. Tc spccics is lound through
out thc South Pacic rcgion, including thc Solomon !s
lands, \anuatu, and Fiji. !t is prcscnt on ncarly all thc high
archipclagos ol Polyncsia and Microncsia but may bc an
aboriginal introduction to thc castcrn parts ol its currcnt
rangc (including all ol castcrn Polyncsia).
Current distribution
Tropical almond has bccn introduccd, and lrcqucntly natu
ralizcd, in many tropical parts ol thc world including 8razil,
thc Caribbcan, and ast Alrica. !t is naturalizcd in Florida
and Pucrto Rico. !n Hawaii, thc spccics was introduccd
vcry carly, probably bclorc .cc, and is now naturalizcd at
low altitudcs, mainly ncar bcach shorcs.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Preferred scientic name
Terminalia catappa L.
Family
Combrctaccac (combrctum lamily)
Non-preferred scientic names
Phytolacca javanica sbcck
Terminalia mauritiana 8lanco
Terminalia moluccana Lamk.
Terminalia procera Roxb.
Common names
alite (Solomon !slands pidgin)
autaraa, aua, auarii, auariiroa (Socictics)
kamani haole, kamani ula, lalsc kamani (Hawaii)
kauariki, kaukauariki, taraire (Cooks: Mangaia)
maii, koaii, kouaii, taie (Marqucsas)
natapoa (\anuatu: 8islama)
tropical, bcach, or !ndian almond (nglish)
talie (Samoa)
talise (Papua Ncw Guinca: Tok Pisin)
tavola, tivi (Fiji)
telie (Tonga, Uvca, Futuna, Tokclau, Tuvalu)
Size
Tropical almond is a mcdium to largc trcc to ac m
(a.c lt) in hcight and with a similar crown sprcad in
opcn situations. At maturity thc trunk attains a diamctcr
at brcast hcight (dbh) ol c.c cm (ac6c in).
Typical form
Youngcr trccs display a charactcristic pagoda lorm, with a
singlc bolc and monopodial horizontal branching in rcgu
lar lalsc whorls ol branchcs. Along cach latcral, ncw
branchcs arc lormcd in a charactcristic, bilurcating pattcrn.
Tc ticrcd crown bccomcs attcr with widcsprcad branchcs
in oldcr spccimcns. Tc bolc is usually straight and rcason
ably cylindrical, but in cxposcd coastal situations it may bc
Species Proles for Pacic Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 3
crookcd and/or lcaning. 8uttrcsscs, whcn prcscnt, arc up
to m (.c lt) in hcight, variablc, straight to curvcd, thick
to thin, somctimcs branching. Largc trccs may dcvclop big,
occasionally branching buttrcsscs and oltcn havc twistcd,
lcaning trunks.
Flowers
Tc owcrs arc small (6 mm |c..6c.a in| across), whitc
or crcamcolorcd, vclobcd, arrangcd on long (a cm
(.a.c in) axillary spikcs, with a mildly unplcasant smcll.
Vithin a spikc thc majority ol thc owcrs arc malc, with
only a lcw biscxual owcrs positioncd toward thc basc.
Plants usually commcncc owcring and lruiting lrom a
young agc, c.g., within a ycars ol outplanting, but this
varics with sitc and gcnotypc. n highly lcrtilc sitcs maturc
lruits havc bccn collcctcd lrom .monthold plants. Trccs
may rcloliatc and owcr vcry soon (c.g., within 6 wccks)
altcr bcing complctcly dcloliatcd by cyclonic winds.
!n Hawaii, Fiji, \anuatu, and Tonga owcring and lruiting
occur sporadically throughout much ol thc ycar. Flowcring
and lruiting ol cultivatcd trccs appcars to bc morc syn
chronous in \anuatu, whcrc owcring pcaks around c
tobcr to January and is lollowcd by lruiting around March
to Junc.
Leaves
Tc lcavcs arc arrangcd in closc spirals, oltcn crowdcd to
ward thc cnds ol thc upturncd branchlcts. Tc lcal bladc is
simplc, broadly obovatc, a() x .(.) cm (.c|
.| x a6|,| in), with ().a pairs ol sccondary vcins. Tc
lcal tip is roundcd and blunt, gradually tapcring to a nar
rowly subcordatc basc (thc lattcr bcing a usclul diagnos
tic lcaturc). Ncw lcavcs havc a covcring ol solt, apprcsscd,
brown hairs. Maturc lcavcs arc mostly glabrous (shiny),
lcathcry, and dark grccn, turning bright ycllow thcn vivid
to dark rcd bclorc lalling. Tc trccs arc bricy dcciduous
Top left: Close-up of owers and buds. vno:o: i. :no:sox Right: Fruits on tree. vno:o: c. vivvi:cn Bottom left: Horizontal
branching of young trees. vno:o: c. vivvi:cn
4 Terminalia catappa (tropical almond)
during thc dry scason, or in somc cnvironmcnts thcy may
losc thcir lcavcs twicc in a ycar.
Fruit
Typically onc to vc lruits dcvclop on thc basal part ol
thc owcr spikc. Tc lruit is a scssilc, latcrally comprcsscd,
ovoid to ovatc, smoothskinncd drupc. uring maturation,
it changcs color lrom grccn through ycllow to bright rcd
or dark purplishrcd at lull maturity. Fruit sizc varics con
sidcrably, c.g., ., x a. cm (..a. x c.a.a in), with
cxtrcmcs in lcngth lrom a. to .c cm (. in). Tc kcrncl
consists ol two dclicatc and intricatcly cntwincd cotylc
dons cncloscd in an inconspicuous crcamcolorcd, rarcly
rcd, tcsta.
!n thc South Pacic tropical almond growing at lowcr
latitudcs may producc lruit sporadically throughout thc
ycar, with hcavicr crops toward thc cnd ol thc ycar on trccs
growing at highcr latitudcs. !n Ncw Guinca thc productivc
pcriod is bctwccn Novcmbcr and March, cspccially c
ccmbcrFcbruary. !n \anuatu thc main crop is around thc
middlc ol thc ycar (MayJunc), with a smallcr crop around
cccmbcr. !n Samoa lruiting occurs in JuncJuly and Fcb
ruaryMarch. !n Tonga thc rcportcd lruiting scason varics
bctwccn island groups, c.g., Scptcmbcrcccmbcr in thc
south (Tongatapu and ua) and FcbruaryMay lurthcr
north (Haapai and \avau).
Seeds
!n thc Pacic islands trccs cxhibit largc variations in thc
sizc and shapc ol lruits, nuts, and kcrncls, but it is di
cult to classily this variation. For cxamplc, in \anuatu, thc
nuts can bc ... long by a.6. cm across (..a x ...
in) and wcigh ,. g (c.ac. oz). Kcrncls arc in thc sizc
rangc ol a.a. x .. cm (c..., x c.c.6 in) and wcigh
c..c. g (c.cc.a oz). Tc pcrccntagc kcrncl contcnt
varics lrom . to .c.
