FRANCE In France, the first half of the twentieth century is dominated by the two World Wars.

The years between 1 !! and 1 "! witness the on#oin# industriali$ation of France, as in other countries of Western Euro%e and in North America. Economically, %olitically, culturally, and socially, &aris continues to be at the center of French life, %eriodic efforts at decentrali$ation notwithstandin#. The %ostwar %eriod in France is dominated by the towerin# %resence of 'eneral Charles de 'aulle (1) !* 1 +!,, who ser-es as %resident from 1 .. to 1 ./, and 1 ") to 1 / . The %rocesses of rebuildin# and moderni$ation that he im%lements are continued by his successors 'eor#es &om%idou (1 11* 1 +.,, 0al1ry 'iscard d2Estain# (born 1 3/,, and Fran4ois 5itterand (1 1/*1 /,. The latter, in %articular, ma6es an im%ortant mar6 on the ca%ital city throu#h his grands projets. Actually be#un under 'iscard d2Estain#, this series of %ublic wor6s u%dates French cultural institutions li6e the 5us1e du 7ou-re and transforms the city of &aris. 8urin# the 1 "!s and 2/!s, France, li6e other Western Euro%ean countries, under#oes a %rocess of decoloni$ation when its former African and Asian colonies claim inde%endence. Wars in Al#eria and Indochina result, and contribute to the social and %olitical tensions that eru%t in the 9E-ents9: s%ecifically the #eneral stri6es and student re-olts:of 5ay 1 /). As in other Western countries, an ener#y crisis, inflation, and hi#h unem%loyment create economic malaise in the 1 +!s. The economic reco-ery of the mid; to late 1 )!s coincides with the mo-ement toward Euro%ean coo%eration, which is manifest in the ado%tion of the Euro by twel-e of the fifteen Euro%ean <nion countries as the common unit of currency for electronic transactions in 1 . The twentieth century o%ens with France, and es%ecially the city of &aris, occu%yin# a %reeminent %osition in the art world. The French a-ant;#arde in the %eriod after 1 !! %ursues the de-elo%ment of artistic modernism that be#an durin# the nineteenth century. At the turn of the century, the Fau-ist artists, led by =enri 5atisse (1)/ *1 ".,, %roduce %aintin#s characteri$ed by the broad a%%lication of bri#ht colors. At a%%ro>imately the same time, &arisian artists, amon# them &ablo &icasso (1))1* 1 +?, and 'eor#es @raAue (1))3*1 /?,, %ioneer the Cubist style. Bo im%ortant does &aris become in the early decades of the twentieth century with re#ard to the de-elo%ment of a-ant;#arde aesthetics, that it is %ossible to s%ea6 of a Bchool of &aris com%rised of artists from many nations who are drawn to the city. The %ersecution of Cewish artists in 'ermany and elsewhere in the years leadin# u% to and includin# World War II brin#s many 1mi#r1s to &aris. The subseAuent 'erman Dccu%ation and French in-ol-ement in the conflict dri-es some away from &aris, to the <nited Btates. In the %ostwar %eriod, the international si#nificance of &aris as a center for art %roduction is somewhat ecli%sed by New Eor6. Nonetheless, the French continue to ma6e im%ortant contributions to %hoto#ra%hy, easel %aintin#, and scul%ture, as well as to desi#n and architecture. The grands projets, amon# other wor6s, are im%ortant for establishin# %ostmodernism as an international cultural %henomenon durin# the last two decades of the century.

1900 The Art Nou-eau style dominates desi#n and architecture around the turn of the century in France. &aris and the northern French city of Nancy are centers for the %roduction of Art Nou-eau decorati-e arts obFects, architecture, and entire domestic en-ironments. 1900 The E>%osition <ni-erselle o%ens in &aris. Two buildin#s from the e>%osition, the &etit &alais and the 'rand &alais, sur-i-e as -enues for art e>hibitions u% to the %resent. The &aris 51tro system o%ens in connection with the fair. 1902 The film A Trip to the Moon, directed by 'eor#es 51liGs (1)/1*1 ?),, o%ens in &aris. The film uses the com%le> editin# and tric6s for which the director is 6nown to con-ey a sense of s%ace tra-el to enthralled audiences.

 1905 The first e>hibition of the Fau-ist artists is held in &aris at the Balon d2Automne. Amon# the #rou% is =enri 5atisse (1)/ *1 ".,, Andr1 8erain (1))!*1 ".,, 5aurice de 0laminc6 (1)+/*1 "),, and others. In 1 11, =enri 5atisse %aints The Red Studio (5useum of 5odern Art, New Eor6,, a wor6 that demonstrates his non;normati-e use of bri#ht colors, as well as his deliberately erratic use of %ers%ecti-e. 1906 Alfred 8reyfus (1)" *1 ?",, a Cewish French army officer who had been arrested in 1) . and char#ed with s%yin# for 'ermany, is acAuitted. =is trial occasions a nationwide debate on anti; Bemitism, includin# 9C2accuse,9 a letter %ublished in 1) ) by Hmile Iola (1).!*1 !3, in defense of 8reyfus. 1907 The Tri%le Entente is si#ned by France, the <nited Jin#dom, and Russia. The a#reement is an e>%ansion of the earlier Entente Cordiale between @ritain and France that resol-ed some dis%utes and established di%lomatic relations between the nations. When Russia Foins, the three countries form the core of the forces that will o%%ose the Central &owers (Austria;=un#ary and 'ermany, in World War I. 1907 7ouis 7umiGre (1)/.*1 .), de-elo%s a %rocess for color %hoto#ra%hy usin# a three;color screen. The %rocess %ro-es to be ada%table to the industrial %roduction of ima#es and is one of the few a-ailable for nearly thirty years. With his brother Au#uste 7umiGre (1)/3*1 ".,, 7ouis is also credited with ha-in# -irtually in-ented the motion %icture. 1907 &ablo &icasso (1))1*1 +?, %aints Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (5o5A, New Eor6,, in which his fractured treatment of three;dimensional form heralds the ad-ent of Cubism. =e li6ewise demonstrates his interest in African mas6s in the treatment of some of the fi#ures2 faces. 1907 The first e>hibition of wor6 by Cubist artists is held in &aris, althou#h the term will not be a%%lied to the #rou% until the followin# year (1 !),, when it is coined by critic 7ouis 0au>celles (born 1)+!,. In 1 1?, %oet 'uillaume A%ollinaire (1))!*1 1), %ublishes The Cubist Painters, which codifies the common obFecti-es of the #rou%. 1909 French a-iator 7ouis @l1riot (1)+3*1 ?/, crosses the En#lish Channel from Calais to 8o-er, En#land, in thirty;se-en minutes by air%lane. 8urin# World War I, his manufacturin# com%any %roduces the B.&.A.8. fi#hter %lane used by the Allies. 1913 Irish;born furniture desi#ner Eileen 'ray (1)+ *1 +/, attracts fa-orable attention at the Balon des Artistes 81corateurs in &aris with lu>urious modernist %ieces combinin# lacAuer and rare woods, #eometric abstraction and Ca%anese;ins%ired motifs. In the 1 3!s, 'ray will reFect the Art 8eco sensibility in fa-or of a functionalist -ocabulary, incor%oratin# modern materials such as tubular steel and aluminum in her furnishin#s. 1913 5arcel &roust (1)+1*1 33, %ublishes Swann's Wa , the first -olume of his lar#er %roFect, Remembran!e o" Things Past. In this wor6, &roust offers a fictionali$ed memoir of -isits to family in Auteuil outside of &aris. 1913 The Rite o" Spring, a ballet by com%oser I#or Btra-ins6y (1))3*1 +1,, %remieres in &aris. It is %erformed by the @allets Russes, founded by Russian 1mi#r1 im%resario Ber#e 8ia#hile- (1)+3* 1 3 ,, with whom Btra-ins6y is associated throu#h 1 3 . This association leads to collaborations with a number of a-ant;#arde -isual artists. In 1 1+, &ablo &icasso (1))1*1 +?, desi#ns sets and costumes for com%oser Eri6 Batie2s (1)//*1 3", ballet Parade, which %remieres at the @allets Russes. 1914 World War I be#ins. 'ermany in-ades France. In February 1 1/, 'ermans attac6 0erdun and thousands of troo%s are 6illed there throu#h Culy, when the 'ermans end their offensi-e. In France, the @attle of the Bomme is also fou#ht in 1 1/. In 1 1+, the <.B. enters the conflict. In 1 1), World War I ends with the si#nin# of the Armistice by 'ermanyK the Treaty of 0ersailles is si#ned in 1 1 . As %art of the settlement with 'ermany, the %ro-ince of Alsace and %art of the %ro-ince of 7orraine, both %re-iously sei$ed by 'ermany, are returned to France.

