Orientalism is a term used by art historians and literary and cultural studies s cholars for the imitation or depiction

of aspects of Middle Eastern and East Asi an cultures (Eastern cultures) by writers, designers and artists from the West. In particular, Orientalist painting, depicting more specifically "the Middle Eas t",[1] was one of the many specialisms of 19th-century Academic art, and the lit eratures of European countries took a similar interest in Oriental themes. Since the publication of Edward Said's Orientalism in 1978, much academic discou rse has begun to use the term "Orientalism" to refer to a general patronizing We stern attitude towards Middle Eastern, Asian and North African societies. In Sai d's analysis, the West essentializes these societies as static and undeveloped the reby fabricating a view of Oriental culture that can be studied, depicted, and r eproduced. Implicit in this fabrication, writes Said, is the idea that Western s ociety is developed, rational, flexible, and superior.[2] Contents [hide] 1 Meaning of the term 2 Orientalizing styles in Europe 3 Orientalist art 3.1 Pre-19th century 3.2 French Orientalism 3.3 British Orientalism 3.3.1 English and French harem depictions 3.4 Elsewhere 3.4.1 Orientalist artists 4 Literature and music 4.1 Examples 4.1.1 Literature 4.1.2 Opera, ballets, musicals 4.1.3 Orchestral works 4.1.4 Shorter musical pieces 4.1.5 Theatre 4.1.6 Photography 4.1.7 Pulp magazines 4.1.8 Films 4.1.9 Comics 5 Orientalism and religion 6 Eastern views of the West 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Sources 11 Further reading 11.1 Art 11.2 Literature 12 External links Meaning of the term[edit] "Orientalism" refers to the Orient or East,[3] in contrast to the Occident or We st, and often, as seen by the West. Orient came into English from Middle French orient (the root word is oriens, L). Oriens has related meanings: the eastern pa rt of the world, the part of the sky in which the sun rises, the east, the risin g sun, daybreak, and dawn. Together with the geographical concepts of different ages, its reference of "eastern part" has changed. For example, when Chaucer wro te "That they conquered many regnes grete / In the orient, with many a fair cite e" in Monk's Tale (1375), the "orient" refers to countries lying immediately to the east of the Mediterranean or Southern Europe; while in Aneurin Bevan's In Pl "the ace of Fear (1952) this geographical term had already expanded to East Asia awakening of the Orient under the impact of Western ideas". "Orientalism" is widely used in art to refer to the works of the many Western 19 th-century artists, who specialized in "Oriental" subjects, often drawing on the ir travels to Western Asia. Artists as well as scholars were already described a

s "Orientalists" in the 19th century, especially in France, where the term, with a rather dismissive sense, was largely popularized by the critic Jules-Antoine Castagnary.[4] Such disdain did not prevent the Socit des Peintres Orientalistes ( "Society of Orientalist Painters") being founded in 1893, with Jean-Lon Grme as hon orary president;[5] the word was less often used as a term for artists in 19th c entury England.[6] Since the 18th century, Orientalist has been the traditional term for a scholar of Oriental studies; however the use in English of Orientalism to describe the a cademic subject of "Oriental studies" is rare; the Oxford English Dictionary cit es only one such usage, by Lord Byron in 1812. The academic discipline of Orient al studies is now more often called Asian studies. In 1978, the Palestinian-American scholar Edward Said published his influential and controversial book, Orientalism, which "would forever redefine" the word;[7] he used the term to describe what he argued was a pervasive Western tradition, both academic and artistic, of prejudiced outsider interpretations of the East, shaped by the attitudes of European imperialism in the 18th and 19th centuries. Said was critical of this scholarly tradition and of some modern scholars, parti cularly Bernard Lewis. Said's Orientalism elaborates Antonio Gramsci's concept o f hegemony and Michel Foucault's theorisation of discourse and relationship betw een knowledge and power.[8] Said was mainly concerned with literature in the wid est sense, especially French literature, and did not cover visual art and Orient alist painting. Others, notably Linda Nochlin, have tried to extend his analysis to art, "with uneven results".[9] Said's work became one of the foundational te xts of Postcolonialism or Postcolonial studies.[10] Orientalizing styles in Europe[edit] Further information: Orientalism in early modern France The Moresque style of Renaissance ornament is a European adaptation of the Islam ic arabesque that began in the late 15th century and was to be used in some type s of work, such as bookbinding, until almost the present day. Early architectura l use of motifs lifted from the Indian subcontinent has sometimes been called "H indoo style". One of the earliest examples is the faade of Guildhall, London (178 8 1789). The style gained momentum in the west with the publication of views of In dia by William Hodges, and William and Thomas Daniell from about 1795. Examples of "Hindoo" architecture are Sezincote House (c. 1805) in Gloucestershire, built for a nabob returned from Bengal, and the Royal Pavilion in Brighton. Turquerie, which began as early as the late 15th century, continued until at lea st the 18th century, and included both the use of "Turkish" styles in the decora tive arts, the adoption of Turkish costume at times, and interest in art depicti ng the Ottoman Empire itself. Venice, the traditional trading partner of the Ott omans, was the earliest centre, with France becoming more prominent in the 18th century. Chinoiserie is the catch-all term for the fashion for Chinese themes in decorati on in Western Europe, beginning in the late 17th century and peaking in waves, e specially Rococo Chinoiserie, ca. 1740 1770. From the Renaissance to the 18th cent ury, Western designers attempted to imitate the technical sophistication of Chin ese ceramics with only partial success. Early hints of Chinoiserie appeared in t he 17th century in nations with active East India companies: England (the Britis h East India Company), Denmark (the Danish East India Company), the Netherlands (the Dutch East India Company) and France (the French East India Company). Tin-g lazed pottery made at Delft and other Dutch towns adopted genuine blue-and-white Ming decoration from the early 17th century. Early ceramic wares made at Meisse n and other centers of true porcelain imitated Chinese shapes for dishes, vases and teawares (see Chinese export porcelain). Pleasure pavilions in "Chinese taste" appeared in the formal parterres of late B aroque and Rococo German palaces, and in tile panels at Aranjuez near Madrid. Th omas Chippendale's mahogany tea tables and china cabinets, especially, were embe llished with fretwork glazing and railings, ca 1753 70. Sober homages to early Xin g scholars' furnishings were also naturalized, as the tang evolved into a mid-Ge orgian side table and squared slat-back armchairs that suited English gentlemen