Tc rind ol thc lruit is a light, pithy, or corky tissuc that
cnablcs thc lruit to oat and bc dispcrscd by sca currcnts.
Trccs arc also lound away lrom coasts duc to lruits bcing
carricd inland and droppcd by lrugivorous birds and bats,
and as a rcsult ol dclibcratc planting by humans.
Bark
Tc bark is gray to dark graybrown and shallowly ssurcd.
Continuous vcrtical ssuring and discontinuous horizon
tal cracks producc a grid appcarancc, thc somcwhat aky
bark pccls o in curvcd or straight scalcs along thcsc lincs.
Rooting habit
Tc trccs usually havc a sprcading, brous, ncarsurlacc
Top: Buttress of large tree, Hilo, Hawaii. vno:o: j. n. vviu~v
Bottom: Te extensive surface root system is exposed on this
sandy, coastal slope. vno:o: c. vivvi:cn
Species Proles for Pacic Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 5
latcral root systcm, although thc spccics is nor
mally dccp rootcd in sand (Francis .). Shal
low latcral root systcms can dcvclop in rcsponsc
to high watcr tablcs, making such trccs susccp
tiblc to windthrow (Vood .,c).
Similar or look-a-like species
Tc gcnus Terminalia compriscs about .cac
tropical trcc spccics. Closcly rclatcd spccics in
thc South Pacic includc T. glabrata Forst. l.
and T. littoralis Sccm.
How to distinguish from similar
species/look-a-likes
Tropical almond is distinguishcd lrom most
Terminalia spp. by its subcordatc (hcartshapcd)
lcal basc. T. catappa has largcr, glossy, dark grccn
lcavcs, thickcr branchlcts, longcr owcr spikcs,
and largcr lruits than T. littoralis (typically ~.
cm |~..a in| comparcd with a. cm |. in|
long). T. catappa is distinguishcd lrom thc cast
crn Polyncsian T. glabrata by its shortcr, thickcr
lcal pctiolcs typically .. cm (c.6 in) comparcd
with ..a. cm (c.6. in) long, hcartshapcd
lcal basc comparcd with cuncatc to acutc, and
wingcd, typically largcr lruits ~. cm (~..a
in) comparcd with a. cm (.a in) long and
morc strongly anglcd lruits. Somc authors con
sidcr T. glabrata to bc a wild lorm ol T. catappa,
and morc taxonomic studics, including using
molccular markcrs, may bc nccdcd to dctcr
minc thc classication status ol T. glabrata.
GENETICS
Variability of species
Major variation cxists in a rangc ol cconomi
cally important nut charactcristics, mainly as a
rcsult ol traditional sclcction lor trccs with dc
sirablc traits and thcir propagation by pcoplcs
in various parts ol its rangc in Mclancsia. Sclcction has
occurrcd lor largc lruits and/or kcrncls and casc ol crack
ing. !n \anuatu thc variability in thc spccics is high, varia
tions occur mainly in lruit sizc, color, and shapc (Valtcr
and Sam .). Tcrc is littlc variation within thc spccics
in most parts ol thc Solomon !slands, cxccpt lor thc Santa
Cruz !slands (Tcmotu Provincc) whcrc sclcction has pro
duccd somc largclruitcd lorms. Two lruit typcs havc bccn
rcportcd lrom thc Mussau !slands, 8ismarck Archipclago,
Papua Ncw Guinca (Lcpolsky .a). nc typc has a solt
cndocarp that can casily bc brokcn with thc tccth, whilc
thc othcr has a hard cndocarp that must bc hit with a
stonc or cut with a knilc to cxtract thc nut, it is unccrtain
whcthcr thc soltshcllcd trccs brccd truc to typc. Tc is
land ol !wa, in thc Marshall 8cnnctt Group (PNG), is also
rcnowncd lor its soltshcllcd nuts. !n Tonga two lorms arc
distinguishcd: thosc with rcd lruits (telie kula) lound along
bcachcs and thosc with light grccn lruits (telie hina) lound
inland. !n a Rapid Rural Appraisal study, lour lolklorc va
rictics wcrc idcnticd lor Haapai (Tonga), i.c., amanu, lau
lalahi, lalike, and kai (TupoulahiFusimalohi .). !n Sa
Top: Comparison of owering twigs of T. littoralis (left) and T. catappa
(right). vno:o: i. :no:sox Bottom: T. littoralis, Upolu, Samoa. vno:o: c.
vivvi:cn
6 Terminalia catappa (tropical almond)
moa thcrc is modcrn introduction ol T. catappa with largcr
cdiblc lruits.
!n !ndia scvcral lorms dicring in lcal shapc and lruit
charactcristics havc bccn rccognizcd. nc typc has an cd
iblc, swcct csh (mcsocarp) and is cultivatcd in gardcns.
\ariation has also bccn rcportcd in kcrncl tastc and sizc
lrom plantcd trccs in thc Caribbcan and thc southcrn
Unitcd Statcs.
Known varieties
Vhilc many variants arc rcportcd (scc abovc), thc spccics
is invariably propagatcd lrom sccd, which givcs risc to
variation in thc ospring. Accordingly thcrc is continuous
variation with intcrmcdiatc lorms lor various charactcrs.
Tc spccics should bc highly amcnablc to improvcmcnt
through a brccding program givcn
thc high lcvcl ol variation in nut charactcristics
short intcrgcncration timcs, i.c., thc young agc, about
34 ycars, at which plants owcr and lruit, and
rcady acccss to owcrs in low latcral branchcs lor con
trollcd pollination (although thc owcrs arc small and
crowdcd).
ASSOCIATED PLANT SPECIES
Tropical almond is a charactcristic spccics ol tropical bcach
lorcsts, cspccially raiscd sandy bcachcs abovc high tidc. !t
is also lound along rocky shorcs, and somctimcs on thc
cdgcs ol mangrovc swamps. !t may also grow as a pionccr
on dcnudcd or disturbcd lands up to cc m (.ccc lt) cl
cvation. !n \anuatu occasional sccmingly wild trccs in thc
lorcst arc likcly to bc rcmnants ol lormcr scttlcmcnts or
gardcns. !n Frcnch Polyncsia, it appcars to havc partly rc
placcd thc indigcnous T. glabrata.
Associated species commonly found in native
habitats
Associatcd spccics includc Acacia simplex, bcach hcliotropc
(Tournefortia argentea), Barringtonia asiatica, Calophyllum
inophyllum, bcach shcoak (Casuarina equisetifolia), coco
nut (Cocos nucifera), Cordia subcordata, Excoecaria agallocha,
Hernandia nymphaeifolia, bcach hibiscus (Hibiscus tiliaceus),
Intsia bijuga, noni (Morinda citrifolia), Scaevola tacca-
da, Schleinitzia insularum, Terminalia littoralis, Tespesia
populnea, and Vitex trifoliata.
ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES
AND TOLERANCES
Climate
Tropical almond is wcll adaptcd to maritimc subtropical
and tropical climatcs whcrc rainlall is usually in thc rangc
ol .ccccc mm (c.c in) pcr annum, distributcd rath
cr unilormly throughout thc ycar or with a summcr maxi
mum. !t is invariably lound ncar thc coast, at clcvations ol
lcss than cccc m (.ccc.cc lt), whcrc thcrc is littlc
scasonal and diurnal variation in tcmpcraturcs. Tc cntirc
rangc is lrostlrcc.
Elevation range
.cc m (..c lt).
Mean annual rainfall
.ccccc (cc) mm (c.c |.c| in).
Rainfall pattern
Tc trcc prclcrs climatcs with summcr or unilorm rainlall
pattcrns.
Dry season duration (consecutive months with <40
TERMINALIA TERMS
Fruitthc outcr skin (cxocarp) and csh (mcsocarp),
thc shcll (cndocarp), and kcrncl.
Nutthc shcll (cndocarp) and thc kcrncl.
Kernelthc cdiblc kcrncl or sccd and tcsta (skin
surrounding tcsta).
Kernels from three selected nut morphotypes of tropical
almond (left) compared with wild type (right) in Vanuatu.
vno:o: x. ~xvx
Species Proles for Pacic Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 7
mm [1.6 in] rainfall)
Up to 6 months.
Mean annual temperature
aaC (,aF)
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month
aaC (,,cF)
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month
.,aC (6,F)
Minimum temperature tolerated
,C (.F) (cstimatcd)
Soils
Tropical almond naturally occurs on various coastal soils,
cspccially raiscd sandy and rocky bcachcs. !t is adaptcd to a
widc rangc ol lightcrtcxturcd soil typcs, including brack
ish/salinc and alkalinc sands ovcr limcstonc, but rcquircs
good drainagc whcn grown on hcavicr, claycy soils.
Soil texture
!t prclcrs light to mcdium soils (sands, sandy loams, loams,
and sandy clay loams).
Soil drainage
!t rcquircs lrccly draining soils.
Soil acidity
Acid to ncutral/mildly alkalinc soils (pH .c.).
Special soil tolerances
Tropical almond tolcratcs shallow soils and slightly salinc
soils.
Tolerances
Drought
!t is likcly to bc tolcrant ol droughts ol lcss than 6
months duration and may shcd lcavcs/canopy to withstand
long dry spclls.
Full sun
Tc trcc grows most rapidly in lull sun and rcgcncratcs
mainly in opcn, wcll lit situations.
Shade
Tropical almond tolcratcs ca shadc. Sccdlings and
saplings tolcratc modcratc shadc lcvcls but rcquirc high
light lcvcls to grow satislactorily, and maturc trccs prclcr
lull sunlight.
Fire
!t is rcsistant to low to mcdiumintcnsity rcs, with trccs
obscrvcd to rcgrow altcr burning during clcaring opcra
tions.
Frost
Tc cntirc natural rangc is lrost lrcc. Tc trcc is likcly to
bc damagcd at low tcmpcraturcs (c.g., lcss than ,C |.
F|).
Waterlogging
Tc spccics is not wcll adaptcd to watcrloggcd conditions.
Salt spray
Tc spccics typically grows within a short distancc (.cc
acc m |c66c lt|) lrom thc occan and is adaptcd to cx
posurc to strong, oltcn saltladcn winds.
Wind
Tropical almond is adaptcd to strong, stcady coastal winds,
as wcll as rathcr lrcqucnt (cvcry a ycars) cxposurc to
Tropical almond can withstand coastal winds and salt spray.
vno:o: c. vivvi:cn
8 Terminalia catappa (tropical almond)
tropical cycloncs ovcr largc parts ol its rangc. Vhilc thc
spccics has ovcrall good windrmncss, somc individuals
sucr stcm brcakagc and/or uprooting during tropical cy
cloncs. Tropical almond may bc partially dcloliatcd by vcry
strong winds, and this may aid its windrmncss during
cycloncs.
Abilities
Regenerate rapidly
Tc spccics rcgcncratcs abundantly on its prclcrrcd litto
ral sitcs, notably in bcds ol washcdup dcbris and sand in
strandlinc communitics.
Self-prune
Tropical almond producc ticrs ol lour or vc branchcs,
as ncw ticrs arc produccd by thc lcadcr apcx, somc ol thc
lowcr branch ticrs dic back. Tc cxtcnt ol scllpruning is
variablc, dcpcnding on gcnotypc, dcnsity ol surrounding
vcgctation, and light lcvcls.
Coppice
Sccdlings and saplings coppicc strongly, although thc cxtcnt
ol rcgrowth altcr scvcrc pruning or damagc is unknown in
maturc trccs. Tc main lcadcr may bc cut out ol thc top,
somctimcs morc than oncc, to crcatc a vcry widcsprcad
ing shadc or spccimcn trcc. xccssivc pruning by wind or
man may causc wcakcning or dcath ol maturc trccs.
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Growth rate
Undcr lavorablc conditions tropical almond is modcratcly
last to last growing, with hcight growth in carly ycars avcr
aging around ..a m (, lt) pcr ycar. \cry last carly hcight
growth ol m (.c.6 lt) pcr ycar

has bccn obscrvcd on
lcrtilc sitcs on Santo, \anuatu. iamctcr growth is about .
cm/yr (c. in/yr) ovcr thc lilc ol thc trcc, up to a cm/yr (c.
in/yr) lor widcly spaccd trccs growing in lcrtilc sitcs.
Reaction to competition
n lavorablc sitcs thc trcc is ablc to quickly gain sitc con
trol and shadc out most wccds. !t may bc ncccssary to
prunc thc lowcr onc or two ticrs ol branchcs to rcducc
acccss lor climbing wccds. Tis will also improvc amcnity
as a shadc trcc.
PROPAGATION
Tc spccics is rcadily propagatcd lrom sccd. Mass vcgcta
tivc propagation by rootcd cuttings is also lcasiblc.
Propagation by seed
Seed collection
Tc timing ol lruit maturation varics among rcgions and
may bc sporadic or occur morc than oncc pcr ycar (scc
abovc undcr Fruit). Fruits arc rcady lor collcction whcn
thcy arc lull sizc (which varics among trccs) and havc bc
gun to show somc color changc (i.c., bccomc rcdpurplc
or ycllow, or brownish in thc casc ol grccnlruitcd lorms).
Maturc lruits arc harvcstcd lrom thc trcc by hand and/or
with thc aid ol longhandlcd polc pruncrs. Rcccntly lallcn
lruits may bc collcctcd lrom thc ground.
