Can. Inst. Food Sci. Technol. J. Vol. 22, No. I, pp.

34-39, 1989
RESEARCH
A Relationship Between Colour Development
and Moisture Content During Roasting
of Peanuts
J .R. Moss and L. Otten
School of Engineering
University of Guelph
Guelph, Ontario, Canada
NlG2Wl
Abstract
Split redskin peanuts (var. Runner) were roasted in a through-
circulation, forced-hot-air batch roaster. Temperatures varied
from 157 to l7l C for roasts of 2 to 20 min in duration. Colour
was measured for all tests using the L*a*b* colour scale and com-
pared with the moisture content ratio of the nuts. The data sug-
gest that a correlation exists between the yellow-blue (b*) colour
scale and the moisture content ratio.
Resume
Des arachides a peau rouge cassees (var. Runner) furent roties
dans une rotissoire en discontinu aair force atravers. Les tempera-
tures ont varie de 157 a 171C pour des traitements de 2 a20 min.
Dans tous les cas la couleur fut mesuree al'aide de l'echelle colori-
metrique L*a*b* et comparee au ratio d'humidite des noix. Les don-
nees suggerent l'existence d'une correlation entre la couleur
jaune-bleue (b*) de l'echelle et le ratio d'humidite.
Introduction
Peanuts (Arachis hypogaea) currently rank as the
ninth most valuable cash crop in the United States
with a cash value of over one billion dollars. Ap-
proximately 65010 is consumed directly as confections,
peanut butter or boiled, roasted, salted, or candied
peanuts (Woodroof, 1983). Of these, peanut butter is
the major product and accounts for 37010 of the
domestic use of peanuts with an average annual per
capita consumption of 1.4 kg (Zamula, 1985).
Roasting is a critical step in peanut processing and
may be the most important unit process in the flavour
development of peanuts and peanut butter. Roasting
of peanuts can be accomplished in a number of ways.
The most common commercial method used in the
production of peanut butter is dry roasting but oil
roasting is also used. The through-circulation type
roaster is the most widely used dry-roasting method.
It works on the principle of blowing hot air through
a bed of peanuts passing continuously through a
chamber.
Young (personal communication) has done exten-
sive work on roaster optimization and has found that
the optimum process requires approximately five
separate heating zones to raise the temperature of the
nuts slowly to the roasting temperature. He found
that peanuts roasted at lower temperatures for longer
periods of time developed the best flavour due to a
more even roast. The nuts also exhibited a longer
shelf life due to the more even temperature distribu-
tion resulting in a higher probability of total enzyme
inactivation.
Drying
In general, the drying process of a material may be
divided into a constant-rate period and one or more
falling-rate periods. For many foods the change from
constant-rate drying to falling-rate drying occurs at a
water activity value between 0.58 and 0.65 (Earle,
1983). The water activity for peanuts (variety Run-
ner) at an equilibrium moisture content of about
5.6% (dry basis) at 25C would be under 0.45
(lglesias and Chirife, 1982). Therefore, it is expected
that the nuts coming out of storage are either at or
near the critical point at which falling-rate drying oc-
curs and should generally exhibit falling-rate drying
characteristics during roasting.
The most widely investigated theoretical drying
model has been Fick's second law of diffusion. Al-
though it has been used to describe the falling-rate
drying period, many of the assumptions required to
use this law as a drying equation for agricultural and
food products have been found to be invalid.
However, even with its inherent limitations, drying
curves of many food products have been successful-
ly predicted using Fick's law.
The first term of a general series solution to Fick's
law was used by Henderson and Pabis (1961) to
predict the drying curve of corn:
MR = (M-Me)/(Mo-Me ) = Ao exp(-kot) (I)
The model was found to be accurate after one or
two hours of drying but not during the initial period.
They explained that the poor fit during the initial
stages was probably due to the greater temperature
difference between the kernel and the air near the
Copyright cO 1989 Canadian Institute of Food Science and Technology
34
A simpler model, known as the logarithmic model,
was proposed by Lewis in 1921 (cited in Sharaf-El-
deen et al. , 1979):
Page's equation has produced good fits in predict-
ing drying of short grain and medium rough rice
(Wang and Singh, 1978), soybeans (White et al., 1981)
and white beans (Otten and Brown, 1985). It is one
of the most successful models in predicting the total
drying curve.
Colour is often used as the quality control check
of the roasting of the operation. Due to limitations
in sensor technology in the past, it was the respon-
sibility of the operator to visually check the colour of
beginning of the process as well as the loss of ac-
curacy due to the truncation of the series solution.