 1918 Bwiss;born architect Charles;Hdouard Ceanneret (1))+*1 /", later 6nown as 97e Corbusier9, and Am1d1e D$enfant (1))/*1 //, %ublish Apr#s le !ubisme (After Cubism,, a manifesto of the &urist mo-ement. The aesthetic %urity of industrially manufactured obFects cham%ioned in &urism is manifested in %aintin#s and architecture incor%oratin# forms that echo common consumer #oods. In 1 3?, 7e Corbusier %ublishes $ers une ar!hite!ture, a manifesto of his conce%tion of modern architecture. 1919 The first &an;African Con#ress, or#ani$ed by W. E. @. 8u @ois (1)/)*1 /?,, o%ens in &aris with fifty;se-en dele#ates from si>teen countries and colonies. 1921 'abrielle 9Coco9 Chanel (1))?*1 +1, introduces Chanel No. ", which becomes the world2s best;sellin# %erfume. In 1 3), Chanel ma6es her first tweed women2s suit, a casual style stressin# sim%licity and comfort with which she will become closely identified. 192325 Conflict with 'ermany o-er un%aid re%arations, sti%ulated by the Treaty of 0ersailles, moti-ates the French and @el#ian occu%ation of the Ruhr 0alley, territory which is e-entually relinAuished. 1924 The film L'%nhumaine, directed by 5arcel 72=erbier (1)))*1 + ,, is %roduced with sets by modernist architect Robert 5allet;Bte-ens (1))/*1 .", and %ainter Fernand 71#er (1))1*1 "",. 1924 Andr1 @reton (1) /*1 //, issues the first Burrealist manifesto. Two additional manifestos will follow in 1 ?! and 1 .3, ma6in# @reton the most im%ortant theorist of the mo-ement. 1925 The E>%osition des Arts 81coratifs et Industriels 5odernes, or Art 8eco E>hibition, o%ens in &aris. The term 9Art 8eco9 will become associated with the style embodied in, for e>am%le, the wor6 of desi#ners Cean 8unand (1)++*1 .3, and Hmile;CacAues Ruhlmann (1)+ *1 ??,. 1929 The French be#in construction on the 5a#inot 7ine of defense a#ainst 'ermany, commencin# a lon# %eriod of %olitical tension between the countries that culminates in World War II. 1929 7i6e other Western Euro%ean and North American countries, France is sei$ed by economic de%ression in the wa6e of the <.B. stoc6 mar6et crash. 1931 The E>%osition Coloniale in &aris %reci%itates %rotest by the Burrealists, who or#ani$e a counter;e>hibition. 1931 Construction on the ocean liner &ormandie, an a%o#ee of Art 8eco style, be#ins. 1931 7e Corbusier (1))+*1 /", com%letes the 0illa Ba-oye in &oissy, outside &aris. The %eriod of economic and %olitical instability between the World Wars brin#s about a number of com%etin# styles in the arts, includin# architecture. Widely obser-ed as a 9turn toward the or#anic,9 which entails a re%udiation of the 5achine A#e forms fa-ored in the arts of the 1 3!s. In the 0illa Ba-oye, this transformation is si#naled by the %resence of rectilinear, rationalist forms as well as more cur-in#, or#anic elements. 1935 The Nobel &ri$e for chemistry is awarded to Fr1d1ric Coliot;Curie (1 !!*1 "), and IrGne Curie (1) +*1 "/, for the synthesis of new radioacti-e elements. 1936 The &o%ular Front, a %olitical %arty, comes to %ower in France. It res%onds to wor6in#;class dissatisfaction by ad-ocatin# %aid -acations and the forty;hour wor6 wee6. 1937 Cean Renoir (1) .*1 + ,, son of the %ainter Au#uste Renoir, directs The 'rand %llusion. The antiwar film is banned in 'ermany and Italy. 1937 &ablo &icasso (1))1*1 +?, %aints 'uerni!a (5useo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina BofLa, 5adrid,, which dramati$es the bombin# of the @asAue ca%ital durin# the B%anish Ci-il War.

 1939 World War II be#ins when 'erman troo%s in-ade &oland. France and @ritain declare war on 'ermany. In 1 .!, Italy declares war on @ritain and France. 'erman troo%s enter &aris, be#innin# its Dccu%ation in that year. The northern two;thirds of France are controlled by the 'ermans, while the southern third is under the collaborationist #o-ernment of 5arshall &hili%%e &1tain (1)"/*1 "1,. In 1 .3, southern France is occu%ied by 'ermany. In 1 .., Allied forces land on the Normandy beaches on 8;8ay and &aris and Rome are liberated from their 'erman occu%iers. Charles de 'aulle (1) !* 1 +!, becomes head of the %ro-isional #o-ernment. In 1 ./, the Fourth Re%ublic is created with a new constitution. 1945 France is a charter member of the <nited Nations. The institution is intended to foster international %eace and coo%eration. 1945 &ainter Cean 8ubuffet (1 !1*1 )", be#ins to collect what he calls 9Art @rut,9 wor6s characteri$ed as 9%rimiti-e9 or 9nai-e9 and that are %roduced by untrained non%rofessionals, includin# the mentally ill. This acti-ity e-entually leads to an international interest in Dutsider Art. 1946 Re-olt by Indochina be#ins and culminates in French withdrawal from the area in 1 ".. In that year, the Al#erian re-olt a#ainst French rule be#ins, culminatin# in Al#erian inde%endence in 1 /3. In 1 "/, the former French colonies of 5orocco and Tunisia #ain inde%endence. 1947 =enri 5atisse (1)/ *1 "., %ublishes (a)), an album of %a%er cutout com%ositions. The cutout techniAue will become his %rimary medium in the last years of his life. 1947 Couturier Christian 8ior (1 !"*1 "+, introduces the 9New 7oo69 in women2s clothes and &aris ta6es on international %reeminence as a center of fashion. After 8ior2s sudden death in 1 "+, his assistant E-es Baint 7aurent (born 1 ?/, becomes head of desi#n for the com%any. In the 1 /!s, Baint 7aurent will o%en his own fashion house and become one of the stars of &arisian clothin# desi#n, e-en as 7ondon be#ins to emer#e as a fashion leader. 1949 Bimone de @eau-oir (1 !)*1 )/, %ublishes The Se!ond Se*. The boo6 will become a classic te>t of the feminist mo-ement. 1950 French Forei#n 5inister Robert Bchuman (1))/*1 /?, first %ro%oses the conce%t of Euro%ean inte#ration in a s%eech on 5ay . This date is celebrated subseAuently as Euro%e 8ay, the birthday of the Euro%ean <nion. A ste% toward unification will be ta6en in 1 "+ when the 9Bi>9 (France, 'ermany, @el#ium, Italy, the Netherlands, and 7u>embour#, si#n the Rome Treaty establishin# the Euro%ean Economic Community. 1954 The com%letion of the Cha%el of Notre;8ame;du;=aut in Roncham% by 7e Corbusier (1))+* 1 /", si#nals the emer#ence of a more scul%tural and e>%ressionistic modern architecture. 1957 The Bituationist International is founded in &aris. In res%onse to %ostwar rebuildin#, its members %ro%ose uto%ian urban %roFects in ma%s, models, and other forms o-er a fifteen;year %eriod. 195762 &arisian artist E-es Jlein (1 3)*1 /3, %resents The $oid in a series of fi-e wor6s that blend %erformance and installation. Jlein2s wor6s embody a tendency amon# %ostwar French artists to create art that en#a#es not Fust the flat can-as, but three;dimensional s%ace as well. 1958 The Fifth Re%ublic is established under a new constitution. The %resident, Charles de 'aulle (1) !*1 +!,, is #i-en #reater %ower. 8e 'aulle will remain in office until his resi#nation in 1 / , which is followed by the election of 'eor#es &om%idou (1 11*1 +., as his successor. 195860 The first feature films by directors associated with the 9New Wa-e9 a%%ear, includin# The +,, -lows (1 " , by Fran4ois Truffaut (1 ?3*1 )., and -reathless (1 " , by Cean;7uc 'odard (born 1 ?!,. The films are mar6ed by s%ontaneity and directorial control of all as%ects of %roduction.

