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Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey School of Engineering Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Procedure Manual for

Elements of Electrical Engineering Laboratory 14 :332 :375

126 127

Basic Laws of Electrical Engineering Theory Introduction to Network Theory Sinusoidal Steady State Response Using Laplace Transform for Time Domain Analysis Introduction to Operational Amplifiers

B B
B

128
129 130

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B-i 26 RUTGERS UNIVERSITY The State University of New Jersey College of Engineering Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
330:375 Elements of Electrical Engineering Laboratory

Fxperiment 1

Basic Laws of Electrical Engineering Theory

The purpose of this first lab is to familiarize yourself with some of the equipment you will be using throughout the remainder of the semester, and to introduce you to the basic laws which govern electrical engineering theory. 1.1 Voltage and Current Relations in Unear and Nonlinear Passive Elements Passive elements (resistors, inductors, and capacitors) are those which cannot generate electrical energy. In a passive linear element, such as a resistor, voltage and current are directly and linearly related. The relationship between voltage and current in a resistor may be expressed by Ohms Law where: V=IR. Only one reading of voltage and current need be taken to graph the V/I characteristics of a passive linear element. With a nonlinear passive element a number of voltage and current readings must be made in order to graph the nonlinear V/I characteristics. The nonlinear passive element that Will be studied in this lab is a diode. A diode acts like a voltage controlld switch. When the positive voltage drop across the diode, known as the forward voltage, is greater than some threshold voltage, the diode has zero resistance and will conduct current. At voltages less than this threshold voltage, the diode acts as an open circuit with infinite resistance, and no current will flow.

1.2 Voltage Divider Rule laws developed The voltage dMder rul is based upon the fundamental n Ohm in the early 1800s. by Gustav Klrchholf in 1848 and by George Simo generally, elements) in From Kirchhoffs laws, we know that resistors (or more same across parallel senes carry the same current, and that voltage drop is th. i In figure 1 must flow elements. According to Kirchholfs laws, the current through both series rslstances Ri and R2.

RI V R2

Figure 1

According to Ohms law,

V-jR , 0 We are able to find an expression for V VoiR2. in terms of the input source Using Ohms law, we are also able to express i V (Ri.R2) the voltage divider rule, namely Putting these two equations together, we-obtain that: R2 V iii (Ri + R2) R2 (Ri + R2) V. 0 V series resistor R2 is equal to a This states that the voltage appeanng across one fraction is equal to the ratio of R2 fraction of the input source voltage, where that to the sum of Ri and R2.
.

voltage, V:

0
2

Figure 2 For a morecompIated network, -such as the one in figure 2, we still may . In this case, we must first find the 0 apply the voltage dMder rule to find V 0 appears. equivalent resistance (Req) between A and B across which V Req)V VD_(R + 3 R1R2 and (R1+R2) The voltage divider principle is a simple way to find the voltage appearing across some resistor within a circuit. 1.3 Current Divider Rule When current reaches a node at two parallel resistances, the current will split according to the ratio of the two resistance values so that the voltage drops across the two parallel elements are equal, referring to figure 3: VI-V2-V
Ii

Rep

122IReq.

R1+R2

I
3

ii

RIV2 VI 1R2

Figure 3

i and another for i2, we can see from the last equation To write an equation for 1 that: R R2 R2 R1+R2) Ri
.,

(Ri + R2 These equations represent the current divider rule for parallel resistances., we find can apply this concept to more difficult circuits such as in figure 2. We must an equivalent resistance between the terminals A and B, then we can apply the current divider rule to find: , R l,,Ri + R2 Ri 12i(R1+R2) The current divider rule provides a means with which we are able to determine the individual currents in a circuit. 1.4 Storage Devices Capacitors are based on electric field phenomena which is developed when a voltage drop (or net charge) is separated by the distance between the two plates filled with some dielectric material. When a time varying voltage (such as an AC signal) is applied across the two plates of the capacitor, a time variant electric field develops across the plates. This time variant e-fleld causes a displacement current to flow between the capacitor plates. Displacement h current is not a current flow made up of electrons like that which passes throug of a resistor. Displacement current is more closely related to the displacement is a charge rather than the movement of electrons. Capacitance current function of the rate of change of the voltage across the plates, or dV i=C V in where current found by this equation is measured in amps, C in farads, t that when a volts, and t in seconds. From this equation, it should be eviden tor, no constant voltage (such as a DC voltage) is applied across the capaci circuit to a current will flow. In other words, the capacitor will act as an open n is that constant DC voltage. Another important detail derived from this equatio This would the voltage may not change instantaneously across a capacitor.

produce an infinite

corresponding to an infinite current through the

capacitor, which is not physically possible. From the differential equation for the capac,tatlve current, an equation may be derived to describe the voltage across a capacitor, namely that: v(t)
i

JI

dt

would The unit of capacitance is the farad (F). Since a 1 farad capacitor use capacitors in the be about the size of Hill Center, most practical applications 6) range. picofarad (10 -12) to ILicrofarad (10

2. Prelab Calculations the first lab. Complete these calculations before you come to perform begins, so be The results of these calculations will be collected before the lab sure to enter your results on the data sheets provided. ss the 220 a) Using the voltage divider rule, determine the voltage acro ss terminals Aresistor, the 330 resistor and the output voltage appearing acro B from figure 5. and i2 from b) Using the current divider rule, determine the currents i, i figure 5. ts provided. Enter your reSults from part a) and b) onto the data shee be turned in at the Show all the calculations on a separate paper which is to start of class.

3. Expenment The purpose of this experiment is to demonstrate a few of the fundamental laws of electrical engineering, while being introduced to some standard pieces of laboratory equipment. Equipment: Variable AC/DC Power Supply Oscilloscope Digital Multimeter Resistor Blocks Decade R-C Substituter Diode 1/4 Watt, 5% Resistors 3.1 Using the DC Power Supply The DC power supply delivers variable negative voltage levels lrom -20 V to 0 V and variable positive voltages from 0V to +20 V. The negative supply is delivered between the green terminal and the black terminal marked , and the positive supply is from the black common terminal to the red TM common terminal. You may vary these output voltages with the knobs above the terminals marked by the V or the +V. (The dials voltage readings on these knobs are not very accurate). There is a third separate supply below the 20 V terminals with the white and red terminals. This supplies only a single constant positive 5 V output. To get an output from the supply, both the black power switch (marked PWR on the left side of the supply) and the square white button marked OUTPUT on the DC supply must be on. Again, dont trust the voltage setting on the variable voltage knobs you should always check your actual output voltage with a digital voltmeter to insure that you use the correct power during the experiment.
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ear Element 3.2 V/I Characteristics of a Lin nce (R) value. ure 4a using an unknown resista fig m fro t cui cir the t ruc nst Co magnitude ve by varying the input voltage cur VIE the on nts poI 5 re asu Me e and current measurements. tag vol g din pon res cor the ing ord and rec of the V/I nown resistance R from the slope Determine the value of the unk plot. r. Make sure the power delivered ete ltim mu the h wit R of ue val Measure the asuring resistance. by the source is off while me Ammeter

Figure 4a

Figure 4b
Nonlinear Element 3.3 IN Characteristics of a is the 4b where the band on the diode ure fig in wn sho t cui cir Construct the asure 10 points on the IN Me . ure fig the in wn sho negative (-) terminal a voltages. Make sure to record e ativ neg and e itiv pos h curve for bot the transition region where r nea gs din rea t ren cur and number of voltage mA Be careful not to exceed 150 t. ren cur t duc con to rts sta t the diode jus through the diode.