Wang and Singh (1978) found the single-term solu-
tion to be more accurate than a multiple-term solu-
tion for predicting drying curves for rough rice. They
found the parameters Ao and ko to be functions of
temperature and relative humidity.
A two-term solution has been used by Henderson
(1974) and Sharaf-Eldeen et al. (1979) to give good
predictions of drying rates for corn and by Hutchin-
son and Otten (1983) for white beans and soybeans.
Materials and Methods
Two separate sets of roasting tests were performed
using the pilot plant roaster at the Proctor and-
Schwartz facility in Horsham, PA; Test Set 1 was
conducted at the beginning of 1986 and Test Set 2 at
the end of 1986. As illustrated in Figure 1, the airflow
through the sample can be changed from upflow to
the peanuts. However, the selection of a roast on the
basis of colour alone can lead to flavour defects
(Young and Trigano, 1986). This is because colour
may be affected by other factors. For example,
smaller sized peanuts, which tend to be more imma-
ture, generally form darker roast colours. One pos-
sible reason for this is that sucrose levels are higher
in immature nuts and the darker colour may be due
to increased caramelization reactions (Pattee et al.,
1982a). Also peanuts stored at higher moisture con-
tent levels (9070 vs. 6%) have been observed to
produce darker coloured peanut butter with reduced
flavour quality (Pattee et al., 1982b). Oupadissakoon
(1980) and Pattee et al., (1982a) have also shown that
the time required to obtain a specific roast colour is
dependent on the variety of peanut.
Only the work of Young and Trigano (1986) has
considered the effect of time and temperature of roast
on colour development. They measured colour using
the L*a*b* uniform colour space scale to determine
which of the three components (L* = lightness; a*
= red-green; b* = yellow-blue) is most affected by
the roasting process. For temperatures in the 160C
range, their results showed a constant L* value for
the first few minutes of roasting followed by a sharp
decrease. The a* values initially decreased but then
rapidly increased producing a general reddening of
the product. The b* values slightly increased suggest-
ing that the peanuts yellowed as roasting progressed.
Higher temperatures (180C and 200C) generally
showed the same trends, but the rates of colour
change were more rapid.
The objective of the present work was to analyze
the trends in colour development during the roasting
process and to see if there is a correlation between
colour development and the moisture content ratio of
peanuts during roasting.
(2)
(3)
(4)
MR = exp ( -kot)
MR = Aoexp(-kot) + (I-Ao)exp(-klt)
The equation is based on the assumption that the
resistance to moisture movement is concentrated at
the surface of the material. This model is actually a
special case of the single term diffusion model where
the parameter A
o
is unity.
Hustrulid and Flikke (1959) found that the
logarithmic model greatly underestimated the mois-
ture contents of shelled corn during the early stages
of drying. Similarly, Overhultz et al. (1973) found the
logarithmic model did not satisfactorily predict the
observed drying of soybeans.
In 1949, Page (cited in Wang and Singh, 1978)
developed a purely empirical drying correlation
which was a modified logarithmic model:
- ...,,-
FRONT VIEIJ
(STEN41H
HH3
=]--+--"'.1
V.3 --t-e:J
PERFORATED ---t::==, - - - - - - - =:J---+--- "'. 2
PLATE
\lB - "'ET BUlB T(HP[RATUR( <THRHOCOUPLE>
le - DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (THERMOCOUPLE>
HH - PRESSURE DROP (HAGNEHEL!C)

2
TC 1
HH2
NUT BED
HH.
PERFORATED ----1:==1-- - - - - -
PLATE
SIDE VIEIJ
I
3
ID
r
.
;;
I ;--------c
-1__u". __1
Fig. I. Schematic of the Proctor and Schwartz Pilot Plant Roaster. Fig. 2. Sample Tray and Instrumentation..
Can. Inst. Food Sci. TechnoJ. J. Vol. 22. No. I. 1989 35 / Moss and Otten
or
M/Mo = 1.06 exp -[(0.166 - (T-163)/300)t] (5)
M/Mo = exp - [(0. 2536 - 4.645 r
2
) t1.3526] (6)
The R-squared values for the two models were
0.9979 and 0.9960.