 1960 An e>hibition of 7eonardo da 0inci2s (1."3*1"1 , Mona Lisa (7ou-re, in New Eor6 and Washin#ton, 8.C., is brou#ht about by 5inister of Culture Andr1 5alrau> (1 !1*1 +/, as %art of a cam%ai#n to bolster France2s international standin# on the basis of its cultural herita#e. 1960 The D% Art mo-ement e>%lores the effects that can be created throu#h o%tical illusions. Amon# the French artists associated with it is the =un#arian;born 0ictor 0asarely (1 !)*1 ++,. 1967 Film director CacAues Tati (1 !)*1 )3, %remieres Pla time, in which he calls attention to the hollow tastelessness of %ostwar French architecture, urban %lannin#, and American;style consumer culture. 1968 In 5ay, students demonstrate a#ainst de 'aulle (1) !*1 +!, in &aris, touchin# off nationwide demonstrations and stri6es in-ol-in# some 1! million %eo%le, rou#hly two;thirds of the wor6force. The 98ays of 5ay9 %rom%t wides%read institutional, %olitical, and social reform in France. The state; su%%orted art school, the Hcole des @eau>;Arts, which has dominated academic trainin# since the nineteenth century, is reor#ani$ed and decentrali$ed. 1968 Fashion desi#ner Andr1 CourrG#es (born 1 3?, introduces the 5oon 'irl loo6, featurin# flared minidresses with %lastic %ortholes at the waistline, %latter;sha%ed hats, and calf;hi#h white %lastic boots:soon to be dubbed the 'o;'o boot. 1970s Writin#s by French feminist theorists, includin# 7uce Iri#aray (born 1 ? , and =1lGne Ci>ous (born 1 ?+,, ins%ire the %roduction of feminist art from the 1 +!s onward, by Annette 5essa#er (born 1 .?, and others. 1971 'eor#es &om%idou (1 11*1 +., allows the <nited Jin#dom to Foin the Economic Community (after 1 ? incor%orated into the Euro%ean <nion, E<,, a mo-e which de 'aulle (1) !*1 +!, had o%%osed. 1973 The Arab Dil Embar#o a#ainst the <.B. carries with it a +! %ercent %rice increase a%%lied to American allies, includin# France. Economic recession follows. 1974 'eor#es &om%idou dies and 0al1ry 'iscard d2Estain# (born 1 3/, is elected %resident of the Re%ublic. 1977 The Centre 'eor#es &om%idou, desi#ned by architects Ren$o &iano (born 1 ?+, and Richard Ro#ers (born 1 ??,, o%ens in &aris. The contem%orary art museum, cultural center, and library, with its bri#htly %ainted e>ternali$ed structure and mechanical systems, stands out from its traditional nei#hborhood. 1980 The national tele%hone com%any, France Telecom, introduces the Teltel -ideote>t networ6, by which subscribers can -iew tele%hone listin#s, news, and other information on their 5initel terminals. 1981 5ar#uerite Eourcenar (1 !?*1 )+, is the first woman to be elected to the Acad1mie Fran4aise. Eourcenar is best 6nown for her historical no-els. 1981 Elections brin# the Bocialist %arty to %ower and Fran4ois 5itterand (1 1/*1 /, becomes %resident, ser-in# until 1 ". 5any industrialists and financiers fear that 5itterand will institute swee%in# economic chan#es harmful to business interests, but such fears %ro-e to be unwarranted. 1983 Former Na$i Jlaus @arbie (9The @utcher of 7yon,9 1 1?*1 1, is e>tradited from @oli-ia to France to stand trial for crimes committed under the Na$i re#ime durin# World War II. =e is con-icted and #i-en a life sentence. 1983 The Institut &asteur identifies the =I0 -irus, an im%ortant ste% toward the eradication of AI8B, which reaches e%idemic %ro%ortions, es%ecially in the #ay community, by the 1 )!s.

 1983 =i#h;s%eed T'0 (Train M #rande -itesse, commences o%eration between &aris and 7yon, at s%eeds u% to 1/) miles %er hour. Additional hi#h;s%eed train lines are constructed and facilitate tra-el throu#hout France and Euro%e. 1983 &hili%%e Btarc6 (born 1 . , desi#ns an a%artment in the &alais de l2Hlys1e in &aris for 5adame 5itterand and recei-es instant reco#nition as a desi#ner. =is uniAue 9Cuicy Balif9 lemon sAuee$er (3!!1."3?, is desi#ned in 1 ! and is amon# the wor6s he %roduces for mass consum%tion. 1985 Christo (born 1 ?", wra%s the &ont Neuf, &aris. It is %art of his on#oin# %roFect to inter-ene on a lar#e scale in built and natural en-ironments. =is wor6 is carried out in collaboration with his wife Ceanne;Claude (born 1 ?",. 1987 The Institut du 5onde Arabe, desi#ned by Cean Nou-el (born 1 .",, is com%leted in &aris. The 7yon D%1ra, also desi#ned by Nou-el, is com%leted in 1 ?, and the Fondation Cartier buildin# in &aris in 1 .. Nou-el uses forms and materials (li6e steel and #lass, associated with hi#h modernist architecture, but in e>%ressi-e rather than %urely rationalist ways. 1989 The @icentennial of the French Re-olution is celebrated. In connection with the @icentennial, se-eral of the grands projets (or grands travau*, are com%leted, includin# the new %yramidal entrance to the 7ou-re (1 ) ,, desi#ned by I. 5. &ei (born 1 1+,, and the 5us1e d2Drsay (1 )/, by architect 'ae Aulenti (born 1 3+, to accommodate the state museum of French art from 1).) to 1 1.. 1991 The continued im%ortance of installation art in France is si#naled by Cean;5arc @ustamante2s (born 1 "3, wor6 Lumi#re (1 3."1"),. 1991 The fifteen member nations of the Euro%ean <nion meet in the 8utch town of 5aastricht to si#n the 5aastricht Treaty, by which they a#ree to ado%t a sin#le currency. In 1 , the Euro becomes the trans;Euro%ean electronic currency. 1991 Euro8isney o%ens in &aris. It is #reeted with s6e%ticism by some who see the amusement %ar6 as an indication of American cultural im%erialism. 1991 The French %artici%ate in D%eration 8esert Btorm in the first 'ulf War. 1991 Edith Cresson (born 1 ?., is the first woman in France to be elected %rime minister but ser-es only until 1 3. =er %olitical career is contro-ersialN in 1 , she is char#ed with a -ariety of wron#doin#s, includin# ne%otism, at the end of a four;year term as E< Commissioner for Research, Bcience and Technolo#y. 1993 New Eor6*based architect @ernard Tschumi (born 1 ..,, who is associated with the 8econstructi-ist mo-ement, com%letes the &arc de la 0illette in &aris in collaboration with other architects and artists. The %ar6 includes scul%ture by Claes Dldenbur# (born 1 3 ,, thirty;fi-e red 9follies,9 and other buildin#s. 1994 The com%letion of the 9Chunnel,9 a tunnel under the En#lish Channel, connectin# En#land and France. The Chunnel facilitates commercial, social, and cultural e>chan#e between 'reat @ritain and the Continent to an un%recedented de#ree. 1995 CacAues Chirac (born 1 ?3, is elected %resident. Chirac had #ained notoriety %re-iously as the mayor of &aris. 1996 Fifteen cybercaf1s o%erate in &aris. 7i6e other de-elo%ed countries, France is transformed by the com%uter, which brin#s ra%id communication and u%;to;date information to indi-idual homes, as well as to social, cultural, and educational institutions. 1997 8iana, &rincess of Wales (1 /1*1 +,, dies in a car accident in &aris.

 2000 A crash of the su%ersonic Concorde air%lane 6ills 11? %eo%le. Dri#inally hailed as a re-olutionary form of air trans%ortation, Concorde ser-ice between Euro%e and North America is discontinued followin# the crash.