as well as Chinese scholars. Not every adaptation of Chinese design principles f alls within mainstream "chinoiserie." Chinoiserie media included imitations of l acquer and painted tin (tle) ware that imitated japanning, early painted wallpape rs in sheets, and ceramic figurines and table ornaments. Small pagodas appeared on chimneypieces and full-sized ones in gardens. Kew has a magnificent garden pa goda designed by Sir William Chambers. The Wilhelma (1846) in Stuttgart is an ex ample of Moorish Revival architecture. Leighton House, built for the artist Lord Leighton, has a conventional facade but elaborate Arab-style interiors, includi ng original Islamic tiles and other elements as well as Victorian Orientalizing work. After 1860, Japonisme, sparked by the importing of Japanese woodblock prints, be came an important influence in the western arts. In particular, many modern Fren ch artists such as Monet and Degas were influenced by the Japanese style. Mary C assatt, an American artist who worked in France, used elements of combined patte rns, flat planes and shifting perspective of Japanese prints in her own images.[ 11] The paintings of James McNeill Whistler and his "Peacock Room" demonstrated how he used aspects of Japanese tradition and are some of the finest works of th e genre. California architects Greene and Greene were inspired by Japanese eleme nts in their design of the Gamble House and other buildings. In architecture, Egyptian revival architecture was popular mostly in the early a nd mid-19th century, and Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture or Moorish Revival architecture, covering a variety of general Islamic or Indian features, in the l ater part of the century; "Saracenic" referred to styles from Arabic-speaking ar eas. Both were sometimes used in the Orient itself by colonial governments. Orientalist art[edit] Pre-19th century[edit] Depictions of Islamic "Moors" and "Turks" (imprecisely named Muslim groups of so uthern Europe, North Africa and West Asia) can be found in Medieval, Renaissance , and Baroque art. In Biblical scenes in Early Netherlandish painting, secondary figures, especially Romans, were given exotic costumes that distantly reflected the clothes of the Near East. The Three Magi in Nativity scenes were an especia l focus for this. In general art with Biblical settings would not be considered as Orientalist except where contemporary or historicist Middle Eastern detail or settings is a feature of works, as with some paintings by Gentile Bellini and o thers, and a number of 19th century works. Renaissance Venice had a phase of par ticular interest in depictions of the Ottoman Empire in painting and prints. Gen tile Bellini, who travelled to Constantinople and painted the Sultan, and Vittor e Carpaccio were the leading painters. By then the depictions were more accurate , with men typically dressed all in white. The depiction of Oriental carpets in Renaissance painting sometimes draws from Orientalist interest, but more often j ust reflects the prestige these expensive objects had in the period.[12] Jean-tienne Liotard (1702 1789) visited Istanbul and painted numerous pastels of Tu rkish domestic scenes; he also continued to wear Turkish dress for much of the t ime when back in Europe. The ambitious Scottish 18th-century artist Gavin Hamilt on found a solution to the problem of using modern dress, considered unheroic an d inelegant, in history painting by using Middle Eastern settings with Europeans wearing local costume, as travellers were advised to do. His huge James Dawkins and Robert Wood Discovering the Ruins of Palmyra (1758, now Edinburgh) elevates tourism to the heroic, with the two travellers wearing what look very like toga s. Many travellers had themselves painted in exotic Eastern dress on their retur n, including Lord Byron, as did many who had never left Europe, including Madame de Pompadour.[13] Byron's poetry was highly influential in introducing Europe t o the heady cocktail of Romanticism in exotic Oriental settings which was to dom inate 19th century Oriental art. French Orientalism[edit] The 1798 Egyptian Expedition Under the Command of Bonaparte, Lon Cogniet, 1835. M use du Louvre