(7) L*(or a*) = Ai + Bit + C
which equal distances approximate equal perceived
colour differences. The three dimensions of colOur
are as follows:
L* - value represents light and dark: range of value
is 0 (black) to 100 (White)
a* - value represents green-red spectrum: range of
value is -60 (green) to +60 (red)
b* - value represents blue-yellow spectrum: range of
value is -60 (blue) to +60 (yellow)
A specific L*a*b* value will give a specific colour
value of the material. Three separate measurements
were taken for every sample.
Results and Discussion
Drying
The drying data obtained from the twenty roasting
experiments at 157C are shown in Figure 3. Similar
curves were obtained at 163 and I7IC. Since a
detailed treatment of the drying data and analysis can
be found elsewhere (Moss, 1987; Moss and OUen,
1988), it is sufficient to note that the roasting data at
all three temperatures can be summarized by either
the Henderson-Pabis equation or Page equation in
which the drying coefficient is a function of tempera-
ture and the equilibrium moisture content is assumed
to be zero; respectively,
Colour
The colour curves obtained for the nuts roasted at
157C are given in Figure 4 and 5 for the L* and a*
scales, respectively. The curves were found to fit a
2nd degree polynomial of the form:
The corresponding coefficients and goodness-of-fit
data are given in Table 1. Only one correlation
resulted in a R
2
value less than 0.95 when correlating
separate Test Sets.
downflow by opening and closing the appropriate
baffles. The roasting air also passed through per-
forated plates to provide more uniform airflow
through the bed of peanuts. With openings of 4.76
mm in diameter and spaced on 12.7 mm centres, the
open area of the plates was 12.9070. In order to simu-
late commercial roasting conditions, the air velocity
was held constant at 1.0 m/s and the airflow direc-
tion was reversed halfway through each test.
Figure 2 shows the bed of peanuts and the in-
':::2
d

measuring 2.4 mm x 12.7 mm for the air to pass
through. In each experiment the tray was loaded with
7120 g of peanuts to a depth of 64 mm with nuts of
an initial moisture content of 5.2% (w.b.).
Drying and colour data were obtained at roasting
temperatures of 157, 163 and 171C, which repre-
sents the range used commercially by Canada Pack-
ers Ltd., Toronto, Ont. At the end of each time in-
terval the sample was removed and a new sample
placed in the roaster. Each experiment was replicated
and the various time periods were run on a ran-
domized basis. Immediately upon removal, the
sample was cooled to about 24C by pulling ambient
air through the tray. Immediate cooling was neces-
sary to prevent after-cooking and further moisture
loss due to the residual heat in the nuts. The mois-
ture content of each sample was obtained by placing
a portion of the sample in a vacuum oven for 16 h at
70C and 88.0 kPa. The remainder of the sample was
packed in plastic bags, flushed with nitrogen, and
stored for the colour analysis.
All colour tests were conducted within one month
of the roasting experiments. After hand blanching the
samples to remove skins and poor quality peanuts,
the samples were milled to a constant grind size. The
colour of the paste was measured using a Minolta
Chroma Meter 11 Reflectance System. This instru-
ment is a tristimulus colorimeter which measures four
specific wavelengths in the visible range specified by
the CIE (Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage).
The measurement uses three special optical filters and
a standard illuminant set at 6774K. Tristimulus
values give a three dimensional value for colour in
1.0
72
0.9
0.8
'e
L.. :; -0.044311'+0.38351+69.42
o
"""e-...
g
... "..
o 0
"
TIME (MIN)
... 8.
l. :; -o.0402W+O.1J27t+63.45
seT #2
SET #1
...
---.
70 0
o
6B
66
60
58
56
64
L' 62
."';'" .
IoCR "' 1.060 .. 761)
. .
..
...
0.0-l---+---+---t---+---t----t-----J---+1--1'
o 10 12 14 16 18
0.2
0.1
0.7
M
C 0.6
0.5
T
I 0.4
o
0.3
TIME (MIN)
Fig. 3. Drying Data and Henderson-Pabis Curve at 157C.
Fig. 4. L* Colour Data and Fitted Curves for Test Sets #1 and #2 at
157C.
36 / Moss and Ouen
Can. Inst. Food Se;. Teehnol. J. Vol. 22, No. I, 1989
32
/
/
o

0 .
0 "
0./"
a .....
.0
1-1--1-1--I---tI----11
10 12 14 16 18
28
30
26
b* 11 -o.005891P+O.1812P-o.6617ttl.43
22
.0
18
__ 8 0
20
16+--f--f--
o
0.,
SET #2
,/ 0
.9.g Q. 11 0.03116P-o.3004l-o.2900
o ., O.022S8P-o.OS0791-Q.3657
/'
SET #1
---
.-.- 6,...