Seed processing
Tcrc arc about .6c lrcsh lruits/kg (,a, lruits/lb). Tc
cshy outcr covcring should bc rcmovcd lrom thc sccd/nut
as soon as possiblc altcr collcction (within .a days), c.g.,
by carclul hammcring bctwccn two at stoncs. Altcr rc
moval ol thc cshy outcr covcring, thcrc arc about ,c.c
nuts (nutinshcll) pcr kg (a6 nuts/lb).
Seed storage
Tc sccd storagc bchavior is unknown, but sccds appcar
to losc viability lairly rapidly undcr storagc. Until ccc
tivc mcdiumtcrm sccd storagc proccdurcs arc dcvclopcd
it is rccommcndcd that sccds bc sown within 6 wccks ol
collcction.
Pre-planting treatments
Sccds may bc sown without any prctrcatmcnt.
Growing area
Sccds arc gcrminatcd in a lrccly draining potting mix in
gcrmination trays in a protcctcd, ratlrcc arca undcr covcr,
such as a shadc housc. Sccdlings should bc transplantcd
into containcrs as soon as is practicablc altcr gcrmination
and cmcrgcncc. Plants grow rapidly and rcquirc largcr
containcrs than many lorcst trcc spccics: suitablc contain
crs includc . cm (6 in) polybags or tapcring, rigid plastic
tubcs (c.g., . cm |6 in| dccp by 6. cm |a.6 in| squarc at
top).
Sccdlings arc progrcssivcly movcd to highcr light lcvcls,
c.g., cc shadc lor .a wccks altcr transplanting, thcn
a shadc lor . month, thcn lull sun lor a months prior to
outplanting.
Species Proles for Pacic Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 9
Germination
Gcrmination typically commcnccs in wccks,
with a gcrmination ratc ol grcatcr than c lor
lrcshly harvcstcd lully maturc lruit.
Media
Sccdlings should bc grown in a standard potting
mixturc or lcrtilc, lrccly draining sandy loam
or loam, prclcrably with good lcvcls ol organic
mattcr. !ncorporation ol a controllcdrclcasc,
complctc lcrtilizcr into thc potting mixturc will
cnsurc rapid, hcalthy sccdling growth.
Time to outplanting
Tc timc lrom gcrmination to outplanting is
about months.
Approximate size
Plants should bc about a cm (.c in) (max. c
cm |.a in|) tall at outplanting. Smallcr sccd
lings about aca cm (.c in) high may also
bc uscd.
Guidelines for outplanting
Sccdlings should bc outplantcd at thc onsct ol thc wct sca
son, typically carly cccmbcr in thc South Pacic. A typi
cal scqucncc lor sccdling production in \anuatu would bc
Junc, sccd collcction, JulyAugust, gcrmination, Scptcm
bcrNovcmbcr, nurscry phasc, cccmbcrJanuary, cld
planting.
Propagation by cutting
For vcgctativc propagation lor sclcctcd nut typcs, sccdling
hcdgcs ol bcttcr nut typcs can bc plantcd. Tcsc trccs can
bc rcgularly cut back to a hcight ol about acc cm (.a
in) or, prclcrably, by laying sccdlings at, pinning, and cut
ting back ncw shoots. Multinodc, scmihardwood cuttings
should bc trcatcd with rooting hormonc (c. !8A pow
dcr), sct in washcd rivcr sand, and rootcd undcr mist.
DISADVANTAGES
Tc spccics has no major drawbacks. Tc trcc is alrcady
naturally vcry widcsprcad in thc AsiaPacic rcgion and
has multiplc uscs, including providing important cnviron
mcntal scrviccs such as coastal protcction. Tc nuts arc ol
tcn not utilizcd or highly rcgardcd as lood bccausc ol thc
small sizc ol thc kcrncls and thc diculty ol cxtracting
thcm, but usc ol sclcctcd gcnctic matcrial can grcatly im
provc thc utility ol tropical almond nuts as human lood.
Potential for invasiveness
Tc spccics naturalizcs rcadily in suitablc littoral habitats,
and may bc rcgardcd as a potcntial wccd thrcat to nativc
plant communitics. Howcvcr, thc trcc is usually not con
sidcrcd a wccd problcm.
Diseases and pests
Plants arc susccptiblc to tcrmitc attack, and damagc may
occur in somc parts ol its rangc. Tc lcavcs may bc at
tackcd and catcn by various insccts and larvac, including
rosc bcctlcs, but thc plant gcncrally rccovcrs wcll lrom
inscct damagc and dcloliation. Tc Sccrctariat ol Pacic
Community Plant Protcction Scrvicc has dcvclopcd a list
ol pcsts and discascs that havc bccn rcportcd on tropical
almond in dicrcnt countrics, including insccts, . lungi,
ncmatodcs, and mitcs ( J. Vright pcrs. comm. acc).
Pink discasc (Corticium salmonicolor), a lungal stcm cankcr,
was rccordcd on tropical almond in !ndia.
Host to crop pests/pathogens
Tc lruits arc hosts lor a. lruit y spccics including Carib
bcan lruit y (Anastrepha suspensa) in Florida, and ol thc
Mcditcrrancan lruit y (Ceratitis capitata) in Costa Rica,
as wcll as a lruit picrcing moth (Ophiusa coronata)
Propagation of seedlings of better nut morphotypes for distribution to
farmers, Santo, Vanuatu. vno:o: x. ~xvx
10 Terminalia catappa (tropical almond)
AGROFORESTRY/ENVIRONMENTAL
PRACTICES
Mulch/organic matter
Annual/biannual lcal drop rcsults in a good buildup ol
organic mattcr undcr thc trccs.
Soil stabilization
Tc wcll dcvclopcd latcral root systcm hclps to bind lragilc
sandy soils and maintain coastal shorcs, cspccially during
storm surgcs and cxtrcmc high tidcs. !t has bccn spcci
cally plantcd lor soil conscrvation in !ndia and Tanzania.
Crop shade/overstory
Maturc trccs cast a hcavy, widc shadc, whcn not in thcir
bricl dcciduous phasc. Tropical almond is only suitablc lor
providing crop shadc to thc most shadc tolcrant crops such
as cocoa (Teobroma cacao).
Alley cropping
Tropical almond may bc uscd in intcrcropping systcms
whilc thc trccs arc still young (up to about ycars old) and
with comparativcly widcspaccd allcys, c.g., 6 m (acc
lt) apart. uring thc nal ycars ol thc gardcning phasc in
a rotational gardcning or shilting cultivation, rows ol trop
ical almond can bc grown togcthcr with thc crops, prior to
convcrsion to a lorcst plantation (and scrving as improvcd
lallow).
Homegardens
!t is a good spccics lor inclusion in homcgardcns at thc
ratc ol onc to thrcc trccs pcr gardcn, providing nuts lor
local consumption lrom an carly agc, couplcd with rcason
ably good stability during strong winds and cycloncs.