B&AIN The countries of the Iberian &eninsula, B%ain and &ortu#al, ma6e im%ortant contributions to twentieth; century culture, des%ite the disru%tions and isolation caused by re%ressi-e %olitical re#imes throu#hout much of the %eriod. &ablo &icasso (1))1*1 +?,, %erha%s the most influential artist of the twentieth century, be#ins his earliest %eriod of e>%erimentation in @arcelona and 5adrid, before settlin# in &aris in 1 !.. The B%anish Ci-il War and the e-entual em%owerment of 'eneral Francisco Franco (1) 3* 1 +", in 1 ? , in %articular, be#in a %eriod of economic and %olitical isolation in B%ain which is not conduci-e to art %roduction. A number of artists are e>iled as a result of the Ci-il War, includin# the Catalan %ainter Coan 5irO (1) ?*1 )?,, who is associated with the Burrealists in &aris but returns to B%ain with the outbrea6 of World War II. D-er the course of its lon# duration, the Franco re#ime endorses an academic style of art that it belie-es to be consistent with its %olitical ideolo#y. Nonetheless, artists and #rou%s with connections to a-ant;#arde mo-ements elsewhere in Euro%e do emer#e, es%ecially in the %ostwar years. 8urin# the early years of the century, B%ain is an im%ortant center for Art Nou-eau in architecture and desi#n. Throu#h the 1 ?!s, centers of Burrealist art %roduction, in both literature and -isual arts, thri-e in the Iberian &eninsula. In &ortu#al, a %articular sort of modernist architecture is de-elo%ed that %ossesses aesthetic ties with a-ant;#arde desi#n elsewhere on the continent yet simultaneously res%onds to the distincti-e local -ernacular. @etween 1 /. and 1 )1, the B%anish EAui%o CrOnica, a #rou% of artists led by Rafael Bolbes (1 .!*1 )1, and 5anolo 0ald1s (born 1 .3,, ma6es art ins%ired by American and Euro%ean &o% Art, but directed a#ainst the Franco re#ime. The #rou% is associated with Estam%a &o%ular, a collecti-e of %rintma6ers with a similarly critical %olitical %osition. In the years followin# the end of the B%anish dictatorshi% and &ortu#uese fascism in the 1 +!s, both countries are more fully inte#rated into the world economy. B%ain and &ortu#al each be#ins to %lay a more im%ortant role in contem%orary art, as new e>hibition -enues are established, and as -isual artists, writers, and filmma6ers from the Iberian &eninsula become more re#ular %artici%ants in international e-ents.

1900 The first solo e>hibition of 5Pla#a;born artist &ablo &icasso (1))1*1 +?, is held at Els Quatre 'ats in @arcelona. Althou#h &icasso is closely associated with &arisian a-ant;#arde mo-ements, he returns %eriodically to B%ain and maintains an interest in B%anish concerns. 19024 Cuan 'ris (1))+*1 3+, studies mechanical drawin# at the Escuela de Artes y 5anufacturas in 5adrid. In 1 !/, he mo-es to France and subseAuently contributes to the de-elo%ment of Cubism in &aris. 190510 The Casa 5ilM, desi#ned by architect Antoni 'audL (1)"3*1 3/,, is constructed in @arcelona. Also 6nown as 7a &edrera (9The Quarry9,, the buildin# features undulatin# stone facades with biomor%hic o-ertones. The wor6 of 'audL re%resents Art Nou-eau architecture in B%ain, 6nown as 5odernisme in Catalonia, where he is acti-e. 1910 A %olitical re-olution in &ortu#al to%%les the monarchy and initiates the First Re%ublic. In 1 3/, a military cou% be#ins a half;century of %olitical domination by Fascist re#imes and re%ressi-e #o-ernments.

 191418 B%ain remains %olitically neutral durin# World War I. In 1 1/, 'ermany declares war on &ortu#al after 'erman shi%s are sei$ed in 7isbon. A small &ortu#uese force arri-es at the front in France in 1 1+ and the &ortu#uese sustain some +,!!! casualties durin# World War I. 1927 The ?!!th anni-ersary of the death of %oet 7uis de 'On#ora (1"/1*1/3+, ins%ires the writers associated with the 'eneraciOn del 3+ ('eneration of 23+, to re-i-e interest in 'On#ora2s wor6. The members, who include 7uis Cernuda (1 !3*1 /?, and Federico 'arcLa 7orca (1) )*1 ?/,, are influenced by the Burrealist mo-ement. 1928 Film writer and director 7uis @uRuel (1 !!*1 )?, ma6es .n Chien Andalou (An Andalusian 8o#,, co;directed and co;written with Bal-ador 8alL (1 !.*1 ) ,. =is 1 ?! film L'/ge d'0r (The 'olden A#e, is also co;written with 8alL. 1929 The E>%osiciOn Ibero;Americana is held in Be-ille. The &la$a de Es%aRa is constructed for the e>hibition and desi#ned by architect =annibal 'on$ales. 1929 'erman architect 7udwi# 5ies -an der Rohe (1))/*1 / , desi#ns the @arcelona &a-ilion for the E>%osiciOn Internacional in that city. The buildin#, which is %lanned to fulfill a lar#ely ceremonial function, becomes a modernist icon. 193033 French desi#ner Hmile;CacAues Ruhlmann (1)+ *1 ??, creates Art 8eco interiors for Carlos Alberto Cabral, count of 0i$ela, in the Casa Berral-es near the center of &orto in &ortu#al. The %ro%erty later incor%orates the 5useu Berral-es, a contem%orary art museum desi#ned by Al-aro Bi$a (born 1 ??, and com%leted in 1 . 1931 B%ain2s Becond Re%ublic be#ins, followin# the abdication of Jin# Alfonso SIII (1))/*1 .1,, under the leadershi% of the first %resident Niceto AlcalP;Iamora (1)++*1 . ,. =e is succeeded in 1 ?/ by 5anuel A$aRa (1))!*1 .!,. Followin# an attem%ted cou% by 'eneral Francisco Franco (1) 3*1 +", in 1 ?/, which be#ins the B%anish Ci-il War, A$aRa remains in %ower until the fall of the Re%ublic to Franco in 1 ? . 1931 Bal-ador 8alL (1 !.*1 ) , %aints The Persisten!e o" Memor (5useum of 5odern Art, New Eor6,, which de%icts lim% watches in a stran#e landsca%e. The %aintin#, one of 8alL2s best 6nown, reflects his interest in %sycholo#ically char#ed ima#ery and his affiliation with the Burrealist mo-ement. 1933 Federico 'arcLa 7orca (1) )*1 ?/, writes -odas de sangre (-lood Wedding,, the first in a trilo#y of tra#ic dramas dealin# with the %sycholo#ical torment suffered by B%anish women, %articularly in marria#e. The other %lays are 1erma (1 ?., and La !asa de -ernarda Alba (1 ?/, The 2ouse o" -ernarda Alba,. 1933 The influential Flamenco sin#er Antonio 5airena (1 ! *1 )?, recei-es national reco#nition when he records a son# for the film Mar3a de la 0. From 1 "", 5airena will be a 6ey fi#ure in the Flamenco Renaissance. 1935 B%anish %oet 7uis Rosales (1 1!*1 3, %ublishes Abril (April, and %oet 8ionisio RidrueFo (1 13*1 +", writes Plural. These two wor6s embody the interests in Renaissance %oetry and in the de-elo%ment of a direct %ersonal e>%ression that characteri$e the writin#s of the 'eneraciOn del ?/ ('eneration of 2?/,. 193639 The B%anish Ci-il War ta6es %lace. The Re%ublicans are defeated by ri#ht;win# nationalists fi#htin# under 'eneral Francisco Franco (1) 3*1 +",. 1937 &ablo &icasso (1))1*1 +?, %roduces a maFor can-as entitled 'uerni!a, which de%icts in horrific -isual terms the 'erman bombin# of a @asAue -illa#e durin# the B%anish Ci-il War. The %aintin# is e>hibited in the B%anish &a-ilion (desi#ned by architect Cos1 7uis Bert T1 !3*1 )?U, at the 1 ?+ E>%osition Internationale des Arts et TechniAues dans la 0ie 5oderne in &aris.