3.4 Volta;. DMder/ Current Divider Circuit St the output of the DC power supply to +10 V. Confirm the magnitude of the output voltagi with the digital voltmeter, then shut the power supply off. Construct the circuit shown in figure 5 usIng the resistance values given. After youve checked your circuit configuration, turn the power back on.

by

FIgure 5 Measure the voltage Vo appearing across terminals AS with the voltmeter. To read a voltage across some element with the meter, you must have the leads of the voltmeter in parallel with that element. Record the voltage! appearing across the 220 resistor and across the 330 fl resistor. Measure the currents i, ii, and 2 using the digital ammeter. To read current through some element with the multimeter, the meter must be in series with that element. How closely do your experimental results agree with those found theoretically?
V V

3.5 Capacitance Circuit The ac supply is the supply to the far right of the power supply. It is able to deliver up to 13 V at a frequency as high as 2 MHz, with output waveshapes of a sine, square, or triangular wave. You must use a special connection box that enables you to see various waveforms on the oscilloscope. This box also allows you to use standard wire leads to construct a circuit even though the output connection from the ac supply is a BNC type connector. This box also allows you to connect an element in your circuit to the oscilloscope in order to view its output voltage waveform. Your instructor will describe how to use the box correctly.
connection BNC

0 Hz ac supply at about 50 the ing Us 6. ure fig m fro it Construct the circu t the output waveform tha pe co los cil os e th rify using : as the input signal, ve ut signal for the following inp the of ral eg int the ency. across the capacitor is C) at a low signal frequ (D ge lta vo t tan ns co a Square wave simulates cy. Sine wave. l at a low signal frequen na sig r ea lin a tes ula Triangular wave sim vided on the data sheets. pro ph gra the on ms for ve t wa Draw the input and outpu
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ACIi

Figure 6

4. Data Sheets
0

Linear Element
j

V (volts) I (mililamp)

I___________

Nonlinear Element V (volts) I (miulamp) V (volts) i (milliamp)

V__ ____ ___

Voltage Divider 0 (Volts) V Theoretical: Experimental: Percent Error:

VO (Volts)

V33o (Volts)
0

Current Divider j (milliarnps) Theoretical: Experimental: Percent Error:

V

i (milliamps)

12 (milliamps)

10

Capacitance Circuit Constaflt (DCi input (square wave)

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input

output

.jpe wavR input

input

output

.]jpar inout (triangular wave)

input

ouput

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5. Report Each oerson is to submit the following: 5.1 A one page summary of the entire lab which reviews what was learned in this experiment. As a grouo. submit the following: 5.2 Data sheets from the experiment, which include theoretical and experimental results. 5.3 Graph of the data from 3.2 - plot the voltage as a function of current. Determine the value of the unknown resistance from the slope of the V/I curve. Calculate the percent error of your experimental results, and enter these results on the data sheets. Graph of the data from 3.3 plot the current as a function of voltage for the nonlinear device.
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5.4 Prove the theoretical capacitor voltage waveshape (magnitude A, frequency 1) from the circuit of figure 6 for the three input signals (constant sinusoid, and linear inputs) using: v(t)
.

Ji

dt

where the function of i is identical in form tothat of the input voltage signal from the supply. 5.5 Submit completed prelab calculations for lab# 1 showing all of your work. Enter your theoretical results into the lab $1 data sheets. NOTE: The final report must be completed. assembled. and stapled together before coming to perform the next lab. The completed report should include: - An individual summary for each group membe r. One copy of the prefab calculations for the entire group. One copy of any graphs, proofs, etc., for the entire group.
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B-127 RUTGERS UNIVERSITY The State University of New Jersey College of Engineenng Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 330:375 Elements of Electrical Engineering Laboratory Experiment 2 Introduction to Network Theory
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There exist a number of techniques which enable us to analyze any complicated network of resistances, voltage supplies, and current sources, and to reduce the network into a more simple yet accurate representation. In this experiment, we will study four such techniques of network reduction. 1.1. Theory of Superposition When there is more than one independent source of energy (such as voltage or current sources) in a network, one often uses the technique of superposition to reduce the circuit. Superposition theory states that a total response may be determined by finding the response to each source separately and then summing the individual responses. This is accomplished by removing all but one of the sources in a network and finding the currents produced by that one source alone within the network. This is continued until the current contributions produced have been found in response to each individual source alone. These currents are then summed together to find the total current in the e original network. Although the use of superposition is limited to resistiv network application in this experiment, the theory of superposition may be used tance to analyze any linear system, including networks which contain capaci and inductance. In the example given below in figure 1, there are two independent energy e all the sources one voltage supply and one current source. First we remov remove a current source from the network, it must be sources except one. To tm ed. Lets open circuited. To remove a voltage source, it must be short circuit the network first remove the current source as in figure 2 and find the currents in produced by the voltage supply alone.
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13

en
120V

12A

Figure 1

I 20 V

3n 4?

14

open circuit Figure 2 There are a number of different methods to find the currents ii, I2, 13, and 14. In this method, we first find the equivalent resistance (Req) of the entire network to find ii, where the symbol II will be used to indicate a parallel combination between elements: + 2 ) 11(3 n))+62 Req((4 Req.8n 120V .15A From figure 2, one can see that all the current passing through the 2 resistance must continue into the 4 resistor (current through series resistances are equal), or: i3=i4 Therefore we can write an equation for 2 and 13 using the current divider rule, (2n+4n)ii n+2n+4=bOA 3 2 and

I
14

(3 ) ii 5A + 2 Q + 4 Now we must remove the voltage source and analyze the network with the current source alone as seen in figure 3. 2Q
,

12A

Figure 3

Req .((6 Req .2

113

fl)

2)ll4

Req

12A

Figure 4 (12 A) (2 ) VReq VReq = -24 V Since Req is in parallel to the 4 identical, where: V42. VReq -24 V -24V =-6A 14
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resistor, the voltage across them are

From figure 3 it should be evident that the following expression is true: = j4W + 12 A i3 = 6 A resistors are in parallel, they are at the same and the 3 Since the 6 potential, V, but at opposite polarities (see Figure 3). 2 il=1 +i3 TM V -V 9 +6A 6 V--12V Therefore replacing the value of -12 V into the equations for individual currents, -(-12V) =2A 1 6
,,

15

-12V

-4A.

To complete the superposition technique, one now must sum the individual contributions of currents from each energy source considered separately. ii il+il.15+(2).17A i2i2+i2.1O(-4).6A 13.13+i3.5+6.liA 4i4+i4.5+(6)-1A Superposition is a useful technique for network analysis. It enables us to not only determine the current in each resistor in the network, but also the voltage across each element and the power dissipated within each resistance with only a bit more math. 1.2. Theory of Mesh Current Analysis Yet another technique of finding the currents within a network is by mesh current analysis. A mesh current is defined as the current which flows only within the perimeter of a particular window (or mesh) of the network. These windows, or meshes are identified by the dotted lines in figure 5. This particular example has 3 meshes. The mesh currents are identified as Ii, 12, and 13. Mesh current analysis is based upon Kirchhoffs voltage law, which states that the algebraic sum of all the voltages around any closed path in a circuit equals zero, or that: Iv0 As an example, we will analyze the same network as was done in the section on superposition. 6a 2

120 V

12A

Figure 5

S
16

Lets sum the voltage drops around loop 1: -120 V + (li)(6 ) + (I1-12)(3 ) 0 Mesh Equation 1 The direction of current flow In the mesh determines the polarity of the voltage drop across an element. For a positive voltage crop, current must flow from a high potential (+) to a lower potential (-). In the voltage supply in figure 5, current traveling clockwise flows from a low (-) to a high potential (+), therefore the voltage difference across the supply is a negative voltage drop., To represent this negative voltage drop the potential difference is written in the equation as a -120 V. Summing the voltage drops around loop 2: Mesh Equation 2 (l2-l1)(3 ) + (l2)(2) + (I2-l3)(41) 0 The current 13 in mesh 3 Is equal to the current supplied by the source, or: Mesh Equation 3 13 12 A. By combining .like terms in mesh equations 1 and 2, and replacing the solution for 13, it can be found that the mesh currents are equal to: Ii = 17A 12=11A 13 = 12 A Using the notation from figure 1 to find the individual currents it is found that, i =11 =17A i2=(I1 -12)=6A i3 = 12=11 A i4=(l2-l3)-1A These exactly match those currents found by the method of superposition. 1.3. Nodal Analysis Theory A third method commonly used to analyze a network is referred to as nodal analysis. This technique is based on another of Kirchhoffs basic laws Kirchhoffs current law, which states that the algebraic sum of all the currents at any node in a circuit equals zero. Using the circuit shown in figure 1, we will