- -.Q... '!'.. -- .. --.-. 's
8
-1
0* 2
-2.\--t---t---r
6
---------1
10
.,---It-
Z
--,t-
4
--1+-6----i'8
TIME (MIN)
Fig. 5. a* Colour Data and Fitted Curves for Test Sets #1 and
#2 at 157C.
TIME (MIN)
Fig. 6. b* Colour Data and Fitted Curves for Combined Test
Sets at 157C.
The coefficients and goodness-of-fit data for each
of the three temperatures are summarized in Table 2.
The b* colour data for test Sets #1 and #2 showed
good agreement and the combined data was fitted
with a third degree polynomial. The combined colour
colouring at this point. Upon roasting the nuts for
the first few minutes, there was a tendency for the a*
value to drop which suggests a green tinge. But as
roasting continued and the carbohydrates became
more and more dehydrated, brown pigments were
formed, therefore, there was a sharp increase in the
curve. The rate of colour change was found to be a
function of the roasting temperature which again sup-
ports the observations of Young and Trigano (1986).
As with the L* curves, the individual a* curves
were fitted with a 2nd order polynomial with
only one R value falling below 0.96. However, the
curves for the different Test Sets were significantly
different and it is expected that this was due to dif-
ferences in the chemical composition of the nuts.
Therefore no correlation was performed on the com-
bined test data for the a* values.
Figure 6 shows the colour development curves for
the b* colour scale for the data obtained in both Test
Sets at 157C. Similar curves were found at 163 and
171C. The b* vs time plots were best correlated
using a 3rd degree polynomial defined by:
Since the L* colour scale measures the relative
lightness of a product, it is analogous to the colour
observation made by the operator in determining the
degree of roast of the peanuts. In evaluating the
results, it is apparent that the L* curves for both Test
Sets exhibited similar trends but did not match. In all
cases the first half of the roast produced very little
colour change in the product. In fact, the colorimeter
indicated a slight lightening of the nuts at the begin-
ning of the roast which was probably caused by the
glazed appearance of the slightly-roasted nuts after
grinding.
The rate of colour change was not significant
during the drying stage where water was readily
removed from the product. However, near the
halfway point of a full roast, the product began to
darken rapidly as the rate of moisture removal began
to decrease. It is expected that this darkening is due
to dehydration of the carbohydrate molecules at high
temperatures, thus resulting in Maillard reactions and
sugar caramelization. It was also found that the rate
of darkening increased with roasting temperature. In
general the L* results support the colour development
trends observed by Young and Trigano (1986).
The test results also showed that the a* colour
development was not the same for Test Sets #1 and
#2 but some trends in colour formation were ap-
parent. All raw products had a* values very close to
zero suggesting little or no hint of red and green
b* = Ait
3
+ Bit
2
+Cit + Di
(8)
Table 1. Correlation coefficients for the L* and a* vs. time colour curves using a 2nd degree polynomial
Roast Test Boundary
Ai B
i
C
i
R
2
Degrees Sig. Std. Dev.
temp.
set (min) freedom level of regr.
15?DC L*(#I) 0-18 -0.04021 0.1327 63.45 0.9536 16 0.0001 0.5971
L*(#2) 0-18 -0.04431 0.3835 69.42 0.9973 2 0.0027 0.3265
a*(#I) 0-18 0.02258 -0.0508 - 0.3657 0.9510 16 0.0001 0.4003
a*(#2) 0-18 0.03116 -0.3004 -0.2900 0.9760 2 0.0240 0.5926
163C L*(#l) 0-14 -0.06006 0.2151 63.41 0.9727 2 0.0270 0.8835
L*(#2) 0-14 -0.07440 0.5734 69.04 0.9694 16 0.0001 0.4575
a*(# I) 0-14 0.03965 -0.1894 -0.2486 0.9654 2 0.0350 0.5938
a*(#2) 0-14 0.05570 -0.4646 -0.003587 0.9613 16 0.0001 0.3600
171C L*(#l) 0-10 -0.1394 0.6103 63.30 0.9761 2 0.0240 0.7748
L*(#2) 0-10 -0.1283 0.8455 68.99 0.9654 14 0.0001 0.3958
a*(# I) 0-10 0.08914 -0.4194 -0.1857 0.9660 2 0.0340 0.5667
a*(#2) 0-10 0.01012 -0.7219 0.1512 0.9246 14 0.0001 0.4311
Can. Inst. Food Sci. Technol. J. Vo!. 22, No. 1, 1989
37 / Moss and Otten
Table 2. Correlation coefficients for the b* vs. time colour curve using a 3rd degree polynomial
Roast Boundary Ai B
i
Cj
Dj R
2
Degrees Sig. Std. dev.
temp. (min) freedom level of regr.