 1938 'eor#e Drwell (1 !?*1 "!, %ublishes 2omage to Catalonia, a first;%erson account of the B%anish Ci-il War and his admiration for the re-olutionary %olitics of @arcelona. 1941 'eneral Francisco Franco (1) 3*1 +", e>%resses solidarity with the 'erman cause in World War II. Franco su%%orts a -olunteer military force, the @lue 8i-ision (later the @lue 7e#ion,, but B%ain remains officially neutral durin# the war. 1947 5Prio Cesariny (born 1 3?, is amon# the founders of the 'ru%o Burrealista de 7isboa (7isbon Burrealist 'rou%,. 7i6e others of his contem%oraries in the &ortu#uese art world, includin# %ainter AntOnio &edro (1 ! *1 //,, Cesariny is 6eenly interested in &arisian a-ant;#arde art mo-ements. 194856 Ins%ired by 8ada and Burrealism, the @arcelona;based artistic and literary #rou% 8au al Bet (98ie at Be-en9, %romotes contem%orary Catalan art. Amon# the %ainter members are Coan &on4 (1 3+*1 )., and Antoni TM%ies (born 1 3?,. 1955 B%ain Foins the <nited Nations, althou#h the country will not become %art of many im%ortant international alliances until after the death of Franco (1) 3*1 +",. B%ain Foins NATD in 1 )3 and the Euro%ean <nion in 1 )/. 1957 The B%anish artists2 #rou% EAui%o "+ is founded. Amon# its members are A#ustLn Ibarrola (born 1 ?!, and the @asAue scul%tor Nestor @asterrechea (born 1 3.,. 1959 The terrorist #rou% Eus6adi Ta As6atasuna (ETA, @asAue Fatherland and 7iberty, is formed to brin# about a se%arate socialist @asAue state. @y the end of the century, ETA will be res%onsible for the deaths of nearly )!! %eo%le as a conseAuence of its terrorist attac6s, mostly carried out in the @asAue Country, 5adrid, and @arcelona. 1963 El 5useu &icasso (The &icasso 5useum, o%ens in a fifteenth;century %alace in @arcelona, the &alau A#uilar. The museum will e>%and in 1 +! and 1 with the anne>ation of adFoinin# buildin#s. 1969 The Funda4Vo Calouste 'ulben6ian o%ens in 7isbon. It is considered the #reatest collection of forei#n art in &ortu#al. In 1 )?, the Foundation o%ens the Centro de Arte 5oderna to house twentieth; century art. 1972 Bhoe desi#ner 5anolo @lahni6, born in the Canary Islands in 1 .?, %roduces his first collection. In the 1 )!s and 2 !s, @lahni62s shoes will be made famous by the many celebrities who wear them and their a%%earance in %o%ular tele-ision %ro#rams in 'reat @ritain and the <nited Btates. 1973 ETA is res%onsible for the assassination of B%anish %rime minister Admiral 7uis Carrero @lanco (1 !?*1 +?, in 5adrid. The attac6 is carried out in res%onse to the e>ecution by the B%anish #o-ernment of @asAue se%aratists. 1974 The Carnation Re-olution (Re-olu4Vo dos Cra-os, brin#s about an end to the fascist re#ime in &ortu#al and establishes a liberal democracy. The ne>t year, 1 +", inde%endence is #ranted to its African colonies. Followin# a %eriod of reform, &ortu#al Foins the Euro%ean <nion in 1 )/. 1974 The FundaciOn Coan 5irO in @arcelona, desi#ned by B%anish architect Cos1 7uis Bert (1 !3* 1 )?,, is com%leted. In 3!!3, the buildin# recei-es the American Institute of Architects2 3";Eear Award for buildin#s of hi#h;Auality desi#n that ha-e stood for between 3" and ?" years. The buildin# blends modernist and 5editerranean -ernacular elements. 1975 The death of 'eneral Francisco Franco leads to the end of his dictatorial re#ime. Cuan Carlos de @orbOn (born 1 ?), is %roclaimed 6in# of B%ain, which becomes a constitutional monarchy with a new constitution in 1 +).

 1977 &ortu#uese architect Al-aro Bi$a (born 1 ??, desi#ns the 5ala#ueira Quarter =ousin# &roFect at E-ora. In reco#nition of this and other wor6s, Bi$a is awarded the &rit$6er Architecture &ri$e in 1 3. 1977 Ca-ier 5ariscal (born 1 "!, has his first one;man show in @arcelona. Included are drawin#s, scul%tures, -ideos, and wor6s in other media. The followin# year he e>hibits desi#ns for %ostmodern furniture. 1978 The B%anish Constitution #rants some autonomy to the @asAue Country, Catalonia, and 'alicia. These re#ions %ossess distincti-e cultural and lin#uistic identities. 198086 The 5useo Nacional de Arte Romano (National 5useum of Roman Art, in 51rida, B%ain, desi#ned by Rafael 5oneo (born 1 ?+,, is constructed. 5oneo wins the &rit$6er Architecture &ri$e in 1 /. 1981 The first annual ARCD International Contem%orary Art Fair is held in 5adrid. It will become a %remier -enue for the e>hibition of contem%orary art in B%ain. 198388 The Ne-o#ilde =ouse is built in D%orto, &ortu#al, to the desi#n of Eduardo Bouto 5oura (born 1 "3,. The house embodies the architect2s dual interest in international modernism and the local -ernacular. 1986 &ortu#al2s inte#ration into the world economy and %olitics is si#naled by its membershi% in the Euro%ean Economic Community (now the Euro%ean <nion,. In 1 ), &ortu#al enters the Euro%ean 5onetary <nion, and introduces the Euro in 1 to financial institutions. 1987 La Le del deseo (The Law o" Desire,, a film written and directed by &edro AlmodO-ar (born 1 . ,, debuts and stars Antonio @anderas (born 1 /!,. AlmodO-ar2s later films, includin# Mujeres al borde de un ata4ue de nervios (Women on the $erge o" a &ervous -rea5down, 1 )),, will ma6e him the best;6nown B%anish director worldwide. 1990 5adrid writer Arturo &1re$;Re-erte (born 1 "1, %ublishes his third no-el, La Tabla de 6landes (The 6landers Panel,, which establishes his international re%utation. In 1 ?, he %ublishes 7l Club Dumas, his most acclaimed no-el. 199092 @arcelona artist Eulalia 0alldosera (born 1 /?, %roduces %hoto#ra%hs entitled -urns focusin# on traces of her own body. =er later wor6s will e>tend to installation, %erformance, and -ideo art, and will be characteri$ed by an intense interest in shadow and li#ht. 199097 Bantia#o Calatra-a (born 1 "1, desi#ns the Cam%o 0olantin Footbrid#e, constructed in @ilbao, B%ain. The soarin# desi#n and s%ectacular en#ineerin# ty%ify the desi#ner2s ability to ma6e utilitarian structures dynamic com%onents of the urban landsca%e. 199197 American architect Fran6 'ehry desi#ns the 'u##enheim 5useum, constructed in @ilbao, B%ain. The buildin# re%resents 'ehry2s use of com%uter software to %roduce desi#ns for undulatin# titanium;clad forms, at the same time that the %roFect %lays an im%ortant role in the rede-elo%ment of @ilbao. 1992 The 5useo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina BofLa in 5adrid is o%ened and houses modern and contem%orary B%anish art. &ablo &icasso2s (1))1*1 +?, 'uerni!a (1 ?+, is amon# the wor6s on e>hibit. 1992 The 5useo Thyssen;@ornemis$a o%ens in 5adrid. The collection includes old master wor6s, as well as e>am%les of nineteenth; and twentieth;century modernism. 1992 The Bummer Dlym%ic 'ames are held in @arcelona. The e-ent occasions the rebuildin# of the city2s waterfront and re%air of its infrastructure, ne#lected durin# the years of the Franco re#ime.