French Orientalist painting was transformed by Napoleon's ultimately unsuccessfu l invasion of Egypt and Syria in 1798-1801, which stimulated great public intere st in Egyptology, and was also recorded in subsequent years by Napoleon's court painters, especially Baron Gros, although the Middle Eastern campaign was not on e on which he accompanied the army. Two of his most successful paintings, Bonapa rte Visiting the Plague Victims of Jaffa (1804) and Battle of Abukir (1806) focu s on the Emperor, as he was by then, but include many Egyptian figures, as does the less effective Napoleon at the Battle of the Pyramids (1810). Girodet's La Rv olte du Caire (1810) was another large and prominent example. A well-illustrated Description de l gypte was published by the French Government in twenty volumes be tween 1809 and 1828, concentrating on antiquities.[14] Eugne Delacroix's first great success, The Massacre at Chios (1824) was painted b efore he visited the Greece or the East, and followed his friend Thodore Gricault' s The Raft of the Medusa in showing a recent incident in distant parts that had aroused public opinion. Greece was still fighting for independence from the Otto mans, and was effectively as exotic as the more Near Eastern parts of the empire . Delacroix followed up with Greece on the Ruins of Missolonghi (1827), commemor ating a siege of the previous year, and the Death of Sardanapalus, inspired by L ord Byron, which although set in antiquity has been credited with beginning the mixture of sex, violence, lassitude and exoticism which runs through much French Orientalist painting.[15] In 1832 Delacroix finally visited what is now Algeria , recently conquered by the French, and Morocco, as part of a diplomatic mission to the Sultan of Morocco. He was greatly struck by what he saw, comparing the N orth African way of life to that of the Ancient Romans, and continued to paint s ubjects from his trip on his return to France. Like many later Orientalist paint ers, he was frustrated by the difficulty of sketching women, and many of his sce nes featured Jews or warriors on horses. However he was apparently able to get i nto the women's' quarters or harem of a house to sketch what became The Women of Algiers; few later harem scenes had this claim to authenticity.[16] Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, The Turkish Bath, 1862 When Ingres, the director of the French Acadmie de peinture, painted a highly col ored vision of a Turkish bath, he made his eroticized Orient publicly acceptable by his diffuse generalizing of the female forms (who might all have been the sa me model). More open sensuality was seen as acceptable in the exotic Orient.[17] This imagery persisted in art into the early 20th century, as evidenced in Mati sse's orientalist semi-nudes from his Nice period, and his use of Oriental costu mes and patterns. Ingres' pupil Thodore Chassriau (1819 1856) had already achieved s uccess with his nude The Toilette of Esther (1841, Louvre) and equestrian portra it of Ali-Ben-Hamet, Caliph of Constantine and Chief of the Haractas, Followed b y his Escort (1846) before he first visited the East, but in later decades the s teamship made travel much easier and increasing numbers of artists traveled to t he Middle East and beyond, painting a wide range of Oriental scenes. In many of these works, they portrayed the Orient as exotic, colorful and sensua l, not to say stereotyped. Such works typically concentrated on Oriental Islamic , Hebraic, and other Semitic cultures, as those were the ones visited by artists as France became more engaged in North Africa. French artists such as Eugne Dela croix, Jean-Lon Grme and Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres painted many works depicting Islamic culture, often including lounging odalisques. They stressed both lassit ude and visual spectacle. Other scenes, especially in genre painting, have been seen as either closely comparable to their equivalents set in modern-day or hist orical Europe, or as also reflecting an Orientalist mind-set in the Saidian sens e of the term. Grme was the precursor, and often the master, of a number of French painters in the later part of the century whose works were often frankly salaci ous, frequently featuring scenes in harems, public baths and slave auctions (the last two also available with classical decor), and responsible, with others, fo r "the equation of Orientalism with the nude in pornographic mode";[18] (Gallery , below) British Orientalism[edit]

William Holman Hunt, A Street Scene in Cairo; The Lantern-Maker's Courtship, 185 4-61 Though British political interest in the territories of the unravelling Ottoman Empire was as intense as in France, it was mostly more discreetly exercised. The origins of British Orientalist 19th-century painting owe more to religion than military conquest or the search for plausible locations for naked women. The lea ding British genre painter, Sir David Wilkie was 55 when he travelled to Istanbu l and Jerusalem in 1840, dying off Gibraltar during the return voyage. Though no t noted as a religious painter, Wilkie made the trip with a Protestant agenda to reform religious painting, as he believed that: "a Martin Luther in painting is as much called for as in theology, to sweep away the abuses by which our divine pursuit is encumbered", by which he meant traditional Christian iconography. He hoped to find more authentic settings and decor for Biblical subjects at their original location, though his death prevented more than studies being made. Othe r artists including the Pre-Raphaelite William Holman Hunt and David Roberts had similar motivations,[19] giving an emphasis on realism in British Orientalist a rt from the start.[20] The French artist James Tissot also used contemporary Mid dle Eastern landscape and decor for Biblical subjects, with little regard for hi storical costumes or other fittings. William Holman Hunt produced a number of major paintings of Biblical subjects dr awing on his Middle Eastern travels, improvising variants of contemporary Arab c ostume and furnishings to avoid specifically Islamic styles, and also some lands capes and genre subjects. The biblical subjects included The Scapegoat (1856), T he Finding of the Saviour in the Temple (1860), and The Shadow of Death (1871). The Miracle of the Holy Fire (1899) was intended as a picturesque satire on the local Eastern Christians, of whom, like most English visitors, Hunt took a very dim view. His A Street Scene in Cairo; The Lantern-Maker's Courtship (1854 61) is a rare contemporary narrative scene, as the young man feels his fianc's face, whi ch he is not allowed to see, through her veil, as an Westerner in the background beats his way up the street with his stick.[21] This a rare intrusion of a clea rly contemporary figure into an Orientalist scene; mostly they claim the picture squeness of the historical painting so popular at the time, without the trouble of researching authentic costumes and settings. When Grme exhibited For Sale; Slaves at Cairo at the Royal Academy in London in 18 71, it was "widely found offensive", perhaps partly because the British liked to think they had successfully suppressed the slave trade in Egypt, also for cruel ty and "representing fleshiness for its own sake".[22] But Rana Kabbani believes that "French Orientalist painting, as exemplified by the works of Grme, may appea r more sensual, gaudy, gory and sexually explicit than its British counterpart, but this is a difference of style not substance ... Similar strains of fascinati on and repulsion convulsed their artists"[23] Nonetheless, nudity and violence a re more evident in British paintings set in the ancient world, and "the iconogra phy of the odalisque ... the Oriental sex slave whose image is offered up to the viewer as freely as she herself supposedly was to her master - is almost entire ly French in origin",[17] though taken up with enthusiasm by Italian and other p ainters. John Frederick Lewis, who lived for several years in a traditional mansion in Ca iro, painted highly detailed works showing both realistic genre scenes of Middle Eastern life and more idealized scenes in upper class Egyptian interiors with n o traces of Western cultural influence yet apparent. His very careful and loving representation of Islamic architecture, furnishings, screens, and costumes set new standards of realism, which influenced other artists, including Grme in his la ter works. He "never painted a nude", and his wife modelled for several of his h arem scenes,[24] which, with the rare examples by the classicist painter Lord Le ighton, imagine "the harem as a place of almost English domesticity, ... [where] ... women's fully clothed respectability suggests a moral healthiness to go with their natural good looks".[17] English and French harem depictions[edit]

Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, Grande Odalisque, 1814

Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, Odalisque with Slave, 1842

Fernand Cormon, Murder in the Seraglio, 1872

Jean-Lon Grme (1824 1904), Pool in a Harem, c. 1876

John Frederick Lewis, The Reception, 1873

Frederick Goodall, A New Light in the Harem, 1884

Georges Rochegrosse, The Slave and The Lion Other artists concentrated on landscape painting, often of desert scenes, includ ing Richard Dadd and Edward Lear. David Roberts (1796 1864) produced architectural and landscape views, many of antiquities, and published very successful books o f lithographs from them.[25] Elsewhere[edit] Russian Orientalist art was largely concerned with the areas of Central Asia tha t Russia was conquering during the century, and also in historical painting with the Mongols who had dominated Russia for much of the Middle Ages, who were rare ly shown in a good light. Nationalist historical painting in Central Europe and the Balkans dwelt on Turkish oppression, with battle scenes and maidens about to be raped. The Saidian analysis has not prevented a strong revival of interest in, and coll ecting of, 19th century Orientalist works since the 1970s, the latter in large p art led by Middle Eastern buyers,[26] Orientalist artists[edit] Algerian shops, by Louis Comfort Tiffany Samarkand, by Richard-Karl Karlovitch Zommer The midday meal, Cairo, by John Frederick Lewis The Discussion, by Giulio Rosati Gustave Boulanger (1824 88) Frederick Arthur Bridgman (1847-1928) Eduard Charlemont (1848-1906) Thodore Chassriau (1819 1856) Alphonse tienne Dinet (1861 1929) Richard Dadd (1817 1886)

Eugne Delacroix (1798 1863) Ludwig Deutsch (1855 1935) Edmund Dulac (1882 1953) Rudolf Ernst (1854-1932) Arthur von Ferraris (1856 - c.1928) Eugne Fromentin (1820 1876) Jean-Lon Grme (1824 1904) Gustave Achille Guillaumet (1840-1887) William Holman Hunt (1827 1910) Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres (1780 1867) Ecem Kafadar (1885 1940) Edward Lear (1812 1888) Frederic Leighton (1830 1896) Paul Leroy (1860 1942) John Frederick Lewis (1805 1876) Jean-tienne Liotard (1702 1789) Edwin Longsden Long (1829 1891) Jean-Baptiste van Mour (1671 1731) Alberto Pasini (1826 1899) Thodore Ralli (1852 1909) Thomas Frederick Mason Sheard (1866-1921) David Roberts (painter) (1796 1864) Giulio Rosati (1858 1917) Alexandre Roubtzoff (1884 1949) Adolf Schreyer (1828 1899) James Tissot (1836 1902) Edwin Lord Weeks (1849 1903) Rudolf Weisse (1859-c.1930) David Wilkie (1785 1841) Eugne Flandin (1809-1889) Literature and music[edit] Colour illustration of the Polo brothers arriving at Bokhara Illustration from The Travels of Marco Polo, 15th century Colour sketch of an Ancient-Egyptian-styled male costume. Costume design for Aida by Auguste Mariette, 1871 Tall, thin poster of a man in Chinese robes, posing with a golden ball floating between his hands. Okito performing the floating ball, 1910 Black and white photograph of a walled city in the desert, showing domes and min arets. Photograph of Cairo by Francis Frith, 1856 Almost naked Indian woman dancing in front of a Hindu statue. Cover of the pulp magazine Oriental Stories, Spring 1932 Oil painting of a desert scene by an opened tomb. French officials in and aroun d a tent, surrounded by Egyptians in native dress, some handling Ancient Egyptia n artefacts. Design by Lon Cogniet for a ceiling decoration in the Louvre depicting the 1798 E gyptian Expedition Black and white screenshot from the film The Sheik, with the man in Arab costume and the woman in Western clothing. Rudolph Valentino and Agnes Ayres in The Sheik, 1921 Authors and composers are not commonly referred to as "Orientalist" in the way t