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analysis. find the voltage drops across the four resistances using nodal 2 B A 6

120V

12A

Figure 6 on the In figure 6 the two nodes are labeled as node A and node B. As drawn, ts that figure, there are three currents that enter node A and also three curren a node enter into node B. From KirchhoflS law, the sum of all the currents into must equal zero, so for the two nodes: NodeA ia+ib+ic=0 Node B. id + ie + if =0 We now must write equations for these currents in terms of the. voltage at Vb the , the node, where Va is the voltage difference from node A to ground and voltage difference from node B to ground. 120-Va a. 0-Va ib = yb-Va 1C 2 Q b. Va-V id 0-Vb = 4 if=-12A that Replacing these currents into the two nodal equations, we find Va=18V Vb=-4V ns, it is found that: Replacing the known voltages into the node current equatio ia = 17 A lb = -6 A Ic = Id = -11 A ie=1A if=-12A. 1 would equal Therefore the branch currents as drawn in figure
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iiia17A ib 6 A 2 3idil A i4-ie.-1 A These currents are identical to those currents found with the other three methods of network analysis.
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1.4. Thevenin Equivalents If we are interested in finding the current delivered to one particular to element in a network (called the load resistance RL), sometimes it is best s with two represent the circuit equivalently as a single voltage source in serie resistances depicted in figure 7.

RI RL Voc

Figure 7 ars The thevenin voltage source Voc is equal to the voltage which appe The resistance RI across the terminals of the open circuited load resistance RL. ars across the is the equivalent resistance of the entire network that appe gy sources are terminals of the open circuited load resistance when the ener ork from figure 1. removed. As an example, we will again use the netw open circuit the load Choosing the load resistance to be the 2 Q resistor, we and B in figure 8. and find Voc appearing across the terminals, marked A

120V

[: : Ti
19

B
p
+

4fl

12A

Figure 8

Using Kirchhoffs voltage law, the sum of the voltages in the center loop equals zero,

-V3c2+Voc+V4c.o

3 we will sum the voltages around the left To find an expression for V loop. Since there is an open circuit where current can not flow between points A and B, all the current Ii flowing through the 6 fl resistor will continue down into the 3 resistor to ground. -120 V+li (6c1)+l (3).0 Ii. 13 A V3fl(l1)(3).40V The current flowing in the right loop as drawn by the dotted arrow on figure 8 is equal to -12 A. The voltage across the 4 fl resistor is then: V4.(-12A)(4a)-48V Therefore the open circuit voltage is equal to: VoC=V3-V4188V. To find the equivalent resistance of the network appearing across terminals A B, we remove the sources and keep the load resistance open circuited. 6
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This may also be drawn as:

Figure 9 From figure 9 it is easy to calculate the equivalent thevenin resistance Rj as RI=(6II31)+4=6 and Rj into figure 7, it is seen that the Replacing the calculated. values for current passing into the 2 load resistance, is equal to 88 00 V =1 1= (Rj + RL) =6 + 2

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Again, we find that the current through the 2 Q resistance is 11 A, which exactly matches the current found with the other techniques descnbed earlier. 2. Prelab Calculations Include these calculations along with your group report for experiment #2 These calculations must be completed before you begin this lab. 2.1 SuperposItion Using the technique of superposition, calculate the voltages across each resistor and currents through each resistor for the network given in figure 10. 2.2 Mesh Current Using the technique of mesh current, calculate the three mesh currents for the network in figure 10. 2.3 Node Voltage Using nodal analysis, find the voltage from node A to grbund and the voltage from node B to ground for the circuit in figure 10. 2.4 Thevenin 00 and RI if the 510 Using standard thevenin equivalents, find V is considered to be the load resistance.

resistor

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3. Experiment The purpose of this experiment is to verily the four theorems discussed in the first section. The network that will be studieq is shown in figure 10. Since we havent any constant current sources available to us, we will use only voltage sources. Equipment: Variable AC/DC Power Supply Digital Multimeter 1/4 Watt, 5% Resistors A 510 B 2201

820fl

E1=1OV

E2=1OV

Figure 10 3.1 Using the Variable DC Power Supply The supply to the far left of the Variable AC/DC Power Supply can deliver 1 and verify up to a DC voltage of 20 V. Set the output of the supply to +10 V this output with the digital voltmeter. After the output is set, turn off the power to the DC supply until you are ready to start the first experiment. 3.2 Superposition a. Construct the circuit shown in figure 10. To prove the theory of superposition, we will first remove E2 (short circuit E2), and find the voltage appearing across each resistance with only El connected. Be careful to maintain the same voltage polarity throughout the experiment. As an example, we could say that a positive voltage drop indicates that the left side of a resistor is positive and the right side is negative, as drawn on the figure. b. After measuring the resistors voltages due to El alone, find each resistoFs voltage due to E2 alone, being careful to maintain the same polarity used earlier.

I
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c. Connect both Ei and E2 and measure the voltage appearing across each resistance due to the combined effects of the voltage sources. How closely do these voltages compare to those found by superposition? 3.2 Mesh Currents Measunng current is more difficult than measuring voltages. To measure current flowing into a resistor, you must place the digital ammeter in series with the resistor. (Note: When finding voltage you place the voltmeter in parallel with the element you are studying). Therefore, to find the current flowing in the resistor, you must reconfigure the circuit to place the ammeter in s6ries 220 between the voltage supply and the resistor. The left-most mesh current will be the current in the 220 fl resistor. The center mesh current will be the current resistor. The right-most mesh current will be the current through the 510 which passes through the 820 resistor. Using the circuit in figure 10, measure these three mesh currents using the ammeter. How closely do they match the theoretical mesh currents? Using the circuit in figure 10, measure the two node voltages as referred to ground. The voltage Va will appear from node A to ground, and Vb will appear from node B to ground. How closely do these match your predicted node voltages? 3.4 Thevenin a. Agin using the circuit in figure 10, find the open circuit voltage across by measuring the voltage which appears across the load resistance of 510 the open circuit terminals where the load resistance used to be. Then remove the sources (short El and E2) and measure with the digital ohmmeter the equivalent thevenin resistance that appears across the open circuited terminals of RL. How well does this compare with what you calculated? b. Now replace the load resistance of 510 2 with the decade resistor box. At the lower resistance values, take measurements quickly to avoid causing any damage to the resistance box due to prolonged exposure to to 10 k2 while excessive amounts current. Vary the resistance from 10 measuring the voltage across RL. Simultaneously calculate the power delivered to the load at each resistance value.

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4. Data Sheets Superposition El alone Theoretical: Experimental: Percent Error: E2 alone Theoretical: Experimental: Percent Error: Ei and E2 Theoretical: Experimental: Percent Error: Mesh Currents Thearetical: Experimental: Percent Error: Node Voltages Theoretical: Experimental: Percent Error: Thevenin Equivalents Theoretical: Experimental: Percent Error: V22Oc V330fl V51p V750fl V820fl

Ii

12

13

Va

Vb

0 V 0

R,

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Thevenin Equivalents and the Maximum Power delivered to a Load Resistance

5. Report Each person is to submit the following: 5.1 A one page summary of the entire lab which reviews what was learned in this experiment. As a group, submit the following: 5.2 Data sheets from the experiment, which include theoretical and experimental results. 5.3 Graph of the data from 3.4 (b) on one graph plot PL, IL, and VL as a function of RL. Determine the value of RL where PL is maximum. (Note: It may be best to use three different y-axes scalings for the plot of ft. IL. and VL.)
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5.4 Draw the thevenin equivalent circuit for the network studied in the experiment using experimental values obtained for .Ioc and Rj. thevenin 5.5 Prove that power delivered to the load resistance from the definition equivalent circuit is a maximum when RL = R. Start with the basic that: 2 RL ft = (IL) your work. 5.6 Submit completed prelab calculations for lab#2 showing all of Enter your theoretical results into the lab #2 data sheets.