 1992 The E>%osiciOn <ni-ersal is held in Be-ille. Bantia#o Calatra-a (born 1 "1, desi#ns a brid#e across the 'uadalAui-ir Ri-er in connection with the fair. 1992 The film $a!as (Cows, by @asAue director Culio 5edem (born 1 "), debuts. The wor6 re%resents the director2s on#oin# concern with @asAue cultural and %olitical identity. 1993 @asAue scul%tor and installation artist Cristina I#lesias (born 1 "/, re%resents B%ain, alon# with Antoni TM%ies (born 1 3?,, at the 0enice @iennale. =er first solo museum e>hibition in the <nited Btates will ta6e %lace at the 'u##enheim in New Eor6 in 1 +. 1994 5adrid;born artist Bantia#o Bierra (born 1 //, has his first solo e>hibitions at the 'alerLa An#el Romero and the Es%acio 9&9 in 5adrid. Bierra s%eciali$es in orchestratin# %erformances by nonartists that call into Auestion economic, social, and class relations. 1996 B%anish artist Cuan 5uRo$ (1 "?*3!!1, e>hibits a com%le> fi#ural installation at the 8ia Center in New Eor6 entitled A Pla!e Called Abroad. In 3!!!, he wins B%ain2s %resti#ious %ri$e, the &remio Nacional de @ellas Artes. 1998 @arcelona desi#ner 5artL 'ui>1 (born 1 /., be#ins an on#oin# collaboration with the B%anish shoe retailer Cam%er that results in store interiors and %roduct desi#n. =is humorous conce%tual wor6 is critical of consumer culture. 1998 The <ni-ersal E>%osition (E>%o ), is held in 7isbon. The %a-ilion dedicated to oceano#ra%hic research is desi#ned by architect CoVo 7uLs Carrilho da 'ra4a (born 1 "3,, and the &ortu#uese %a-ilion by Al-aro Bi$a (born 1 ??,. 1999 5acao, the oldest Euro%ean colony in China, is transferred by &ortu#al to the &eo%le2s Re%ublic of China. The island, adFoinin# 'uan#don# &ro-ince, becomes a B%ecial Administrati-e Re#ion within the &RC. 1999 B%ain is amon# the first #rou% of countries to ado%t a common Euro%ean sin#le currency (the Euro,. 2000 Fernando TP-ora (born 1 3?, desi#ns the am%hitheater for the faculty of law at the <ni-ersidade de Coimbra, &ortu#al. TP-ora is 6nown for his modernist desi#ns that are nonetheless res%onsi-e to their urban and historical conte>ts.

ITALY
As in other %arts of Western Euro%e, the twentieth century in Italy is characteri$ed by industriali$ation, urbani$ation, and moderni$ation. <% until World War I, Italy is still en#a#ed in definin# itself %olitically, followin# nineteenth;century unification, but is able to %ros%er after the war, ha-in# a-oided many of the disru%tions caused by fi#htin# in other %arts of Euro%e. The rise of Fascism and the conflict of World War II dominate all as%ects of Italian life durin# the middle decades of the century. In the %ostwar %eriod, the moderni$ation of Italy continues and %olitical life witnesses the rise of a wide -ariety of %olitical %arties re%resentin# an array of -iews. The %rocess of moderni$ation and the rise of Fascism each has an im%act on the -isual arts of the Italian %eninsula. The Futurist mo-ement, which has literary as well as -isual arts adherents, %laces some of the essential characteristics of modernity:s%eed and -iolence amon# them:at the center of its aesthetic. The relationshi% of artistic %roduction to the Fascist mo-ement is also a central %roblem for twentieth;century culture in Italy. 8es%ite its %olitically %ro#ressi-e connotations in many other %laces, in Italy modernism is ada%ted by some artists and architects as the formal lan#ua#e with which to re%resent Fascism.

At mid;century, Italy emer#es as one of the world centers of modern desi#n. In the fields of furniture and industrial desi#n, fashion, and others, Italy is 6nown for its stylish %roducts which are mar6eted worldwide in the %ostwar %eriod. The country2s %reeminence in desi#n throu#h the end of the century is secured in the 1 )!s by %ostmodern inno-ators. In other fields of the -isual arts, for instance %aintin# and architecture, Italians also contribute to the de-elo%ment of %ostmodernism. 5uch of this new wor6 is e>hibited at the 0enice @iennale, which throu#h the century ser-es as one of the most si#nificant international -enues for showin# modern and contem%orary art.

18981903 Arturo Toscanini (1)/+*1 "+, ser-es as director of 7a Bcala in 5ilan, where he is 6nown for su%%ortin# modern music. The conductor returns to the %osition in 1 !/*) and 1 3!*3 . 1900 Jin# <mberto I (1)..*1 !!, is assassinated. This e-ent leads to increased influence for &rime 5inister 'io-anni 'iolitti (1).3*1 3),, who starts a war with the Dttoman em%ire in 1 11 as a result of which Italy #ains 7ibya as a colony. 1900 The o%era Tos!a by com%oser 'iacomo &uccini (1)")*1 3., is %roduced for the first time, in Rome. It is based on a %lay by French writer 0ictorien Bardou (1)?1*1 !), which &uccini had seen earlier in &aris. &uccini2s o%era Madama -utter"l (also 6nown as Madame -utter"l , debuts four years later in 5ilan. 1900 Tenor Enrico Caruso (1)+?*1 31, ma6es his debut at 7a Bcala in 5ilan in &uccini2s o%era La -oh#me. Within three years, Caruso lea-es for New Eor6, where he becomes a sensation at the 5etro%olitan D%era. 1901 The fourth 0enice @iennale includes wor6s by French artists for the first time, most notably twenty scul%tures by Au#uste Rodin (1).!*1 1+,. 1902 The Casa di Ri%oso, a retirement home for musicians founded by com%oser 'iuse%%e 0erdi (1)1?*1 !1,, o%ens in 5ilan. The buildin#, in the Neo;'othic style, is desi#ned by architect Camillo @oito (1)?/*1 1., between 1) " and 1) . 1902 The Es%osi$ione Interna$ionale d2Arte 8ecorati-a 5oderna is held in Turin and features many wor6s in the Art Nou-eau and Arts and Crafts styles. Architect Raimondo 82Aronco (1)"+*1 ?3, desi#ns the main e>hibition buildin#, or Rotunda, in a Becessionist style, as well as the %a-ilion de-oted to art %hoto#ra%hy. 1902 The 'alleria Interna$ionale d2Arte 5oderna o%ens in 0enice, in the Ca2 &esaro, a si>teenth; century %alace on the 'rand Canal. It is intended as an e>hibition s%ace for youn#er artists. 1903 8ecorati-e arts are included in the @iennale for the first time and, be#innin# in 1 !+, forei#n %a-ilions are constructed. 19038 The Italian commercial film industry is born. Amon# the early %roFects is Filoteo Alberini2s (1)/+*1 ?+, La presa di Roma8 9, settembre :;<, (The Ca%ture of Rome, Be%tember 3!, 1)+!,, made in 1 !", the year in which the first Italian motion %icture studio is established. 1907 5ariano Fortuny y 5adra$o (1)+1*1 . ,, a B%anish;born 0enetian fabric and dress desi#ner, %roduces an Art Nou-eau dress called the 98el%hos9 #own. The celebrated American;born modern dancer Isadora 8uncan (1)+)*1 3+, and the famous French actress Barah @ernhardt (1)..*1 3?, both wear -ersions of the 'ree6;ins%ired, %leated and beaded dress, thus ma6in# it famous internationally. 1909 Italian automobile desi#ner Ettore @u#atti (1))1*1 .+, sets u% a factory in France where he %roduces both racin# and tourin# cars throu#h the 1 ?!s. =is father, Carlo @u#atti (1)"/*1 .!,, is a well;6nown furniture desi#ner whose or#anic desi#ns are ins%ired by the drawin#s of French architect