hat artists are, and relatively few specialized in Oriental topics or styles, or are even best known for their works including them. But many major figures, fro m Mozart to Flaubert, have produced significant works with Oriental subjects or treatments. Lord Byron with his four long "Turkish tales" in poetry, is one of t he most important writers to make exotic fantasy Oriental settings a significant theme in the literature of Romanticism. Verdi's opera Aida (1871) is set in Egy pt as portrayed through the content and the visual spectacle. "Aida" depicts a m ilitaristic Egypt's tyranny over Ethiopia.[27] In music, Orientalism may be applied to styles occurring in different periods, s uch as the alla Turca, used by multiple composers including Mozart and Beethoven .[28] The American musicologist Richard Taruskin has identified in 19th-century Russian music a strain of Orientalism: "the East as a sign or metaphor, as imagi nary geography, as historical fiction, as the reduced and totalized other agains t which we contruct our (not less reduced and totalized) sense of ourselves".[29 ] Taruskin concedes that Russian composers, unlike those in France and Germany, felt an "ambivalence" to the theme since "Russia was a contiguous empire in whic h Europeans, living side by side with 'orientals', identified (and intermarried) with them far more than in the case of other colonial powers".[30] Nonetheless, Taruskin characterizes Orientalism in Romantic Russian music has having melodie s "full of close little ornaments and melismas",[31] chromatic accompanying line s, drone bass[32] - characteristics which were used by Glinka, Balakirev, Borodi n, Rimsky-Korsakov and Rachmaninov. These musical characteristics evoke "not jus t the East, but the seductive East that emasculates, enslaves, renders passive. In a word, it signifies the promise of the experience of nega, a prime attribute of the orient as imagined by the Russians. [...] In opera and song, nega often simply denotes S-E-X a la russe, desired or achieved."[32] Orientalism is also traceable in music that is considered to have effects of exo ticism, including the japonisme in Claude Debussy's piano music all the way to t he sitar being used in recordings by The Beatles.[28] In his novel Salammb, Gustave Flaubert used ancient Carthage in North Africa as a foil to ancient Rome. He portrayed its culture as morally corrupting and suffus ed with dangerously alluring eroticism. This novel proved hugely influential on later portrayals of ancient Semitic cultures. The use of the Orient as an exotic backdrop continued in the movies, for instanc e, those featuring Rudolph Valentino. The rich Arab in robes returned to become a more popular theme, especially during the oil crisis of the 1970s. In the 1990 s, Arabs portrayed as terrorists became common villain figures in Western movies ; portrayals of Jews as a mysterious, deceptive, conniving menace with supernatu ral powers were prevalent in Western and European cultures up until the middle o f the 20th century.[citation needed] Examples[edit] Question book-new.svg This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this s ection by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challe nged and removed. (August 2010) This section may contain excessive, poor, or irrelevant examples. Please improve the article by adding more descriptive text and removing less pertinent example s. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for further suggestions. (Ju ne 2010) Literature[edit] The Travels of Marco Polo, 13th century Travels of Sir John Mandeville, 14th century invented account of travels. Ferno Mendes Pinto, Peregrinao (1556), the most complete of the early Portuguese wr itten accounts of the Indic, southeast Asia, China and Japan. Christopher Marlowe, Tamburlaine, 1588/89 John Dryden, Aureng-zebe (1675), a heroic drama in theory based on the life of t he reigning Mughal Emperor, Aurangzeb Persian Letters (Lettres persanes) (1721) Montesquieu William Thomas Beckford Vathek (1786)

Robert Southey Thalaba the Destroyer (1801) Robert Southey Curse of Kehama (1810) Lord Byron his four "Turkish tales": The Bride of Abydos, The Giaour, The Corsai r (1814), Lara, A Tale (1814), and other works Samuel Taylor Coleridge Kubla Khan (published 1816) Thomas Moore Lalla-Rookh (published 1817) Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Weststlicher Diwan (1819) Alexander Pushkin - Ruslan and Ludmila, (1820) Ralph Waldo Emerson poem Indian Superstition (1821) Edgar Allan Poe Tamerlane (1827), Al Aaraaf (1829), and Israfel (1831) Victor Hugo Les Orientales (1829) Gustave Flaubert Salammb (1862) Ea de Queiroz The Relic (A Relquia) (1887) and The Mandarin (O Mandarim) (1889) Anatole France Thas (1890) Edward FitzGerald - "translation" or adaptation of the Persian Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam (1859) Pierre Loti (1850 1923) - highly popular French writer, mostly on his Oriental tra vels & novels set as far away as Japan and Tahiti Richard Francis Burton translation of The Book of One Thousand and One Nights (1 885 1888) Gaston Leroux Phantom of the Opera (1911) Leo Tolstoy Hadji Murat (1912) Victor Segalen Ren Leys (1922) Herman Hesse Siddhartha (1922) Andr Malraux Man's Fate (1934) (La Condition humaine, 1933) Marguerite Yourcenar's Nouvelles Orientales (1938) Opera, ballets, musicals[edit] Antonio Lucio Vivaldi Juditha triumphans (1716) Georg Friedrich Hndel Tamerlano (1724) and Serse (1738) Jean-Philippe Rameau Les Indes Galantes (1735 1736) Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Die Entfhrung aus dem Serail (1782) Gioachino Rossini Semiramide (1823) Giuseppe Verdi Nabucco (1842) Jacques Offenbach Ba-ta-clan (1855) Georges Bizet Les Pcheurs de Perles (1863) Giuseppe Verdi Aida (1871) Emmanuel Chabrier Fisch-Ton-Kan (1875) Csar Cui The Mandarin's Son (1878) Gilbert and Sullivan The Mikado (1885) Alexander Borodin Prince Igor (1890) Sidney Jones The Geisha (1896) Sidney Jones San Toy (1899) Pietro Mascagni Iris (1899) Howard Talbot A Chinese Honeymoon (1896) Giacomo Puccini Madama Butterfly (1904) Richard Strauss Salome, opera in one act based on Wilde's play (1905) Giacomo Puccini Turandot (1926) Franz Lehr - The Land of Smiles (1929) Sigmund Romberg, Oscar Hammerstein II & Otto Harbach The Desert Song (1926) and film (1929) Richard Strauss Die gyptische Helena, opera with libretto by Hugo von Hofmannstha l (1929) Orchestral works[edit] Mily Balakirev Tamara. Alexander Borodin In the Steppes of Central Asia; "Polovetsian Dances" from Prin ce Igor. Mikhail Ippolitov-Ivanov Caucasian Sketches. Modest Mussorgsky "Dance of the Persian Slaves" from Khovanshchina. Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov Antar; Scheherezade. Gustav Mahler - Das Lied von der Erde