Improved fallows
Tc trcc makcs an cxccllcnt spccics lor inclusion in mixcd
spccics improvcd lallow plantings with a duration ol at
lcast aca ycars to allow lor production ol timbcr.
Windbreaks
Tropical almond is an cxccllcnt spccics lor inclusion as an
uppcr to midstory laycr in windbrcaks.
Animal fodder
Tc loliagc is suitablc lor lccding tasar or katkura silk
worms. !n thc Caribbcan, thc lruit is an important lood
lor birds and many wild mammals, and it is also consumcd
by various livcstock, including pigs.
Woodlot
Tc trcc is a good spccics lor inclusion in a mixcd or singlc
spccics woodlot lor provision ol timbcr and/or nuts.
Native animal/bird food
Tc lruits arc consumcd by birds and bats.
Wildlife habitat
Tc trccs providc good wildlilc habitat, bcing among thc
tallcst trccs in bcach lorcsts. Small birds somctimcs ncst in
thc lowcr branchcs.
Bee forage
Tc owcrs yicld ncctar that is attractivc to honcybccs.
Coastal protection
Tis a spccics ol choicc lor coastal protcction and soil sta
bilization, including bcach stabilization just abovc thc lcvcl
ol spring high tidcs. Kcy attributcs lor thcsc rolcs includc
high salt tolcrancc (both loliar and soil), good cyclonc
Windbreak of tropical almond and beach she-oak (Casuarina
equisetifolia). vno:o: c. vivvi:cn
Species Proles for Pacic Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 11
rcsistancc, surlacc rooting habit, and rcgular shcdding ol
lcavcs that providc a modcratcly longlasting mulch laycr
undcr thc trcc.
Ornamental
!t is an attractivc, longlivcd trcc wcll suitcd to ornamcntal
and amcnity plantings whcrc spacc pcrmits. !t is cspccially
suitcd to provision ol shadc in coastal opcn spaccs, public
parks, and along roadsidc vcrgcs.
USES AND PRODUCTS
Tc tasty kcrncls or nuts ol tropical almond havc tradition
ally bccn incorporatcd, albcit in modcst quantitics, into
thc dict ol pcoplcs in coastal arcas throughout much ol
thc AsiaPacic rcgion. Tc nuts may bc consumcd lrcsh
shortly altcr cxtraction lrom thc shcll or clsc prcscrvcd by
smoking and consumcd up to a ycar latcr. !n somc arcas
thc nuts arc mainly a snack lood consumcd by childrcn,
with thc cshy lruit also somctimcs bcing consumcd. !n
othcr arcas tropical almond nuts wcrc highly rcgardcd as
a human lood sourcc. Typcs with largcr kcrncls and solt
cr shclls wcrc sclcctcd and prclcrcntially propagatcd and
maintaincd in parts ol Mclancsia. Localitics notcd lor
good nut typcs includc SouthVcst 8ay, Malckula (\anu
atu), Santa Cruz !slands (Solomon !slands), and Mussau
!slands, 8ismarck Archipclago, and !wa !sland, Marshall
8cnnctt Group (Papua Ncw Guinca).
!n coastal arcas thc timbcr is oltcn uscd in local building
but is not wcll suitcd to highdccay situations (such as
contact with thc ground). Tc timbcr is traditionally uscd
to makc various itcms including canocs and drums, and as
a luclwood. Tc trcc also has a widc rangc ol traditional
nonwood product uscs. Tannin is cxtractcd lrom thc bark,
lcavcs, roots, and lruit shcll. Tc largc lcavcs arc uscd as
wrapping matcrial. A black dyc is obtaincd lrom thc bark,
lruit, and loliagc. !ts lcavcs and bark havc a widc rangc ol
mcdicinal uscs.
At prcscnt thc main planting ol thc spccics is lor amcnity
plantings lor coastal protcction and shadc, with smallcr
plantings ol sclcctcd typcs lor nut production. Tc nuts ol
thc spccics rcmain an important local lood sourcc, and it is
highly rcgardcd as a building timbcr in parts ol thc Pacic,
including \anuatu and Samoa.
Fruit
Childrcn somctimcs consumc thc outcr csh ol agrccablc
lruit typcs. !n thc Philippincs a winc is madc by lcrmcnt
ing maturc lruits.
Superior nut morphotypes selected in Solomon Islands and
introduced to Tonga in . vno:os: x. ~xvx
12 Terminalia catappa (tropical almond)
Nut/seed
Tc nuts may bc consumcd lrcsh altcr cxtraction lrom thc
shcll or prcscrvcd by drying or smoking and consumcd up
to a ycar latcr. !n somc local markcts in Mclancsia thc lrcsh
kcrncls arc sold in bundlcs or skcwcrcd on sticks (palm
lrond spincs). Kcrncls arc casily damagcd during cxtrac
tion and start to mold within .a days at ambicnt tcmpcra
turcs. Tc sundricd kcrncls yicld ol a bland, ycllow
oil that is cdiblc but bccomcs turbid on standing.
Medicinal
Tc lcavcs havc many mcdicinal uscs including diapho
rctic, antiindigcstion, and antidyscntcry. An inlusion ol
thc young lcavcs or scrapcd bark is occasionally takcn as a
potion lor trcating mouth inlcctions in Tonga and Samoa
and is uscd in thc Cook !slands to bathc lracturcs. Young
lcavcs arc uscd in thc Philippincs to curc hcadachc and
colic. Tc bark is uscd as an astringcnt in dyscntcry and
thrush.
Timber
Tc sawn timbcr has a widc rangc ol cnduscs including
gcncral building construction, cspccially intcrior purposcs
such as ooring and lurniturc. Largcr sound logs arc suit
ablc lor vcnccr and plywood manulacturc. Tc wood is not
suitablc lor longtcrm ground contact.
Fuelwood
Tc wood is suitablc lor usc as luclwood.
Craft wood/tools
Traditional wood uscs in thc South Pacic includc kava
bowls, tool handlcs, clubs, walking sticks, and drums.
Canoe/boat/raft making
Tc wood is traditionally uscd to makc canoc hulls and
paddlcs in thc South Pacic. Tc wood is also uscd in boat
building.
Wrapping/parcelization
Tc lcavcs arc inlrcqucntly uscd to wrap and carry lood.
Tannin/dye
Tc bark and lcavcs (as wcll as lruit shclls and roots) arc
rich in tannins and may bc uscd lor staining/coloring lab
rics including tapa, tanning lcathcr, and inkmaking.
Oil/lubricant
Trials havc bccn conductcd to admix kcrncl oil into dicscl
lucl.
URBAN AND COMMUNITY
FORESTRY (By Craig R. Elevitch)
Tropical almond is a popular ornamcntal and shadc trcc
throughout thc tropics. Tc trccs has a bcautilul, broad, pa
godalikc canopy and attractivc lcavcs. Part ol thc appcal
ol thc spccics as an ornamcntal is thc bright rcdorangc
ycllow color ol thc lcavcs bclorc cach annual dcloliation.