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B- 128

RUTGERS UNIVERSY The State University of New Jersey College of Engineering Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 330:375 Elements of Electrical Engineering Laboratory Experiment 3 Sinusoidal Steady State Response
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This lab demonstrates techniques of circuit analysis using phasor representation. The phenomenon of resonance in a series RLC circuit will also be investigated. 1. Phasor Representation of a Sinusoidal Signs Phasor representation enables us to analyze a circuit in which the input signal is sinusoidal, written as: vrVmSifl(wt+e) or sin (wt + 0) where the Vm (or lm) is the amplitude of the sinusoidal Wave, w is the angular frequency of the sinusoid in radians/sec, and a is the phase shift of the sinusoid in degrees. Figure 1 provides an example of how to develop such an equation for any sinusoidal signal. This particular general form of the equation given above is referred to as the instantaneous voltage (or current) equation. V(t)
Vmi Vm2

vi
(m2

sin(wt)
wt (radians)

Vrri

Figure 1

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It is often important to compare the ability of a time varying voltage (or current) to deliver energy to a resistor with the ability of a constant or dc voltage (or current) to deliver energy to a resistor. To make this comparison, we must use the effective, or mis, value of the sinusoid. The effective value of voltage Is derived from the definition Veff. For a sinusoidal input voltage v, the effective value reduces to Veff .!fl .707 Vm which is equal to the amplitude of the sinusoidai wave divided by Y. By convention, phasor notation uses the effective value to represent a sinusoidal wave, which is then expressed as a capital letter. The phasor representation of the sinusoidal voltage signal would then be:

ve

The sinusoidal current would be equal to: Phasor representation gives a simple way to analyze a circuits sinusoidal steady state response without complicated mathematics. 1.2 Phasor Represent?tion of Circuit Elements The impedance of a capacitor may be represented as:

zc=j=4)
To represent this impedance as a phasor, it is important to first understand the role of the imaginary -j term. The imaginary j term is equal to fT, and it gives us information about the phase shift produced by an element. A 900, and a negative j positive j corresponds to a phase shift of positive corresponds to a phase shift of negative 900. Therefore the impedance of a capacitor may be represented in phasor notation as: ZC=-td 900 wC The impedance of an inductor is written as: = jwL

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phasor notation, this is equal to: WC 9O In Since resistance is purely positive and real (because there is no j term), the o This is represented in phasor phase shift associated with a resistor is 0 notation as: ZR-R0 A phasor diagram of these three elements is presented in figure 2. The y axis is the imaginary axis, and the x axis is the real axis. Imaginary Axis wL

R
1/(wC)

r-eai xts

Figure 2 of A phasor diagram, like the example in figure 2, shows the impedance rules as each element as a vector, and these phasors follow the same are also vectors in the way that they add and subtract. Phasor diagrams ts in a used to show phase and magnitude relations between the elemen impedance circuit. Although the example used here was the phasor ts for the diagram, you may also draw phasor diagrams for voltages or curren individual elements.

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1.3 Polar to Rectangular and Back To change from phasor representation in polar form to that of a rectangular form Is performed as: Y.x.o Y X cose + j X sing You will notice that in the rectangular form, the expression is of two separate parts a real term and an Imaginary term. In the rectangular form of the expression, you may add and subtract a number of terms together by adding real terms together to find the total real term, and then adding all the imaginary terms together to obtain one complete imaginary term. To change from rectangular to polar phasor notation, you do the
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following: YA+jB +B ofY=YA Magnitude 2 To perform any multiplication or division of complex terms, each term must be in polar notation. When performing multiplication, the magnitudes of each term get multiplied together, and the angles of each term sum together. (Acz) x (Bp) = AB(a+f3) To perform division, divide the magnitudes of the two terms, and subtract the angle of the denominator from the angle of the numerator:
=

(B4)

1.4 Series R-L and R-C Networks Once a capacitance or inductance is in its complex impedance form, it will follow the same rules as does a resistor in terms of series and parallel circuit reduction namely elements in series Will add together, and etements in parallel will sum as: 1 1 1
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However, keep in mind that addition/subtraction must be performed on variables in rectangular form and that real terms and imaginary terms must remain separate.

I
30

Series RLC Resonance Since capacitors and inductors have impedances that are dependent voltages across these on 1.5 angular frequency, you might also guess that the elements are also frequency dependent. Therefore, in a RLC circuit there will be a frequency at which the output voltage will be in phase with the input voltage. At this frequency, known as the resonance frequency, there will be no phase shift between the input and output voltages. At resonance, the magnitude of the voltage across the capacitor exactly matches the magnitude of the voltage across the inductor, and since these elements are 1800 out of phase on the imaginary axis, these two voltages will cancel one will another. The only voltage drop in the series RLC circuit at resonance occur across the resistor, and therefore the output will be at its greatest magnitude at resonance. Since a resistance will not produce any phase change at the output, the output voltage will be in phase with the input the signal. At any other frequency, there is a voltage drop not only across resistor, but also across the inductor and capacitor as well and the output hat of voltage magnitude is less than at resonance, and there will be somew a phase shift between input and output. For a series RLC circuit, the resonance frequency (ceo) can be determined by the equation: A typical graph of the output voltage as a function of angular it is frequency is given in figures 3a and 3b. To describe this curve, ation important to locate the resonance frequency, to find out inform the curve regarding power delivery, and also to determine the sharpness of series RLC surrounding resonance (compare figures 3a and 3b). For a called the circuit, frequency range of useful output signal amplitude, the power bandwidth, is defined as the range of frequency for which delivered to R at delivered to R is greater than or equal to times the power response curve, resonance (P). By virtue of the shape of the frequency X R is equal to there are two frequencies at which the power delivered to points. These points . These two points are known as the half power 0 P where the halt power may also be found using output voltage relations,

31

points are located by the two points where the output voltage is equal to: 0 V Vout. 0 is equal to the maximum voltage at resonance. where V The bandwidth is the angular frequency range between the upper and lower half power points, which can also be found by: As you can see, the bandwidth of a series RLC circuit depends only on the ratio of R to L The resonance frequency of a series RLC circuit depends only on the values selected for L and C. The relative sharpness of a frequency response is determined by a value known as the quality factor (0), equal to:
=

Wbw

32

Vm

_____

.7O7Vm

V (Volts)

/)l

I I

I I,

I;
I I I

: : :

Bandwidth

I
I Jr

I I
I I
I

I I.

cal

0)0

w2

Figure 3a

Vm .7O7Vm

V (Volts) Bandwidth

ci)1 (i)O0)2

Ci)

Figure 3b
33

2. Prelab Calculations Complete these calculations and submit your results along with your lab write up for experiment #3. These must be completed before beginning this lab. 2.1 R-C Network Refer to figure 4 below. Compute values for R and C such that the total series impedance 2 500 -36.1 a when f = 10 kHz. Record the values on the data sheet provided for lab #3.

+1
V R -VR+ Figure 4

2.2 R-L Network Refer to figure 5 below. Compute the value for R when L = 5 mH such that the magnitude of the series impedance Z = 500 at f = 10 kHz. Record the value of R on the data sheets provided for lab#3.