157C 0-18 -0.005897 0.1812 -0.6617 17.43 0.9731 20 0.0001 0.8019
163C 0-14 -0.009523 0.2677 -0.9954 17.67 0.9800 20 0.0001 0.7183
171C 0-10 -0.02569 0.5418 - 1.809 17.74 0.9489 18 0.0001 1.068
curves had R
2
values of 0.95 or higher for at least 18
degrees of freedom.
The initial b* value of the raw nuts generally varied
between + 16 and + 18 and, therefore, the nuts had
a definite yellowish colour. As the roast proceeded
for a few minutes, there was very little change in the
value of b*. This suggests that, similar to the L* and
a* values, the colour remained virtually the same in
the initial stages while the nut temperature continued
to increase during the first stages of dehydration. The
b* colour changes seemed to start about one minute
before the rapid changes in the L* and a* values
began. Furthermore, the initial b* colour changes
generally began when the moisture content ratio was
between 0.5 and 0.6.
colour scales increased rapidly, while those of the L*
scale decreased.
The results of the study appear to indicate that the
development of both the L* and a* colours - which
represent the degree of lightness and the red-green
range, respectively depends on the characteristics of
the unroasted nuts. In particular, it is suspected that
the maturity of the nut is important in determining
the L* and a* values.
The results also showed that the b* colour which
represents the yellow-blue range was not affected by
the source of the samples. Therefore, the data of both
Test Sets could be combined and correlated with the
moisture content for a roasting temperature range of
157 to 171C.
MR RATIO

0.0 0.2 0.6 0.8
26
20
.'
."'" ..
...... ,.,

b* =25.02MR1_31.93MR+30.97
16
18
.* '" "
30 .
.'

28 * -. '"
' ..
..
":",
" ....... *
'.'
.' .
.-,
. '.
'" '" ' ..
32
24
b'
22
Drying vs Colour Correlation
Since both the L* and a* vs drying time curves were
different for the two Test Sets, no correlation was
possible between these colour scales and the moisture
content of the peanuts during roasting. In contrast,
the change in b* with time was the same for both Test
Sets so that the b* values were correlated with the
change in moisture content. Table 3 contains the cal-
culated coefficients and the goodness-of-fit results
obtained at each temperature as well as for all the
data combined. Figure 5 illustrates the corresponding
plot of the observations in the temperature range of
157 to 171C. The best-fit curve for the data is given
by the following equation:
b* = 25.3 (M/M
o
)2 - 37.93 (M/Mo) + 30.97 (9)
Fig. 7. b* Colour Data Versus Moisture Content Ratio at 157 - 172qc.
Although further testing of this relationship is
necessary, the significance of having a predictive
equation is that on-line monitoring of moisture con-
tent could be used to control the yellow-blue colour
of the roast. It remains to be determined if this colour
scale is in fact important in determining the taste and
quality of the product.
Conclusions
The colour data showed that the major changes in
colour development occurred after about 6 to 8 min.
of roasting. At this time the values of the a* and b*
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Canada Packers Ltd., Toronto,
for arranging the roasting experiments and providing
the facilities to conduct the moisture and colour tests.
Nomenclature
a* specific dimension of colour
Ao empirically determined constant of the solution to
the diffusion equation
Ai parameter in the colour equations
b* specific dimension of colour
Bi parameter in the colour equations
Table 3. Correlation coefficients and goodness-of-fit analysis for colour (b*) vs moisture content ratio.
Temperature Ai B
i
C
i
R
2
Degree Sig. Std. Dev.
freedom level of regr.
157C 25.50 - 38.56 30.97 0.9665 21 0.0001 0.8726
163C 25.16 - 38.45 31.19 0.9499 21 0.0001 1.109
l7loC 21.82 -35.00 30.57 0.9254 19 0.0001 1.256
Combined 25.03 -37.93 30.97 0.9462 63 0.0001 1.061
38 / Moss and Ouen Can. Inst. Food Sei. Teehnot. J. Vol. 22, No. I, 1989
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Di
ko, kl
L*
M
Me
Mo
MR
N
t
T
parameter in the colour equations
parameter in the colour equations
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equation (S-I)
specific dimension of colour
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