!n addition to its amcnity scrviccs, thc trcc produccs tasty
nuts, traditional mcdicincs, dyc, and timbcr, all ol which
can bc utilizcd lrom trccs growing in urban arcas. !t with
stands coastal conditions, including hcavy salt spray and
strong winds, and thcrclorc is most commonly lound in
coastal urban arcas. !t is widcly adaptablc to various soils,
including inlcrtilc sandy soils.
Size in an urban environment
!n urban cnvironmcnts, thc trcc typically rcachcs .a m
(cc lt) tall with a broad canopy similar in diamctcr to
thc hcight ol thc trcc. Tc trunk can grow to .. m ( lt) in
diamctcr at brcast hcight. For urban cnvironmcnts, this is
a largc trcc, which nccds to bc pruncd rcgularly to control
its sizc in morc conncd arcas.
Rate of growth in a landscape
Vith carc and in lavorcd cnvironmcnts, trccs can grow up
to a m/yr (6.6. lt/yr) lor thc rst lcw ycars, although
growth ratcs closcr to . m/yr (. lt/yr) arc morc typical.
Root system
Tc root systcm is dccp in sandy substratcs. !n soils with
shallow watcr tablc, it can dcvclop an cxtcnsivc surlacc
root systcm that could intcrlcrc with maintcnancc activi
tics, such as mowing. Tc lormation ol a buttrcsscd trunk
can lilt sidcwalks, loundations, curbs, pipcs, ctc., making it
inadvisablc to plant thc tropical almond ncar such struc
turcs.
Products commonly used in a Pacic island
household
Tc nuts arc cdiblc both raw and cookcd, although cat
ing quality and kcrncl sizc arc variablc. Tc nuts arc an
important lood whcn in scason in \anuatu. !n othcr arcas
such as Samoa, Tonga, Ncw Guinca, and thc Solomon !s
lands, thcy arc catcn rarcly or just nibblcd on by childrcn.
!n Hawaii, lcw pcoplc arc awarc that thc kcrncl is cdiblc.
Tc diculty ol cxtracting thc kcrncl, variablc cating qual
ity, and abscncc ol largckcrncllcd varictics may cxplain
thc lack ol usc ol thc nut in many arcas. Tc outcr csh
ol thc sccd is also cdiblc, although it is usually brous and
not tasty. Fruits arc crackcd opcn to cxtract thc kcrncl by a
Species Proles for Pacic Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 13
sharp blow to thc cdgc or by hitting thc pointcd apcx with
a hammcr.
Tc lcavcs, bark, and lruit skin arc uscd mcdicinally and arc
also uscd to makc a black dyc.
Tc wood is uscd lor construction, cralts, and canocs. !t
is an attractivc, modcratcly durablc timbcr wcll suitcd to
intcrior uscs, such as lraming, pancling, ooring, and lur
niturc. !t also makcs good rcwood.
Light requirements
!ts sccdlings tolcratc light shadc (ca), although thc
trcc pcrlorms bcst in lull sun.
Water/soil requirements
Tropical almond grows bcst in sands and loamy sands, but
it can grow vcry wcll in silts, loams, and clays. !t is also
known to grow in thc poorquality ll that is oltcn lound
in urban arcas (Francis .).
Life span
As an ornamcntal, tropical almond is cxpcctcd to livc about
6c ycars (Francis .) and up to .cc ycars in suitablc cn
vironmcnts.
Varieties favored for use in homegardens or public
areas
Tcrc arc many lorms lound rcgionally (scc \ariability
abovc). Tcrc has bccn longtcrm domcstication and sc
lcction ol largckcrncllcd lorms in parts ol PNG, Solomon
!slands, and \anuatu. Tcsc nut morphotypcs arc lavorcd
lor homc and villagc gardcns.
Seasonality of leaf ush, owering, fruiting
Trccs losc thcir lcavcs oncc or twicc a ycar during dry pc
riods. Trccs gcncrally owcr and lruit oncc annually, al
though in many arcas such as Hawaii, Fiji, and Tonga,
owcring and lruiting takc placc continuously throughout
thc ycar.
Clockwise from top left: horizontal form of pruned tree, Apia, Samoa; pollarded tree, North Kohala, Hawaii; tree in homegar-
den alongside mango, breadfruit, and rain tree, Apia, Samoa. vno:os: c. vivvi:cn
14 Terminalia catappa (tropical almond)
Exceptional ornamental values
Tc largc, dark grccn lcavcs arc attractivc and showy, cspc
cially prior to scasonal shcdding. As ncw lcavcs appcar, thc
bright grccn ncw growth is also conspicuous and attractivc.
!n its prclcrrcd scasidc cnvironmcnts, thc dccp shadc cast
by thc trcc is oltcn vcry wclcomc to bcachgocrs. Tc broad
canopy is rcadily idcntiablc and apprcciatcd as shadc.
Largc trccs with buttrcsscd trunks . m (. lt) in diamctcr
or morc can makc spcctacular community landmarks and
gathcring placcs.
Use as living fence, hedge or visual/noise barrier
Tc lorm ol thc trcc, with a singlc dominant trunk and
horizontal sprcading branchcs, docs not lcnd itscll to
hcdgcs or barricrs.
Birds/wildlife
8irds and bats consumc thc lruit.
Maintenance requirements
!n urban cnvironmcnts rcquiring a tidy appcarancc, thc
scasonal lcal and lruit drop ncccssitatcs rcgular rcmoval ol
dcbris lrom undcrncath trccs. Vhcrc thc sizc ol thc trcc
must bc controllcd, such as in a small homcgardcn, thc trcc
can bc shapcd at an carly agc to a dcsirablc sizc. !n this
casc thc main stcm can bc cut at a dcsircd hcight, lavoring
horizontal branchcs. !n Samoa and clscwhcrc, thc lowcr
branchcs ol thc trccs arc somctimcs wcightcd down so that
thc trcc will bc a morc attractivc or ccctivc shadc trcc.
Tc trcc can also bc pollardcd to control thc hcight and
canopy diamctcr. !n pollarding, a lramcwork ol scvcral
stcms is lormcd at a dcsircd hcight by pruning thc trcc
during its carly dcvclopmcnt. Tcsc stcms arc thcn pruncd
back hcavily cvcry a ycars.
Tropical almond docs not rcquirc lcrtilizcr cxccpt in thc
most inlcrtilc soils. !t tolcratcs drought, but pcrlorms bct
tcr in consistcntly moist conditions.