Vs

VL

VR Figure 5

34

3. Experiment The purpose of this experiment is to study the phase relationships of elements in a passive network containing resistors and energy storage devices. Equipment: Variable AC)DC Power Supply Digital Multimeter Resistance Capacitance Substituter Inductance Substituter Oscilloscope
-

3.1 Conventions The oscilloscope shows the actual or instantaneous voltage as a function of time, however the digital voltmeter records RMS or effective voltages equal to the instantaneous voltage divided by 1. Within these lab instructions, a subscript of RMS will be included if that measurement is intended as an effective or RMS value. If there is not a subscript on the value, it is assumed to be given as an instantaneous value. You will be required to record both instantaneous and effective voltages on the data sheets. 3.2 R-C Network Set up the circuit from figure 4 using the component values determined in your prelab calculations. Adjust the magnitude of the supply voltage so that you deliver 1 mA of current through the series resistance R. (This is accomplished changing the input signal voltage until VRmax = R X 1 mA on the oscilloscope.) Then adjust input signal frequency to be 10 kHz.

35

 Measure the magnitudes of VR, VS. and VC using the oscilloscope. An important thing to realize is that in order to measure the voltage across an element with the oscilloscope, that element you wish to record from must be connected to the (-) terminal of the supply voltage. Therefore if the circuit is in the configuration In figure 7, only VS and VR may be recorded. To measure Vc, one must switch the order of the series components so that the resistor is connected to the (+) terminal of the supply, and the capacitor IS connected to the (-) terminal. Another subtle point is that you must only connect the positive terminal of the BNC connection box to the element you wish to measure voltage across (seefigure. 7). Connecting both the positive and negative terminals of the BNC box will cause that element to be short circuited, and thus removed from the network. Remember that these magnitudes read off the oscilloscope are instantaneous values.

I
oscilloscope to oscilloscope supply

Figure 7

I
36

Measure the phase angle between yR and VS where we know that VS. the phase angle of VR = 0 and is therefore the reference to obtain Record this angle on the data sheets. The phase angle is measured using the oscilloscope in the dual trace mode, where you may view both images simultaneously. Adjust the volts/division until both images just fill the screen vertically. Then adjust the time/division until you see only one half of the sinusoidal wave, corresponding to 1800. You then can count the number of divisions that make up this 180 in order to calculate the number of degrees per division. Since there are 5 smaller hash marks for each division, for higher accuracy yoi.t may also want to calculate the number of degrees per hash mark. It is important to record the sign of the angle (either + or -) as well as the magnitude of the phase shift. On the oscilloscope tracing, a shift to the right indicates a negative angle (a lag), whereas a positive angle (a lead) will appear as a left shifted trace. This follows from the fact that the x axis of the oscilloscope tracing is a standard graph of time, therefore time increases to the right. A trace to the right isat a later time than a trace to the left. This means that the trace to the right is lagging the left tracing, corresponding to a negative phase angle.

3.3 R-L Network Set the inductance substituter to the inductance value determined in your prelab calculations. Using the digital multimeter as a DC ohmmeter, this measure the inherent DC series resistance of the inductor. Record value on the data sheets provided. values Set up the circuit tram figure 5 using the component the R-C determined in your prelab calculations. Readjust the resistance of that the box to compensate for the series DC resistance of the inductor, so of the supply total series resistance is still equal to R. Adjust the magnitude h the new voltage so that you deliver 1 mA(max) of current throug compensated resistance R. Measure the magnitudes of VR, VS, and VL using the oscilloscope. Record these values on the data sheets. and Measure only the phase angle (include the sign) between VR VS. Record this value on the data sheets.
37

3.4 Series R-L-C Network (compensate this value with Arrange a series circuit with R 100 the DC resistance of the inductance), using the values for C and L used above, and f 10 kHz. Adjust the series current to be equal to 10 mA(max). Measure the four voltages and enter on the data sheets. Measure only the phase shift (include sign) between VS and VR. 3.5 Resonance Using the same series R-L-C circuit as in 3.4, measure VR, VC and voltage will VL as functions of frequency from 2 kHz to 20 kHz. The source tend to change as the frequency is changed, therefore to save tedious calculations later, vary the source voltage to keep VSmax 1.0 V. This is done using the digital voltmeter connected in parallel to VS (remember that V. the multimeter reads in RMS, therefore to maintain an instantaneous 1.0 the multimeter must read .707 VRMS). This section proceeds more quickly if you set up one circuit to measure VR, then vary the frequency from 2 kHz to 20 kHz recording only frequency as VR. Then switch the circuit to measure, say VC, and vary the described while recording only VC, and so on for VL. Determine the frequency of the one half power points by finding the two points above and below resonance at which VR = .707 VRmax. Record these values on the data sheets and then calculate bandwidth from the two power points, and also determine the quality factor from your data. 4. Data Series R C Network From Prelab Calculations:
-

A C Network IVR1
-

Magnitude (Volts)

IVsI IVcI
Phase_Angle__VS Measured Calculated 1 Calculated 1 Calculated 1
*

write up. These calculated values are determined later in the tab report 38

 Series R L Network A= From Prelab Calculation: DC Resistance of the Inductor: AL

-

Magnitude (Volts)

R- L Network
IVRI

IVsI IVLI
Phase_Angle__VS Measured Calculated_1 Calculated_1 Calculated_1 Series A -L- C Network R L C Network IVRI
-

Magnitude (Volts)

IVsI IVcI IVLI

Phase_Angle_ VS Measured Calculated 1 Calculated_1 Calculated_1

39

R-L-C f (kHz)

Series w (krad/s)

VR (Volts)

VC (Volts)

VL (Volts)

S
40

Series RLC VR

Wh

WL

Bandwidth

Measured Calculated

These values are theoretical calculated from the values of R, L arid C.

41

5. Report Each person is to submit the following: 5.1 A one page summary of the entire lab which reviews what was learned in this experiment. As a group, submit the following: 5.2 Data sheets from the experiment, which include any theoreticai and experimental results.
V

5.3 Draw an accurate phasor diagram of the three voltages measured in the series R C circuit. Remember that VR has a 0 phase angle, and VC is at -90 from VR. Using this diagram and your knowledge of trigonometry, derive 3 expressions for the phase angle between VS and VR, such as:
-

e=.sin1(J Enter the results of these three calculated phase angles into your data tables. Draw an accurate phasor diagram of the three voltages measured in Using this diagram and your knowledge of the series R L circuit. trigonometry, derive 3 expressions for the phase angle between VS and VR. Enter the results of these three calculated phase angles into your data tables.
V

5.4 Draw an accurate phasor diagram of the four voltages from the series R L C circuit. Derive three expressions for the phase angle between VS and VR from the phasor diagram. Enter these results onto the data sheets. VR 5.5 From the section of the lab on resonance, plot on separate graphs
-

VL

and

VC

as a function of

where 1 2 1 (LC)
V

0=
V

Locate and label on the points, and bandwidth.

VR

graph, the resonance frequency, one half power

5.5 Submit completed prelab calculations for lab #3 showing all of your work. Enter your theoretical results into the lab #3 data sheets.
42

B-129

RUTGERS UNIVERSITY The State University of New Jersey College of Engineering Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

330:375 Elements of Electrical Engineering Laboratory

Experiment 4 Using Laplace Transform for Time Domain Analysis
-

This lab demonstrates the use of Laplace transform analysis to determine the transient time response of a network. 1. Introduction to the Laplace Transform The Laplace transform is a mathematical transformation that simplifies r complicated functions, such as differentiation and integration, Into simple algebraic functions such as multiplication and division. The Laplace transform of a function is given by the expression
1(t) eSt 0 where the symbol L { f(t)) means the Laplace transform of the function f(t). The Laplace transform is often denoted by the notation of F(s), or, L{f(t))=F(s). l has This notation helps to remind us that once the Laplace transform integra es been evaluated, the resulting expression is a function of the complex variabl The which has the dimension of frequency, and is no longer a function of time. into the Laplace transform thus transforms a function from the time domain 1(t) frequency domain F(s). given Although you may prove for yourself the Laplace transform for any determined by f(t), most of the more common transforms are more easily in your text. referring to a Laplace transform pair table, such as the one given sin wI, I, eat, This table consists of a number of functional transforms (such as . Operational e etc.) that have been already transformed into the Laplac domain operations on f(t) transforms, those transforms concerned with mathematical been proven for you in (such as the transform of the derivative of 1(t)), have also yourtext. L{f(t))=

43

2. Using the Laplace Transform As an example of using the Laplace transform to determine the response of a network to an input driving function, we will analyze the series R-L-C circuit given in figure 1. C S

II
+

i(t)

R Figure 1 If we wish to describe the current i(t) which flows through this network, we write an integrodifferential equation which describes the voltage across each element in terms of 1(t) after the switch is closed at 1=0, V = i(t)R + L + fi(t)dt. We wish to find a single equation that describes 1(t) from this complicated mathematical expression. To solve for 1(t), we must use the technique of Laplace transformation in order to reduce the complexity of the mathematics involved. To transform this complicated expression into the Laplace domain, we take the Laplace transform of each side of the equation to find an expression for I(s). L (v
=

i(t)R

fi(t)dt).