Eu#Gne;Emmanuel 0iollet;le;8uc (1)1.*1)+ ,. Rembrandt @u#atti (1)).*1 1/,, another of Carlo2s sons, is a well;6nown scul%tor s%eciali$in# in animals. 1909 Writer Fili%%o Tommaso 5arinetti (1)+/*1 .., %ublishes 9The Foundation and 5anifesto of Futurism9 in the French news%a%er Le 6igaro. This foundin# te>t of the mo-ement calls for the embrace of -iolence and mechani$ation. In 1 1!, 9The Technical 5anifesto of Futurist &aintin#9 is si#ned by <mberto @occioni (1))3*1 1/,, Carlo CarrM (1))1*1 //,, 7ui#i Russolo (1))"*1 .+,, 'iacomo @alla (1)+1*1 "),, and 'ino Be-erini (1))?*1 //,. 1914 Architect Antonio Bant2Elia (1)))*1 1/, e>hibits drawin#s:%ers%ecti-e -iews of futuristic buildin#s:with the #rou% Nuo-e Tenden$e. In the e>hibition catalo#ue, Bant2Elia %ublishes a -ersion of his 95anifesto of Futurist Architecture.9 1915 <nder %ressure from Jin# 0ittorio Emanuele III (1)/ *1 .+, a.6.a. 9The Boldier9,, Italy declares war on Austria;=un#ary as %art of World War I. Austria surrenders to the Allies in 1 1). 1917 The &ittura 5etafisica (95eta%hysical &aintin#9, mo-ement is be#un by %ainters 'ior#io de Chirico (1)))*1 +), and Carlo CarrM (1))1*1 //,. It also includes 'ior#io 5orandi (1) !*1 /., and 5ario Bironi (1))"*1 /1,. These %ainters2 interest in de%ictin# the acti-ity of the unconscious mind, as well as their use of disturbin# ima#ery, ins%ire the later Burrealists. 1919 &oet and dramatist 'abriele 82Annun$io (1)/?*1 ?), leads a #rou% of Italian nationalists who sei$e the city of Fiume, now RiFe6a, Croatia. The #rou% ousts the city2s Allied occu%iers and holds it as an inde%endent state for fifteen months. 1919 5ario @uccellati (1) 1*1 /", o%ens his first sho% in 5ilan. Amon# the Feweler2s su%%orters is 'abriele 82Annun$io (1)/?*1 ?),. @uccellati becomes well 6nown for his sil-er flatware, hollowware, and other desi#ns and o%ens a sho% in Rome in 1 3". 191920 The 9Two Red Eears9 (9Il @iennio Rosso9, constitute a %eriod of wor6in#;class a#itation. Fear of re-olution contributes to the %o%ularity of the Fascist mo-ement, led by @enito 5ussolini (1))?*1 .", a.6.a. Il 8uce,. Fascist %arty forces, the 9@lac6 Bhirts,9 are used to re%ress wor6in#;class %olitical acti-ity. The %ower of the Fascist %arty increases throu#h the 1 3!s. 191922 The Ca2 @rutta a%artment buildin# is constructed in 5ilan, desi#ned by architect 'io-anni 5u$io (1) ?*1 )3,. The buildin# includes modernist and classical elements. 1920 8uilio Cambellotti (1)+/*1 /!, desi#ns a World War I monument for the town of Terracina. In addition to lar#e;scale scul%ture, Cambellotti also %roduces smaller scul%tures as well as illustrations and ta%estry desi#ns. 1921 'iacomo Ca%%ellin (1))+*1 /), and &aolo 0enini (1) "*1 " , found the #lasswor6s 0etri Boffiati 5uranesi Ca%%ellin, 0enini W C. in 5urano, the #rou% of islands in the 0enice la#oon where the industry had be#un as early as the ei#hth century. The new firm rein-i#orates the 5urano #lass industry by inte#ratin# modern desi#n into the traditional %rocess. 1921 The Alessi com%any is founded near 5ilan and %roduces small a%%liances and tablewares, mostly of metal. <nder the leadershi% of Alberto Alessi (born 1 ./,, the com%any acAuires a re%utation for hi#h;Auality desi#n by hirin# such well;6nown fi#ures as Ettore Bottsass (born 1 1+, and Aldo Rossi (1 ?1*1 +, to create functional and beautiful utensils for home use. 1922 A %osthumous retros%ecti-e of the wor6 of Amedeo 5odi#liani (1)).*1 3!, is %resented by the #eneral secretary of the 0enice @iennale, 0ittorio &ica (1)/.*1 ?!,. The e>hibition em%hasi$es what is at the time a contro-ersial connection between 5odi#liani2s modernist %aintin# and traditional African scul%ture. In 1 ?!, a second retros%ecti-e is held in connection with the @iennale. 1923 The No-ecento Italiano is founded in 5ilan, led by %ainters Anselmo @ucci (1))+*1 "",, 5ario Bironi (1))"*1 /1,, and others. The obFecti-e of the #rou% is to establish a s%ecifically Italian

modernism, but some members %roduce wor6s in sym%athy with the Fascist re#ime of 5ussolini (1))?*1 .",. 1926 'ru%%o + is formed by architects who embrace both rationalist %rinci%les and certain as%ects of modernist aesthetics. The #rou%2s intellectual %osition is formulated by critic Edoardo &ersico (1 !!* 1 ?/, and architect 'iuse%%e &a#ano (1) /*1 .",, both of whom are associated with the Fournal Casabella. &a#ano #oes on to desi#n the rationalist &hysics @uildin# at the <ni-ersity of Rome (1 ?3* ?",. 1927 Bal-atore Ferra#amo (1) )*1 /!, establishes a sho% in Florence sellin# shoes of his own desi#n. In the followin# decades, he will become one of the world2s most in-enti-e and successful shoe desi#ners, caterin# to celebrities and other wealthy clients. 1929 The inde%endent state of the 0atican City is established by the 7ateran &acts, si#ned by 5ussolini (1))?*1 .",. 1932 The Dli-etti Com%any introduces the first %ortable ty%ewriter, the 5&I. In 1 ?/, Dli-etti em%loys the Italian industrial desi#ner 5arcello Ni$$oli (1))+*1 / , to style all of its ty%ewriters and he remains head of desi#n at the com%any until the 1 /!s. 193236 The Casa del Fascio is constructed in Como, to the desi#n of 'iuse%%e Terra#ni (1 !.* 1 .?,, a member of 'ru%%o +. The buildin#2s facade is com%osed of a %artially o%en #rid of thin unornamented elements and demonstrates the a%%licability of some as%ects of modernism to re%resentin# a Fascist %olitics. The buildin# is later renamed the Casa del &o%olo. 193536 The Italo;Ethio%ian War is fou#ht and leads to the unification of Eritrea, Abyssinia, and Bomaliland as a sin#le state under Italian domination, called Africa Drientale Italiana (Italian East Africa,. 193638 5ilanese architect 'io &onti (1) 1*1 + , desi#ns the headAuarters of the 5ontecatini Cor%oration, Italy2s lar#est chemical com%any and %roducer of aluminum, in 5ilan. &onti2s desi#ns include the buildin# itself %lus all the fi>tures, fittin#s, and furnishin#s, usin# aluminum as the chief material throu#hout. As founder and editor of Domus ma#a$ine, &onti will e>ercise a %rofound influence o-er Italian desi#n for nearly half a century. 1937 Turin;based architect, in-entor, occultist, %hoto#ra%her, and furniture desi#ner Carlo 5ollino (1 !"*1 +?, %roduces the 95ilo 5irror,9 the sha%e of which echoes the 0enus de 5ilo. 5ollino is a %rominent %ractitioner of biomor%hic desi#n, ins%ired by Art Nou-eau and by Burrealism, which is centered in Turin in the 1 .!s and 2"!s. 1938 'uccio 'ucci (1))1*1 "?, o%ens his first sho% in Rome, sellin# hi#h;style accessories in leather and other materials. 193842 The 0illa 5ala%arte, desi#ned by rationalist architect Adalberto 7ibera (1 !?*1 /?,, is built on the island of Ca%ri. The client, writer Cur$io 5ala%arte (1) )*1 "+,, has stron# ties to the Fascist re#ime. The famous house is %ositioned ato% a dramatic roc6 outcro%%in# at the ed#e of the sea. 193839 Italy endorses the 'erman anne>ation of Austria and %arts of C$echoslo-a6ia, and recei-es 'ermany2s su%%ort for its anne>ation of Albania. Italy further allies itself with 'ermany durin# World War II when it declares war on France and @ritain in 1 .!. When the Americans and @ritish defeat Italian and 'erman forces in North Africa in 1 .?, Jin# 0ittorio Emanuele III (1)/ *1 .+, has 5ussolini arrested and re%laces him with 5arshal &ietro @ado#lio (1)+1*1 "/, as %rime minister. Italy subseAuently declares an armistice with the Allies, and 'ermany occu%ies %arts of the country, which are liberated in 1 .". 1940 En$o Ferrari (1) )*1 )), lea-es the em%loy of Alfa Romeo to be#in the com%any Auto;A-io Costru$ioni Ferrari in 5odena. After World War II, the com%any %roduces its first automobile, the 13" B%ort, and becomes 6nown for its winnin# race cars.