Nuisance issues
!n urban arcas thc loss ol lcavcs oncc or twicc a ycar may
bc considcrcd mcssy, but thc prcccding changc ol lcal
color bclorc dropping can bc spcctacular. Tc owcrs havc
a slightly lctid odor, although thc smcll is rarcly strong
cnough to bc considcrcd a nuisancc. Tc trccs also tcnd to
grow rathcr largc lor urban cnvironmcnts.
Hazards
Although thc trcc is a coastal spccics and adaptcd to with
stand storm winds, branchcs can snap in high winds (Val
tcr and Sam acca). Tcrclorc trccs should bc plantcd wcll
clcar ol building structurcs.
Common pest problems
Many insccts and larvac lccd on thc lcavcs, including rosc
bcctlcs, but trccs usually rccovcr wcll lrom pcriodic inlcs
tations.
COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS
Tc main commcrcial products ol tropical almond arc sawn
timbcr lor local usc, cspccially in housc and building con
struction, and kcrncls lor human consumption.
Timber
Tc hcartwood ol tropical almond is variablc in color, oltcn
brown to rcddishbrown, with a widc, rathcr indistinct band
ol lightcr colorcd sapwood. Tc timbcr is smooth, lustrous,
clastic, tough, modcratcly hard, and mcdiumcoarsc in tcx
turc, oltcn with an irrcgular or twistcd grain. Tc wood is
modcratcly dcnsc, c.g., cc kg/m

( lb/lt

) at .a
moisturc contcnt. Tc timbcr has bccn variously rcportcd
as scasoning rapidly with a modcratc lcvcl ol dcgradc or
clsc as not casily scasoncd. Tc timbcr is rcadily sawn, but
intcrlockcd grain tcnds to pick up during planing. thcr
machining charactcristics arc as lollows: shaping, boring,
and mortising arc lair, turning is poor, sanding, rcsistancc
to scrcw splitting, and nailing propcrtics arc good.
Nuts
!n \anuatu onc local company purchascs tropical al
mond kcrncls lrom around thc country lor USs6, pcr kg
(USsa.,../lb). Tc kcrncls arc chcckcd lor quality, dricd,
and rctailcd in c g (.. oz) jars in Port \ila supcrmarkcts
lor morc than USsc pcr kg (USs6/lb). cmand is high,
and thc company would likc to purchasc .ccc kg (aacc
lb) ol kcrncls pcr ycar (cquivalcnt to cc mt |a, t| ol
lruits). !n Port \ila and Loganvillc markcts, lrcsh tropical
almond kcrncls arc sold in bundlcs or skcwcrcd on sticks
(palm lrond spincs/midribs) lor thc cquivalcnt ol USs.a.,
pcr kg (USs.,.,/lb).
Spacing
Timber
An appropriatc initial spacing lor commcrcial produc
tion ol timbcr in monocultural plantings is x m (.c x
.6 lt) (cquivalcnt to 66, stcms/ha |a,c stcms/ac|). Vidcr
intcrrow spacing could bc uscd to rcducc wccding costs.
!ntcrcropping with shorttcrm crops could bc donc with
a trcc spacing ol x m (.c x a6 lt) (i.c., ., stcms/ha
Species Proles for Pacic Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 15
|.6 stcms/ac|). Tc nal dcnsity lor sawlog production is
about .cacc stcms/ha (6.. stcms/ac). A suitablc arca
lor commcrcial production would bc .c (or morc) hcctarcs
(a ac), but cvcn small woodlot arcas ol about . ha (a. ac)
could bc grown on a commcrcial basis by groups ol small
holdcrs to supply local saw mills.
Nuts
A widc spacing is rccommcndcd, couplcd with pruning out
thc lcad shoot to cncouragc low, widcsprcading latcral
branching. Tc suggcstcd spacing is x m (a6c x
a6c lt), i.c., .a.6 trccs pcr ha (c6 trccs/ac).
Both nuts and timber
Suggcstcd spacing is closc within rows (c.g., a m |6.6 lt|)
and widc bctwccn rows (c.g., m |.6 lt|). Tis givcs an
initial spacing ol 6a trccs/ha (a trccs/ac), which is cvcn
tually thinncd down to a nal spacing ol about .c trccs/ha
(6. trccs/ac) by rcmoval ol poorcr lormcd individuals in
onc or two noncommcrcial thinning opcrations at agc 6
ycars.
Management objectives
Tc aim ol managcmcnt lor timbcr production is to pro
ducc highquality sawlogs within an cconomically lcasiblc
and attractivc timc lramc, c.g., a rotation pcriod ol aca
ycars. Tis will includc usc ol sclcctcd gcnctic matcrial, rcg
ular maintcnancc in carly ycars including lrcqucnt rcmoval
ol crccpcrs, and onc or morc thinnings to maintain sitc
control and conccntratc wood incrcmcnt on bcttcrlormcd
stcms. Progrcssivc pruning ol lowcr whorls ol branchcs up
to a hcight ol about .a m ( lt) may bc rcquircd to producc
Left: Nuts skewered onto palm leaet midribs and sold in Port Vila market, Vanuatu; pictured: author Lex Tomson. vno:os:
x. ~xvx Right: Te late Justin West standing among -year-old tropical almond trees he planted in a small plantation outside
Port Vila, Efate, Vanuatu. vno:o: n. vv~xs
16 Terminalia catappa (tropical almond)
lcss knotty sawlogs ol highcr valuc. Such prun
ing should bc donc in scvcral stcps, to maintain
at lcast twothirds ol thc canopy lcal arca at any
onc pruning.
Design considerations
For production ol nuts, it is rccommcndcd that
plantings bc locatcd in arcas with good acccss
to major markctplaccs, so that cxtractcd kcrncls
can rcach thc markct quickly without risk ol
spoiling.
Advantages and disadvantages of grow-
ing in polycultures
Tropical almond has thc potcntial to bc wcll
suitcd to growing in polyculturcs with othcr last
growing timbcr spccics such as Endospermum
medullosum. Tc lastgrowing but smallcr
Flueggea exuosa could bc intcrplantcd and har
vcstcd altcr ,.c ycars to providc durablc polcs.
Yields
Timber
Tcrc is no data availablc conccrning growth ratc ovcr thc
projcctcd rotation lcngth ol about aca ycars. !t is likcly
that goodquality, wcll maintaincd plantations on lcrtilc
sitcs grow at about .ac m

/ha/yr (a.a6 lt

/ac/yr).
Nuts
Signicant amounts ol lruits arc produccd ycars altcr
planting, with rcgular lruiting oncc or twicc a ycar dcpcnd
ing upon latitudc, location, and hcalth ol thc trcc. Kcrncl
yicld is cstimatcd to bc about kg (.. lb) pcr trcc pcr ycar
(or about c. to . mt/ha/yr |c..c.6 t/ac/yr|), but yiclds
might bc doublc that lor sclcctcd gcnctic stock grown on
highquality sitcs.