Shorter musical pieces[edit] Mily Balakirev Islamey Ludwig van Beethoven Turkish March from The Ruins of Athens, opus 113 (1811) Johann Joseph Fux - partita Turcaria, inspired by the 1683 Siege of Vienna by th e Turks.[33] Alexander Glazunov - 5 Novelettes for String Quartet, Op 15 Albert Ketlbey In a Persian Market (1920), In a Chinese Temple Garden (1925), and In the Mystic Land of Egypt (1931) Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Rondo alla turca from Piano Sonata No.11 (K.331) Sergei Rachmaninoff Oriental Sketch (1917) Theatre[edit] Tobias Bamberg's magic stage act as "Okito" (Germany, 1893 United States, 1908) Oscar Wilde's Salom (1893, first performed in Paris 1896) Alexander's mentalism stage act (United States, c. 1890s 1910s) William Ellsworth Robinson's, magic stage act as "Chung Ling Soo" (United States , 1900 1918) Photography[edit] Roger Fenton Francis Frith Pulp magazines[edit] Oriental Stories: (1930 32), retitled The Magic Carpet Magazine (1933 34). Films[edit] Intolerance (1916) Broken Blossoms (1919) The Sheik (1921) The Lives of a Bengal Lancer (1935) The Thief of Bagdad (1940) My Geisha (1962) Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (1984) Comics[edit] The Adventures of Tintin (1929 1983) Carnets d'Orient by Jacques Ferrandez. The Upside Down Circle by Don Gilbert (1990). Dragon and Tiger (2008) Habibi (2011) Orientalism and religion[edit] Part of a series on Spirituality Spirituality Outline of spirituality Religion[show] Traditional spirituality[show] Modern spirituality[show] Influences on modern spirituality[show] Practices & experience[show] Category:Spirituality v t e Due to the colonisation of Asia by the western world, since the 19th century an exchange of ideas has been taking place between the western world and Asia, whic h also influenced western religiosity.[34] In 1785 appeared the first western translation of a Sanskrit-text.[35] It marked the growing interest in the Indian culture and languages.[36] The first transla tion of Upanishads appeared in in two parts in 1801 and 1802,[36] which influenc ed Arthur Schopenhauer, who called them "the consolation of my life".[37][note 1 ] Early translations also appeared in other European languages.[38] 19th century Transcendentalism was influenced by Asian religiosity. Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803 1882) was a pioneer of the idea of spirituality as a distinct field. [39] A major force in the mutual influence of eastern and western ideas and religiosi

ty was the Theosophical Society.[40][41] It searched for ancient wisdom in the e ast, spreading eastern religious ideas in the west.[42][34] One of its salient f eatures was the belief in "Masters of Wisdom"[43][note 2], "beings, human or onc e human, who have transcended the normal frontiers of knowledge, and who make th eir wisdom available to others".[43] The Theosophical Society also spread wester n ideas in the east, aiding a modernisation of eastern traditions, and contribut ing to a growing nationalism in the Asian colonies.[34] The Theosophical Society had a major influence on Buddhist modernism[34] and Hin du reform movements,[41] and the spread of those modernised versions in the west .[34] The Theosophical Society and the Arya Samaj were united from 1878 to 1882, as the Theosophical Society of the Arya Samaj.[44] Along with H. S. Olcott and Anagarika Dharmapala, Blavatsky was instrumental in the Western transmission and revival of Theravada Buddhism.[45][46][47] Another major influence was Vivekananda,[48][49] who popularised his modernised inerpretation[50] of Advaita Vedanta in the 19th and early 20th century in both India and the west,[49] emphasising anubhava ("personal experience"[51] over scr iptural authority.[51] Eastern views of the West[edit] Much of Said's criticism of Western Orientalism is based on particularizing tren ds also present in Asian works by Indian, Chinese, and Japanese writers and arti sts, in their views of Western culture and tradition. The term Occidentalism has sometimes been used to refer to negative or stereotypical views of the Western world found in Eastern societies. In the late 20th century, many Western cultural themes and images began appearin g in Asian art and culture, especially in Japan. English words and phrases are p rominent in Japanese advertising and popular culture, and many Japanese anime ar e written around characters, settings, themes, and mythological figures derived from various Western cultural traditions.[citation needed] A particularly significant development is the manner in which Orientalism has ta ken shape in non-Western cinema, as for instance in Hindi cinema.[52] See also[edit] Antisemitism Arabist Asian studies Black orientalism Chinoiserie Circassian beauties Exoticism Filipinophile Hebraist Indomania Islamophobia Islamic studies Japanophile Japonism Jewish studies Jewish thought Moorish Revival architecture Oriental studies Persophilia Sinophile Turquerie Notes[edit] Jump up ^ And called his poodle "Atman".[37] Jump up ^ See also Ascended Master Teachings References[edit]