This is evaluated by finding the Laplace transform of each individual term (l L fitdt). (v) =L (i(t)R) +L(L dI(ilj The driving function of DC voltage is applied to the circuit only after the switch has been thrown at 1=0. This driving function is a step function of magnitude V

44

table, the that begins at time equal to zero. According to the Laplace transform transform of a step input is equal to L(V)_. The next term Is the current 1(t) times a constant R, which transforms to L (I(t)R) R i(s). current The third term contains an operational transform of the derivative of the multiplied by a constant L This term has a Laplace transform equal to L(L

dL(il)

L (si(s)

(0))

where 1(0) Is the initial current through the circuit when t contains the integral of the current, which transforms into + i1(0)) L( fi(t)dt)_ (!I!1

0. The last term

applying the The term 1(0) is the initial value of the integral term just before source function. The complete expression in the Laplace domain is then 11(0)) .+ +.(1 =RI(s)+L(sl(s) i(O))
-

Solving this expression for i(s), we obtain i1(Q) V (0) 1 i V +si(0)- LC sC 1 R 1 = R+sL+ s2+s()+

1(0) and i1 (0) This expression may be simplified if we say that the initial values are equal to zero. The Laplace domain current I(s) is then V V
I(s)

2 s

sJ

(s-sl)(s-s2)

2 term is equal to 1 in the denominator of the When the coefficient of the s characteristic to as the TM Laplace domain equation, the denominator is referred d into (s-s 1 )(s-s2) in order equation. The characteristic equation must be factore of i(s) in the Laplace domain. to determine the time solution of i(t) from solution By partial fractions, I(s) may be written as
(s-si) + (s-s2) ted. The corresponding where Ki and 1<2 are constants that must be evalua rm pair table would be solution in time according to the Laplace transfo
=

i(s)

45

t 1 1 eS i(t). K

eS 2 K t

From this result, one can see that the transient time solution of 1(t) depends on the roots i and S2 of the characteristic equation. The roots Si and S2 may be determined from the quadratic formula, -b Ib 2 4ac S1,S2 2a The solution the term gb2 4ac determines whether the roots s and S2 will be real or complex. Zeta () is known as the damping coefficient of the
-

is one. If is less than one ( is quadratic term. The critical value of underdamped), the solution of gb2 4ac is negative and the the roots of the quadratic factor are complex. If is equal to one ( is cntically damped), the solution of 4b2 4ac is equal to zero, and the roots of the quadratic are repeated real roots (si = s2) If Is greater than one ( is overdamped) the solution of -,db2 4ac is positive, and the quadratic may be factored with its two
-

real roots, (s+sl )(s+s2). For less than one, we can rewrite the characteristic equation in terms of and (ifl, the uridamped natural radian frequency, where s2+s()+j =s +2wns+ wn2=(s+on)2+wd 2 Where COd is the damped frequency of oscillation and is equivalent to COd wnJi2 By comparison of like terms on either side of this equation, it can be seen that
=

and
2Wn=.

Wd Using the Laplace transform tables, the corresponding time domain solution is equal to t)(sincOd t). 4 (e i(t) =
+

The expression for I(s) may be rewritten in terms of V V L = 2 (OdL (s+ (O) 2 + (3d (s+ CO) 2

and COd as

v-coL

I
46

Prelab Calculations Complete these calculations and submit your results along with your lab write up for experiment #4. These must be completed before beginning this lab. 2. 2.1 Step Response of an Underdamped RLC Network For the network in figure 2, calculate the Laplace domain solution for the (s) 0 V te transfer function, v(s) . Using a value of L 4.0 mH and C .2 l.F, calcula in the undamped natural radian frequency con, and the damping coefficient = 0.7, 0.1, and terms. of R. From this equation, determine the value of R for 1 solve for the 0.01. Using these values of R and assuming a step input of 10 V first time after the step when the output will reach the first maximum and these minimum. Using the complete solution of VoUt(t), determine the voltage at theoretical maxima and minima when the input step is 10 volts. Enter your results onto the data sheets of lab 5. R sp
,

Vin=IOV

Vout

Figure 2 te time domain Laplace transformation has enabled us to find a comple equations of i(t). solution for i(t) from a set of complicated integrodifferential

47

2.2 Step Response of a Critically Damped RLC Network For the network in figure 3, calculate the Laplace domain solution for the (s) 0 V transfer function, vj(s) Again using L 4.0 mH and C 0.2 iiF, calculate (On and in terms of R. From these equations, calculate the value of R which will result in a critically damped response. Enter this value on the data sheets for
.

lab 5.

Vin1OV

Vout

Figure 3

48

3. Experiment The purpose of this experiment is to learn of the uses of the Laplace transform to predict the response of a circuit to a step Input. Equipment: Variable AC/DC Power Supply Digital Multimeter Resistance Capacitance Substituter Inductance Substituter Oscilloscope
-

3.1 Step Response of an A L C Network function Construct the circuit shown in figure 2, and connect the and Vout. While a function generator generator to Vr and the scope to both ently long cannot produce a true step functlon,a square wave with a suffici by the function period is generally adequate. The square wave that is produced V In order to produce the desired step generator typically oscillates between
.

such that the input, you must first adjust the DC offset of the AC signal generator up to V input square wave mimics a step input that starts at zero and steps Volts on the oscilloscope. r the Starting with an input square wave of about 200 Hz, monito ncy so that most response of the circuit on the scope and adjust the input freque begins. of the transient response is over before the next square wave time and For each value of R calculated in part 2.1, carefully measure the the data on the sheets voltage values f the first maximum and minimum. Enter provided. 3.2 Critically Damped Network st A to the value Construct the network shown in figure 3, and adju as was used in part 3.1, calculated in part 2.2. Using the same step input Vin the output signal follows vary R to obtain a critically damped response where Ntrimmedw value of R with the the step as closely as possible. Measure this new sheets. Using the ohmmeter, digital ohmmeter and enter this value on the data on your data sheets. measure the DC resistance of the inductor and enter RL

49

4. Data Sheets Stec Resoonse of an Underdamoed R L C Network First Minimum First Maximum R () 0 (Volts) 0 (Volts) t (psec) V I (jisec) V CaIc u latd 0.7 Theoretical Calculated 0.1 Theoretical Calculated 0.01 Theoretical

Critically Damped Network Theoretical Resistance for Critical Damping R= Actual Resistance Required for Critical Damping R= Actual DC Resistance of the Inductor RL=

5t)

5. Report Each person is to submit the following: 5.1 A one page summary of the entire lab which reviews what was learned in this experiment. As a group, submit the following: 5.2 Data sheets from the experiment, which include any theoretical and experimental results. 5.3 In the calculations of part 2.2. the inductor was assumed to be ideal, although it has a significant non zero series DC resistance (RL). Alter the network of figure 3 to include this component and derive the characteristic equation for this altered network. Using the value of inductive resistance measured in part 3.2 and the resistance actual value required for critical damping, determine whether this departure from ideal significantly alters the damping factor or the undamped natural radian frequency COn.