Processing required
Tc grcatcst obstaclc to thc commcrcial markcting ol thc
nut is its low kcrncl contcnt and thc lack ol onlarm com
mcrcial storagc tcchnologics that would allow lruits to
bc proccsscd in villagcs and thc high valuc kcrncls to bc
transportcd to ccntral proccssing units. For nut production,
thc csh should bc rcmovcd manually lrom lruits onlarm,
and thc nuts should bc at lcast partly dricd to rcmovc sur
lacc moisturc. Tis will considcrably rcducc thc bulk and
wcight ol matcrial to bc transportcd without spoilagc to
markct and rcducc thc risk ol spoilagc. rying and smok
ing ol nuts onlarm would add considcrablc valuc and pro
ducc a morc durablc product with a considcrably cxtcndcd
shcll lilc.
Market
Timber
Markcts lor plantcd tropical almond timbcr arc thc local
timbcr markcts lor gcncralpurposc timbcrs.
Nuts
Tc sizc ol thc intcrnational markct lor nuts is likcly lim
itcd. Howcvcr, tropical almond nuts (along with Canarium
indicum nuts) havc thc potcntial to bchavc as undcrsup
plicd nichc commoditics with a highly inclastic dcmand,
commanding a pricc cquivalcnt to macadamia nuts (cur
rcntly morc than USs.c/kg |USs./lb|) wholcsalc, i.c.,
a. timcs thc pricc ol mainstrcam nuts such as almonds,
providing packaging and quality arc similar. Highvaluc
nichc markcts and valuc could bc sccurcd and cnhanccd
by organic ccrtication, promotion ol tropical almond as
an cxotic commodity, and dircct intcrnctbascd markcting.
Markcting opportunitics and constraints lor Pacic trcc
nuts dcpcnd on quality control, packaging, continuity ol
supply, and targcting markcting toward spccic groups,
such as tourists.
Intercopping with cassava and other crops on Santo, Vanuatu. vno:o: i.
:no:sox
Species Proles for Pacic Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 17
INTERPLANTING/FARM
APPLICATIONS
Example system
Location
Tcmotu Traditional Trccbascd Agriculturc
(Santa Cruz !slands, Solomon !slands).
Description
Tropical almond is plantcd as an outcr bound
ary trcc on thc windward sidc ol multispccics
,multistory agrolorcstry plots to protcct morc
vulncrablc spccics against sca spray and wind.
Yields/benets
Fuclwood, timbcr, and kcrncls.
Spacing
About m (.6a6 lt) within rows.
Example system
Location
Shark 8ay, Santo, \anuatu.
Description
Ncwly dcvclopcd, cxpcrimcntal systcm startcd
in January, accc. Tcrc arc no data availablc on
yiclds. Tc bcnct ol intcrcropping is that whilc
larmcrs rcccivc carly rcturns, whilc waiting lor
thc trccs to start bcaring nuts. Good wccding
cnsurcs high survival and rapid carly growth ol
trccs.
Crop/tree interactions
uring thc rst a ycars, various traditional root
and lcal crops arc grown as intcrcrops with sim
ilar production to purc cropping systcms.
Spacing
Spacing is x m (.6 x .6 lt) or cc trccs pcr
hcctarc (.6c trccs/ac).
PUBLIC ASSISTANCE
Scc gcncral cxtcnsion links at:
http://www.traditionaltrcc.org/cxtcnsion.html
Top: .-year-old tropical almond trial planting at Shark Bay, Santo, Vanu-
atu. vno:o: x. ~xvx Bottom: same Shark Bay planting as above at years old;
this tree has reached m ( ft) in height. vno:o: i. :no:sox
18 Terminalia catappa (tropical almond)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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20 Terminalia catappa (tropical almond)
Species Proles for Pacic Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org)
Terminalia catappa (tropical almond)
Authors: Lcx A.J. Tomson
.
and 8arry vans
a
.. South Pacic Rcgional !nitiativc ol Forcst Gcnctic Rcsourccs (SPR!G) Projcct, SPC Forcstry Program, Suva, Fiji (currcnt contact
inlo: !PGR!, \ia dci Trc cnari ,a/a, ccc, Maccarcsc (Fiumicino), Romc, !taly, mail: L.TomsonGcgiar.org).
a. SPR!G Markcting Spccialist, c 8crry St, Shcrwood, QL c,, Australia, mail: barrycvansGbigpond.com.
Acknowledgments: Tc authors and publishcr thank alc vans, John Francis, Hcidi Johanscn, ianc Ragonc, Sccrctariat ol thc
Pacic CommunityPlant Protcction Scrvicc, and Art Vhistlcr lor thcir input. Photo contributions by Kron Akcn and J. 8. Friday
arc grcatly apprcciatcd.
Recommended citation: Tomson, L.A.J., and 8. vans. acc6. Terminalia catappa (tropical almond), vcr. a.a. !n: lcvitch, C.R. (cd.).
Spccics Prolcs lor Pacic !sland Agrolorcstry. Pcrmancnt Agriculturc Rcsourccs (PAR), Hlualoa, Hawaii. http://www.tradi
tionaltrcc.org~.
Sponsors: Publication was madc possiblc by gcncrous support ol thc Unitcd Statcs cpartmcnt ol Agriculturc Vcstcrn Rcgion Sus
tainablc Agriculturc Rcscarch and ducation (USAVSAR) Program, SPC/GTZ PacicGcrman Rcgional Forcstry Projcct,
USA Natural Rcsourccs Conscrvation Scrvicc (USA NRCS), USA Forcst Scrvicc Forcst Lands nhanccmcnt Program,
Statc ol Hawaii cpartmcnt ol Land & Natural Rcsourccs ivision ol Forcstry & Vildlilc, Kaulunani, an Urban Forcstry Pro
gram ol thc LNR ivision ol Forcstry and Vildlilc and thc USA Forcst Scrvicc, and Muricl and Kcnt Lightcr. Tis matcrial is
bascd upon work supportcd by thc Coopcrativc Statc Rcscarch, ducation, and xtcnsion Scrvicc, U.S. cpartmcnt ol Agriculturc,
and Agricultural xpcrimcnt Station, Utah Statc Univcrsity, undcr Coopcrativc Agrccmcnt acca,cc.c.a,.
Series editor: Craig R. lcvitch
Publisher: Pcrmancnt Agriculturc Rcsourccs (PAR), P 8ox a, Hlualoa, Hawaii 6,a, USA, Tcl: caa,, Fax: ca
.a, mail: parGagrolorcstry.nct, Vcb: http://www.agrolorcstry.nct~. Tis institution is an cqual opportunity providcr.
Reproduction: Copics ol this publication can bc downloadcd lrom http://www.traditionaltrcc.org~. Tis publication may bc rcpro
duccd lor noncommcrcial cducational purposcs only, with crcdit givcn to thc sourcc. acc6 Pcrmancnt Agriculturc Rcsourccs. All
rights rcscrvcd.