Jump up ^ Tromans, 6 Jump up ^ Mahmood Mamdani, Good Muslim, Bad Muslim: America, the Cold War, and t he Roots of Terrorism, New York: Pantheon, 2004; ISBN 0-375-42285-4; p. 32. Jump up ^ from the Latin oriens; Oxford English Dictionary Jump up ^ Tromans, 20 Jump up ^ Harding, 74 Jump up ^ Tromans, 19 Jump up ^ Tromans, 24 Jump up ^ Xypolia, Ilia (2011). "Orientations and Orientalism: The Governor Sir Ronald Storrs". Journal of IslamicJerusalem Studies 11 (1): 24 43. Jump up ^ Tromans, 6, 11 (quoted), 23-25 Jump up ^ Xypolia, Ilia (2011). "Orientations and Orientalism: The Governor Sir Ronald Storrs". Journal of Islamic Jerusalem Studies 11 (1): 25 43. Jump up ^ The subject of Ives Jump up ^ King and Sylvester, throughout Jump up ^ Christine Riding, Travellers and Sitters: The Orientalist Portrait, in Tromans, 48-75 Jump up ^ Harding, 69-70 Jump up ^ Nochlin, 294-296; Tromans, 128 Jump up ^ Harding, 81 ^ Jump up to: a b c Tromans, 135 Jump up ^ Tromans. 136 Jump up ^ Tromans, 14 (quoted), 162-165 Jump up ^ Nochlin, 289, disputing Rosenthal assertion, and insisting that "there must be some attempt to clarify whose reality we are talking about". Jump up ^ Tromans, 16-17 and see index Jump up ^ Tromans, 135-136 Jump up ^ Tromans, 43 Jump up ^ Tromans, quote 135; 134 on his wife; generally: 22-32, 80-85, 130-135, and see index Jump up ^ Tromans, 102-125, covers landscape Jump up ^ Tromans, 7, 21 Jump up ^ Beard and Gloag 2005, 128 ^ Jump up to: a b Beard and Gloag 2005, 129 Jump up ^ Taruskin (1997): p. 153 Jump up ^ Taruskin (1997): p. 158 Jump up ^ Taruskin (1997): p. 156 ^ Jump up to: a b Taruskin (1997): p. 165 Jump up ^ "Description of contents of album "Alla Turca"". Atmaclassique.com. Re trieved 2012-03-27. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e McMahan 2008. Jump up ^ Renard 2010, p. 176. ^ Jump up to: a b Renard 2010, p. 177. ^ Jump up to: a b Renard 2010, p. 178. Jump up ^ Renard 2010, p. 183-184. Jump up ^ Schmidt, Leigh Eric. Restless Souls : The Making of American Spiritual ity. San Francisco: Harper, 2005. ISBN 0-06-054566-6 Jump up ^ Renard 2010, p. 185-188. ^ Jump up to: a b Sinari 2000. Jump up ^ Lavoie 2012. ^ Jump up to: a b Gilchrist 1996, p. 32. Jump up ^ Johnson 1994, p. 107. Jump up ^ McMahan 2008, p. 98. Jump up ^ Gombrich 1996, p. 185-188. Jump up ^ Fields 1992, p. 83-118. Jump up ^ Renard 2010, p. 189-193. ^ Jump up to: a b Michaelson 2009, p. 79-81. Jump up ^ Rambachan 1994. ^ Jump up to: a b Rambachan 1994, p. 1. Jump up ^ Karen Gabriel & P.K. Vijayan (2012): Orientalism, terrorism and Bombay

cinema, Journal of Postcolonial Writing, 48:3, 299-310 Sources[edit] Beard, David and Kenneth Gloag. 2005. Musicology: The Key Concepts. New York: Ro utledge. Fields, Rick (1992), How The Swans Came To The Lake. A Narrative History of Budd hism in America, Shambhala Harding, James, Artistes Pompiers: French Academic Art in the 19th Century, 1979 , Academy Editions, ISBN 856704512 C F Ives, "The Great Wave: The Influence of Japanese Woodcuts on French Prints", 1974, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, ISBN 0-87099-098-5 Gabriel, Karen & P.K. Vijayan (2012): Orientalism, terrorism and Bombay cinema, Journal of Postcolonial Writing, 48:3, 299-310 Gilchrist, Cherry (1996), Theosophy. The Wisdom of the Ages, HarperSanFrancisco Gombrich, Richard (1996), Theravada Buddhism. A Social History From Ancient Bena res to Modern Colombo, Routledge Johnson, K. Paul (1994), The masters revealed: Madam Blavatsky and the myth of t he Great White Lodge, SUNY Press, ISBN 0-7914-2063-9 King, Donald and Sylvester, David eds. The Eastern Carpet in the Western World, From the 15th to the 17th century, Arts Council of Great Britain, London, 1983, ISBN 0-7287-0362-9 Lavoie, Jeffrey D. (2012), The Theosophical Society: The History of a Spirituali st Movement, Universal-Publishers Mack, Rosamond E. Bazaar to Piazza: Islamic Trade and Italian Art, 1300-1600, Un iversity of California Press, 2001 ISBN 0-520-22131-1 McMahan, David L. (2008), The Making of Buddhist Modernism, Oxford University Pr ess, ISBN 9780195183276 Meagher, Jennifer. Orientalism in Nineteenth-Century Art. In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000 . online, accessed April 11, 2011 Michaelson, Jay (2009), Everything Is God: The Radical Path of Nondual Judaism, Shambhala Nochlin, Linda, The Imaginary Orient, 1983, page numbers from reprint in The nin eteenth-century visual culture reader, google books, a reaction to Rosenthal's e xhibition and book. Rambachan, Anatanand (1994), The Limits of Scripture: Vivekananda's Reinterpreta tion of the Vedas, University of Hawaii Press Renard, Philip (2010), Non-Dualisme. De directe bevrijdingsweg, Cothen: Uitgever ij Juwelenschip Said, Edward W. Orientalism. New York: Pantheon Books, 1978 ISBN 0-394-74067-X). Sinari, Ramakant (2000), Advaita and Contemporary Indian Philosophy. In: Chattop adhyana (gen.ed.), "History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civiliz ation. Volume II Part 2: Advaita Vedanta", Delhi: Centre for Studies in Civiliza tions Taruskin, Richard. Defining Russia Musically. Princeton University Press, 1997 I SBN 0-691-01156-7). Tromans, Nicholas, and others, The Lure of the East, British Orientalist Paintin g, 2008, Tate Publishing, ISBN 978-1-85437-733-3 Further reading[edit] Weir, David. American Orient: Imagining the East From the Colonial Era Through t he Twentieth Century (University of Massachusetts Press; 2011) 304 pages. Xypolia, Ilia, (2011) "Orientations and Orientalism: The Governor Sir Ronald Sto rrs". Journal of Islamic Jerusalem Studies 11 (1): 25-43. Art[edit] Jean-Marc Aractingi, "Peintres Orientalistes" Editions Vues d'Orient,Paris,2003 Behdad, Ali. Photography's Orientalism: New Essays on Colonial Representation, ( Getty Publications; 2013) 224 pages. Benjamin, Roger Orientalist Aesthetics, Art, Colonialism and French North Africa : 1880-1930, U. of California Press, 2003