51

8-130 RUTGERS UNIVERSITY The State University of New Jersey College of Engineering Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 330:375 Elements of Electrical Engineering Laboratory Experiment 5 Introduction to Operational Amplifiers
-

ent. It is The operational amplifier isa fundamental electronic circuit elem tion, subtraction, capable of performing mathematical operations such as addi signals. The multiplication, division, integration, and differentiation on input rent stages in an operational amplifier is also commonly used to isolate diffe electronic circuit. 1.1 Theory ier (op The best approach to understanding the ideal operational amplif nts such as amp) is to forget about the thousands of internal compone device simply in transistors, diodes, resistors and capacitors, and consider the vior rather than terms of its inputs and output. We therefore will stress its beha its internal operation. es around the Currently, op amps are made by a number of compani aining from one to world, and are available in several different packages cont riment, the i.A741, four op amps. The op amp that will be used in this expe an eight pin package as contains only one amplifier, and is fabricated into shown in figure 1. The terminals of primary interest are: 1. the inverting input, 2. the rioninverting input, 3. the output, 4. the positive power supply (V+), and 5. the negative power supply (Vj.

5.3

Balance
Inverting Input

NC 2 3 7 6 Output
Balance

Noninverting Input

v-g4
Figure 1

The other terminals are of little or no concern to us. The two balance inputs are primarily used to compensate for problems caused by aging of the amplifier and temperature induced errors which are in most cases negligible. The other terminal is of no interest because it is an unused terminal not connected to the internal amplifier circuit: NC stands for no connection. The circuit symbol for the idealized operational amplifier containing the five terminals of primary interest is shown in figure 2. Because it is inconvenient to use word labels for the terminals, terminal designation is simplified with the use of symbols. The noninverting input terminal Is labeled with a plus sign (+) and the Inverting terminal is labeled with a minus sign (-). The positive and negative power supplies to the amplifier are marked V+ and V respectively. On most op amp circuit representations, the power supply labels are not included in the symbol but are understood to be included in the design. The symbol for the op amp output is drawn at the apex of the triangle.

v+
3
VP

7 Vo

Vn

4 V Figure 2

I
5q.

A positive-going signal at the inverting (-) input produces a negativegoing signal at the output, whereas the same signal at the noninverting (+) input produces a positive-going output signal. The amplifier responds only to the difference of the input voltage to the noninverting terminal (Vp) and the input voltage to the inverting terminal (v,.,). This voltage difference between the two input terminals is known as the differential voltage v where: vdvp-vn 0 will be Avd, where A is With a differential-input voltage v, the output voltage V the open loop gain of the amplifier, or that: 0 A Vd V Although the value of the open loop gain A is quite large, on the order of the magnitude of the output is limited by the range of the supply voltages, typically 15 volts. To understand the operational amplifier it is important to learn its ideal properties, seen in figure 3, which are: 1. The open loop voltage gain is infinite : A . 1= 2. The input resistance between the input terminals is infinite : r. 0 0. 3. The output resistance is zero : r 0 =0 if v 0. 4. There is zero input offset voltage : V

VP

Vd vn Vo

Figure 3 nal properties result, From these ideal characteristics two very important additio namely that: al and the 1. With the feedback loop closed between the output termin to the potential of Vp. V = Vp. inverting input terminal, V will be driven l i 0. 2. There is no current flow into either input terminal, =

5.

1.2 Basic Op-Amp Configurations As mentioned before, the open loop gain A of the op amp is extremely 0 is therefore 100,000 times larger large, typically 100,000. The output signal v than the differential Input voltage Vd. There are times that such large gain of the differential input signal is not required. We can control the gain of the op amp by the use of external elements, such as a feedback resistor that connects from the output terminal to the inverting (-) terminal of the op amp. Operational amplifiers are connected in two basic modes: (1) the inverting and (2) the naninverting configurations. 1.2.1 The Inverting Amplifier The most basic circuit for the inverting amplifier is shown in figure 4 where the (+) terminal is grounded and the input signal is applied to the (-) 1 connecting the output with a feedback resistor R terminal through a resistor Using the properties stated earlier we are able to determine to the (-) terminal the gain of the inverting amplifier.
.

RI

1
vo

RI n

yin

Figure 4 Since the (+) terminal is at zero potential (it is grounded), the (-) terminal must also be at zero potential, or at a virtual ground. If V is zero, the input equal , must appear across Rin, making the input current in 1 voltage signal Vj to

S
5

yin

n 1 1
must also flow Since no current can flow into the terminal of the op amp, in through Aj, or that If in across Rf and is negative due to the sign ars 0 appe The output voltage v Rf is inversion of the input signal in the amplifier. The current through 0 -V l Since in and l are equal, we can state that 0 -v yin Rin7 ier must equal: Therefore the gain or the outputlinput ratio for the inverting amplif The gain can be varied by adjusting either R or 1.2.2 The Noninverting Amplifier is applied In this configuration, shown in figure 5, the input voltage signal ponents that to the (+) terminal of the op amp. The external feedback com al. The gain determine the gain are always connected to the inverting (-) termin for the noninverting amplifier is equal to 0 V -in lithe feedback The gain may be varied by changing the values for Rf and Rin. is equal to 1, and resistor is short-circuited as in figure 6, or that R = 0, the gain This mode where the the output signal is an exact replica of the input voltage. follower configuration, and gain is equal 1, or unity gain is called the voltage circuit. is often used to isolate between different sections of a
,

57

Rf

Rin

vo

Figure 5

Ri n

I
vo

Figure 6

S
La

2. Preliminary Calculations b calculations with Complete all theoretical results and submit your prela results on the data sheets the report from the first lab. Be sure to enter your provided. the voltage follower circuit from 2.1 Determine the theoretical output voltage for figure 6 with Rj 4.7 k2 when 5VDC. 1 a) V b) VI,, = 5 V AC peak to peak at 1 kHz. 0 and current I for a noninverting ge V 2.2 Calculate the theoretical output volta is true: amplifier shown in figure 5 when the following a) Vjn =5 V DC, Ri,, 4.7 kQ and 0 and I. 1 = 100 calculate V I. R 0 and If. ii. R = 2.2 k calculate V 0 and l. iii. Rf = 4.7 k calculate V 0 and l. liii. Rf = 7.5 k2 calculate V ulate the theoretical output b) Let Rj = 4.7 k and Rf = 7.5 kfl. Calc 5 volts peak to peak, at 1 kHz. voltage when the input voltage is an AC signal 0 and current l for an inverting V 2.3 Calculate the theoretical output voltage is true: amplifier shown in figure 4 when the following a) Vin5VDC,.Rjn4.7kafld 0 and l. 1 =100 calculate V I. R 0 and I. ii. R = 2.2 k calculate V 0 and If. 1 = 4.7 kfl calculate V iii. R 0 and l. 1 = 7.5 kfl calculate V liii. R k2. Calculate the theoretical output b) Let Rj = 4.7 k2 and Rf = 7.5 signal 5 volts peak to peak, at 1 kHz. voltage when the input voltage is an AC

59

2.4 a) Calculate the resistance values required to implement the mathematic equation: 0 .1 x +2 y- z V This operation is accomplished using two op amps connected in series, where the output voltage of the first connected as an inverting summing amplifier, and is equal to: 1 V 0

=-(-

x+ y)

With careful selection of the resistance values, we can get the output: 01 =-.lx-2y V Enter the resistance values onto the lab 2 data sheets. Using a second inverting summing amplifier in the same configuration as in figure 8 we can perform: =-(V +z) 0 V 01 which will produce the result: 0 V
=
-

(-.1 x -2y +z)

When the resistance values are chosen appropriately for the two stages we will obtain the desired output, namely: =.lx+2y-z. 0 V b) Calculate the theoretical output voltage for the summing amplifier and enter your results onto the data sheets. I. Calculate the theoretical output voltage when the input voltages are equal to: 15 Volts DC y = 5 Volts DC z=5 Volts DC ii. Calculate the theoretical output voltage when the input voltages are equal to: -15 Volts DC y=5 Volts DC z=5VoltsDC

60

3. Experiment Equipment: Variable AC/DC Power Supply Digital Multimeter 2-Channel Oscilloscope 1/4 Watt, 5% Resistors Protoboard 3.1 Connecting the oscilloscope channel 2 Use the convention that channel I Is the Input signal and the trace Is the output signal and that the trace for channel 1 should be above for channel 2. 3.2 Connecting the protoboard in groups Please refer to figure 7. Vertical lines are connected internally set of 5 of live holes, which are not connected internally to the neighboring op amp is vertical holes. There is no connection between horizontal lines. The rates the plugged into the protoboard by straddling the wide band that sepa the op amp groups of 5 holes. This provides a convenient means to plug directly into the protoboard and do the necessary wiring. black The DC power supplies V+ and V- are connected to the red and s. This gives input plugs, and these then are wired to the power supply buse easy access to the power supplies to later connect to the op amp.