Calarg, Carla. "Images de femmes: Une H/histoire de la France en Algrie travers le s Carnets d'Orient de Jacques Ferrandez", Prsence francophone, No. 74. (2010), p p. 106 125. Lawson, Shannon. "The artifice of representation: vestiges of orientalism in The Rabbi's Cat", International Journal of Comic Art, Vol. 14, No. 2. (2012), pp. 289 305. McKinney, Mark. Redrawing French Empire in Comics. Columbus: Ohio State Universi ty Press, 2013 (ISBN13 978-0-8142-1220-2) Peltre, Christine. Orientalism in Art. New York: Abbeville Publishing Group (Abb eville Press, Inc.), 1998 (ISBN 0-7892-0459-2). Rosenthal, Donald A. Orientalism: The Near East in French Painting, 1800 1880. Roc hester, N.Y.: Memorial Art Gallery of the University of Rochester, 1982. Stevens, Mary Anne, ed. The Orientalists: Delacroix to Matisse: European Painter s in North Africa and the Near East. Exhibition catalogue. London: Royal Academy of Arts, 1984 Literature[edit] Ankerl, Guy. Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chine se, and Western. Geneva: INU Press, 2000. ISBN 2-88155-004-5. Halliday, Fred. "'Orientalism' and Its Critics", British Journal of Middle Easte rn Studies, Vol. 20, No. 2. (1993), pp. 145 163. Irwin, Robert. For lust of knowing: The Orientalists and their enemies. London: Penguin/Allen Lane, 2006 (ISBN 0-7139-9415-0) Kabbani, Rana. Imperial Fictions: Europe's Myths of Orient. London: Pandora Pres s, 1994 (ISBN 0-04-440911-7). Klein, Christina. Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination, 1945 1 961. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003 (ISBN 0-520-22469-8; paperba ck, ISBN 0-520-23230-5). Knight, Nathaniel. "Grigor'ev in Orenburg, 1851 1862: Russian Orientalism in the S ervice of Empire?", Slavic Review, Vol. 59, No. 1. (Spring, 2000), pp. 74 100. Kontje, Todd. German Orientalisms. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2004 (ISBN 0-472-11392-5). Little, Douglas. American Orientalism: The United States and the Middle East Sin ce 1945. (2nd ed. 2002 ISBN 1-86064-889-4). Lpez-Calvo, Ignacio, ed. Alternative Orientalisms in Latin America and Beyond. Ne wcastle, England: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2007 (ISBN 1-84718-143-0) Lpez-Calvo, Ignacio, ed. One World Periphery Reads the Other: Knowing the "Orient al" in the Americas and the Iberian Peninsula. Newcastle, England: Cambridge Sch olars Publishing, 2009 (ISBN 1-4438-1657-4) Lpez-Calvo, Ignacio, ed. Peripheral Transmodernities: South-to-South Dialogues be tween the Luso-Hispanic World and "the Orient." Newcastle, England: Cambridge Sc holars Publishing, 2012. (ISBN 1-4438-3714-8) Lowe, Lisa. Critical Terrains: French and British Orientalisms. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992 (ISBN 978-0-8014-8195-6). Macfie, Alexander Lyon. Orientalism. White Plains, NY: Longman, 2002 (ISBN 0-582 -42386-4). MacKenzie, John. Orientalism: History, theory and the arts. Manchester: Manchest er University Press, 1995 (ISBN 0-7190-4578-9), google books. Murti, Kamakshi P. India: The Seductive and Seduced "Other" of German Orientalis m. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2001 (ISBN 0-313-30857-8). Noble dreams, wicked pleasures: Orientalism in America, 1870 1930 by Holly Edwards (Editor). Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000 (ISBN 0-691-05004-X). Oueijan, Naji. The Progress of an Image: The East in English Literature. New Yor k: Peter Lang Publishers, 1996. Schlicht, Alfred, "Die Araber und Europa", Stuttgart, Kohlhammer, 2008 Steiner, Evgeny, ed., Orientalism/Occidentalism: Languages of Cultures vs. Langu ages of Description. Moscow: Sovpadenie, 2012 [English & Russian]. (ISBN 978-5-9 03060-75-7) External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Orientalism.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Orientalist paintings. Look up orientalism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. The Orientalist Painters The Orientalists' Art Works Gallery Orientalism 25 Years Later, by Said in 2003 "China in Western Thought and Culture" Dictionary of the History of Ideas, etext , University of Virginia Brian Whitaker, "Distorting Desire", review[dead link], Joseph Abbad, Desiring A rabs, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007, from Al-Bab.com, on Reflection s of a Renegade blog site Martin Kramer, "Edward Said's Splash", from his book, Ivory Towers on Sand: The Failure of Middle Eastern Studies in America, Washington: The Washington Institu te for Near East Policy, 2001, pp. 27 43. Andre Gingrich, "Frontier Orientalism", Camp Catatonia blog Orientalism in the "History of Art", All Art Orientalist art and photography, London Times Online "Alexander Roubtzoff" (1884 1949), Artistic Association Alexander Roubtzoff "Edward Said and the Production of Knowledge"[dead link], CitizenTrack Articles & Analysis on Orientalists' Art Works