61

On the power supply buses, holes are connected horizontally but not vertically

:..:i --0.0. 0000 .0.0....... .0..

o
0.0.0.0.0.0.0.

,. . . ..... ...... A
0 .0.0.

.0.. .0. .0.0..

0.0.0.0.0.0. .0.. .0..

71 I
.... .:. ..... ..:.. , .... ... . . . . .
.0.. .0.0.

4) C O 0

:.

.s..:.

All 5 vertical holes are connected internally, yet neighbonng sets of 5 vertical holes are not internally connected.

\ The op amp plugs directly into the protoboard Figure 7

3.3 Voltage Follower DO NOT TURN THE POWER SUPPLY ON UNTIL YOUR INSTRUCTOR CHECKS YOUR WIRING. Construct the voltage follower of figure 6 onto the protoboard with Rj = 4.7 kfl. After the circuit has been checked and before powering up the op amp, verify that the DC supply voltage is 15 Volts, and that the current limit on your voltage supply is turned down to a minimum to protect the op amp. a) Record the output voltage seen on the oscilloscope when the input voltage is 5 volts DC. b) Record the output voltage seen on the oscilloscope when the input voltage is an AC signal 5 volts peak to peak, at 1 kHz.

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3.4 Noninverting Amplifier the protoboard with the Construct the noninverting amplifier of figure 5 on 4.7 kfl. After your circuit stance feedback resistor Rf 100 D and input resi has been checked, oscilloscope with the input a) I. Record the output voltage seen on the e this measured output voltage with voltage Vj equal to 5 V DC, and compar ). Place the amplifier (1 that expected with the gain of the noninverting . . Record the value of current If. 1 digital ammeter in series with R 0 and l. 1 by 2.2 k2 and measure V ii. Replace R 0 and l. iii. Replace Rf by 47 kQ and measure. V 0 and I. liii. Replace R by 7.5 k and measure V the output voltage seen on the b) With Rf equal to 7.5 k, record AC signal 5 volts peak to peak, at 1 oscilloscope when the input voltage is an
-

kHz. 3.5 Inverting Amplifier 4 on the protoboard with the Construct the inverting amplifier of figure stance Rj = 4.7 kG. After your circuit feedback resistor Rf = 100 and input resi has been checked, the oscilloscope with the input a) i. Record the output voltage seen on e this measured output voltage with voltage Vj equal to 5 V DC, and compar ). Place the digital amplifier (that expected with the gain of the inverting e of current If. ammeter in series withR. Record the valu 0 and If. ii. Replace Rf by 2.2 kG and measure V 0 and I. V iii. Replace R by 4.7 kG and measure 0 and I. V iiii. Replace Rf by 7.5 kG and measure rd the output voltage seen on the reco kG, 7.5 to al equ 1 R With b) AC signal 5 volts peak to peak, at 1 an is tage vol ut inp the n whe pe sco oscillo kHz.

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3.6 Op-Amp circuit for addition and subtraction Rf

vol

LR1

R2J

Figure 8 We wish to build an op amp circuit to pertorm the mathematic summation: 0 .1 x+2y-z V We need to construct the summing amplifier of figure 8 on the protoboard to implement a portion of the desired equation. The inverting summing amplifier shown in figure 8 has an output which follows the equation: .-(-x.y) 0 V 1 With careful selection of the resistance values, we can get the output: 01 =-(.1x+2y)-.1x-2y V Which is similar to the first part of our mathematic equation. Using a second summing amplifier in the same configuration as in figure 8 with inputs equal to 01 and z, the output will then be: V =-(V +z) 0 V 01 which wilt produce the result: 0 V
=
-

(-.1 x -2y

z)

Which results in the desired output, namely: =.lx2y-z. 0 V

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to ta voltages are a) Record the output voltage when the hip Cal5VoltsDC yeSVolteDC z.SVoIaDC voltages are equal to b) Record the output voltage when the Input Xa15VOItSOC y.5VoltsDC z..5VoltsDC

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4. Data Sheets experiment.

all theoretical results must be completed before beginning this

Voltage Follower Vin=5VOltDC Experimental: _Theoretical: , = 5 Volts peak to peak 1 V Experimental: Theoretical:

0 V

(peak to peak)

Noninverting Amplifier Vj=5VDC, Rf=1OO Experimental: Theoretical: Vjn5VDC, Rf2.2k Experimental: Theoretical: Vj =5 V DC, R = 4.7 k1 Experimental: Theoretical: Vi=5VDC, R=7.5k Experimental: Theoretical: Vj =5 V(pp) AC, 1 kHz Rf = 7.5 k Experimental: Theoretical:

Vo

If

Not measured Not Calculated

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Inverting Amplifier V=5VDC, R=1OO2 Experimental: Theoretical: Vj-5VDC, Rf=2.2kL2 Experimental: Theoretical: Vjn5VDC,Rf4.7k2 Experimental: Theoretical: VI=5VDC,Rf=7.5k Experimental: Theoretical: 11 =5 V(pp) AC, 1 kHz Vj Rf=7.5k Experimental: Theoretical:

0 V

Not measured Not Calculated

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Summing Amplifier Design: First Stage Ri R2. R. Second Stage RI. R2R. Summing Amplifier x 15 Volts DC y =5 Volts DC z =5 Volts DC x = -15 Volts DC y = 5 Volts DC z = 5 Volts DC 0 V Experimental: Theoretical: Experimental: Theoretical:

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5. Report Each person is to submit the following: which reviews what was learned in 5.1 A one page summary of the entire lab this lab. As a group, submit the following: r wn below) for the noninverting amplifie 5.2 1. Derive the gain equation (sho used in this experiment: 0 V 1 + E for a noninverting amplifier Gain tryin -in 1 for the ch describes the current l through R whi ii. Derive an expression eriment. How does the current I noninverting amplifier used in this exp h compare to that found theoretically wit measured experimentally in section 3.5 the expression derived? r n for an inverting summing amplifie 5.3 Derive the output voltage equatio 2 (input voltages): 1 and V sum of V where the output is negative of the scaled Vo=-(j- V1+jV2) ental and theoretical values. 5.4 Complete the data tables of experim onto ions for Lab #5 Enter your results ulat calc lab pre ed plet com mit Sub 5.5 the data sheets for lab #5.

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5. Report Each person is to submit the following: 5.1 A one page summary of the entire lab which reviews what was learned in this lab. As a group, submit the following: 5.2 i. Derive the gain equation (shown below) for the noninvertLng amplifier used in this experiment: V Gain V 1 1 + Rin for a noninverting amplifier ii. Derive an expression which describes the current I through Rf for the noninverting amplifier used in this experiment. How does the current lj measured experimentally in section 3.5 compare to that found theoretically with the expression derived?
1,

5.3 Derive the output voltage equation for an inverting summing amplifier where the output is negative of the scaled sum of V 1 and V2 (input voltages): V V2) + Vo-(j 1 5.4 Complete the data tables of experimental and theoretical values.

5.5 Submit completed prelab calculations for Lab #5. Enter your results onto
the data sheets for lab #5.

I
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