 1942 The E.3 E>%osition (or E<R, Es%osi$ione <ni-ersale di Roma, %ro-ides an o%%ortunity for rationalist architects to demonstrate their new interest in usin# the -ocabulary of a stri%%ed;down classicism. 1945 The film Roma8 Citt= Aperta (Rome8 0pen Cit ,, directed by Roberto Rossellini (1 !/*1 ++,, is released. It is %art of the director2s Neorealist trilo#y that also includes Pais= (1 ./, and 'ermania Anno >ero ('erman 1ear >ero, 1 .+,. The three films deal with World War II and its aftermath. 1945 Architect and critic @runo Ie-i (1 1)*3!!!, %ublishes Towards an 0rgani! Ar!hite!ture, an influential te>t in which he ad-ocates a more naturalistic modern architecture, ins%ired by the wor6 of Fran6 7loyd Wri#ht (1)/ *1 " , and others. Ie-i is the central fi#ure in the Associa$ione %er l2Architettura Dr#anica (Association for Dr#anic Architecture,. 1946 A referendum on the Italian #o-ernment de%oses the monarchy and leads to the establishment of a re%ublic. The new Italian constitution ta6es effect in 1 .). 1946 5obster Charles 97uc6y9 7uciano (1) +*1 /3, is %ardoned by the <.B. in return for ha-in# bro6ered 5afia assistance for the Americans in the in-asion of Bicily durin# World War II. 7uciano then returns to Bicily. 1948 8irector 0ittorio 8e Bica2s (1 !1*1 +., blea6 master%iece Ladri di bi!i!lette (The -i! !le Thie", %remieres. 8e Bica and screenwriter Cesare Ia-attini (1 !3*1 ) , %roduce se-eral other classics of Neorealist cinema, includin# Mira!olo a Milano (Mira!le in Milan, 1 "1, and .mberto D (1 "3,. 1949 Italy is a foundin# member of NATD. The nation %ursues Euro%ean coo%eration by Foinin# the Euro%ean Economic Community (the EEC, later the Euro%ean Community, EC, and subseAuently the Euro%ean <nion, E<, as a si#natory to the Treaty of Rome in 1 "+. 194954 The INA;Casa housin# %roFect is constructed in Rome on the 0ia Tiburtino, desi#ned by architects 5ario Ridolfi (1 !.*1 )., and 7udo-ico Quaroni (1 11*1 )+,. It is an im%ortant monument of the Neorealist mo-ement in Italian architecture. 1951 The &e##y 'u##enheim Collection o%ens to the %ublic in her 0enice home, the &ala$$o 0enier dei 7eoni, on the 'rand Canal. It showcases 'u##enheim2s (1) )*1 + , collection of twentieth; century art, amassed as a result of her %ersonal associations with many %rominent a-ant;#arde artists. 195364 Ernesto Nathan Ro#ers (1 ! *1 / , edits the architecture Fournal Casabella. Ro#ers is a leader of the %ostwar mo-ement Ricostru$ione (Reconstruction, by architects and en#ineers who attem%t the redesi#n of e-erythin# dal !u!!hiaio all !itt= (9from the s%oon to the city9,. 1954 Senso, a film based on an 1))? story by writer and architect Camillo @oito (1)?/*1 1.,, and directed by 7uchino 0isconti (1 !/*1 +/,, %remieres. The film de%icts the failure of the Risor#imento in the face of the Austrian occu%ation of Italy. Nearly a decade later, in 1 /?, 0isconti ma6es %l 'attopardo (The Leopard,, which li6ewise deals with the Risor#imento, in this case focusin# on the decline of the aristocracy in Bicily. 1956 Architect Carlo Bcar%a (1 !/*1 +), be#ins the reno-ation of the 5useo Ci-ico di Castel-ecchio in 0erona. =is a%%roach is distincti-e for the way that it %reser-es traces of the many centuries of the buildin#2s history, %roduces dramatic s%atial effects, and includes modern materials li6e concrete to re%resent the relationshi% between %ast and %resent. 195859 The &ala$$etto dello B%ort is built for the 1 /! Dlym%ic #ames in Rome. 8esi#ned by &ier 7ui#i Ner-i (1) 1*1 + ,, the stadium demonstrates the structural %ossibilities of concrete, the material for which the architect is renowned for usin# in inno-ati-e ways. 1960 8irector 5ichelan#elo Antonioni (born 1 13, ma6es L'Avventura (The Ad-enture, the first film in a trilo#y that also includes La &otte (The Ni#ht, 1 /1, and L'7!lisse (The Ecli%se, 1 /3,. Dne of the

central themes of the trilo#y, and of Antonioni2s wor6 in #eneral, is the alienation of modern inhabitants of industriali$ed Western societies. 1960 The film La Dol!e $ita, a wry loo6 at decadence amon# the %ri-ile#ed class, is directed by Federico Fellini (1 3!*1 ?, and stars 5arcello 5astroianni (1 3.*1 /,. Fellini and 5astroianni team u% a#ain for the e>uberant ; :?9, made in 1 /?. 1961 Tenor 7uciano &a-arotti (born 1 ?", ma6es his o%era debut in the role of Rudolfo in &uccini2s o%era La -oh#me. &a-arotti #oes on to %erform worldwide with the most renowned sin#ers, musicians, and conductors of the century. 1961 Actress Bo%hia 7oren (born 1 ?., recei-es an award at the Cannes Film Festi-al, and in 1 /3 an Academy Award, for her %erformance in the film Two Women. 1961 Bicilian Fournalist, essayist, and fiction writer 7eonardo Bciascia (1 31*1 ) , %ublishes %l giorno della Civita (The Da o" the 0wl,, the first of his no-els in which he uses the detecti-e #enre to analy$e contem%orary Bicilian society. 1961 The Balone Interna$ionale del 5obile (International Furniture Fair, o%ens in 5ilan and continues on an annual basis. @y 1 /", the %rominent manufacturers who show their wares at the fair include @offi, Cassina, and Jartell. 1962 Writer <mberto Eco (born 1 ?3, uses the term arte programmata (9%ro#rammed art9, to refer to wor6s e>hibited at the Dli-etti Com%any showroom in 5ilan by artists includin# @runo 5unari (1 !+* 1 ),, En$o 5ari (born 1 ?3,, and other members of two #rou%s founded se-eral years earlierN 'ru%%o N and 'ru%%o T. The wor6s are ins%ired by 6inetic art and are often %roduced in multi%les. 1964 Bcul%tor, litho#ra%her, etcher, and %ainter 'iacomo 5an$X (1 !)*1 1, com%letes %ortals (Porta della Morte, with relief scul%ture for Baint &eter2s @asilica at the 0atican in Rome. The scul%tural %ro#ram includes ten e%isodes e>%lainin# the Christian conce%t of death. 1964 &oet, no-elist, and filmma6er &ier &aolo &asolini (1 33*1 +", directs the film %l $angelo se!ondo Matteo (The 'ospel A!!ording to Saint Matthew,. 196574 Fashion desi#ner Emilio &ucci (1 1.*1 3, is hired to %roduce fli#ht attendant uniforms for @raniff International Airways. Earlier, in the late 1 .!s, &ucci had been 9disco-ered9 at Iermatt, Bwit$erland, by fashion editor 8iana 0reeland (1 !/*1 ) , when she noticed the s6i outfits he desi#ned and wore there. &ucci is synonymous with chic Italian style in the 1 /!s, and es%ecially renowned for his bri#htly colored sil6 scar-es and ties. 1966 The #rou%s of desi#ners 6nown as Archi$oom and Bu%erstudio are founded in Florence. The members of the two #rou%s e>%ress their critical -iews of modernist architecture and desi#n in the Bu%erarchitecture e>hibition in &istoia in 1 // and in a second e>hibition in 5odena in 1 /+. 1967 The term arte povera (9%oor art9, is coined by critic 'ermano Celant (born 1 .!, to describe the wor6 of thirteen Italian artists who to#ether e>hibit their scul%tures and installations in the late 1 /!s. Amon# the #rou% are Emilio &rini (born 1 .?, and 'ilberto Iorio (born 1 ..,. Their wor6 is e>%erimental, incor%oratin# a -ariety of materials and media, and embodyin# a critiAue of %ostwar consumer culture. 1971 Architect Aldo Rossi (1 ?1*1 +, recei-es the commission for the Ban Cataldo cemetery in 5odena. It becomes a maFor statement of %ostmodernism in architecture, and #i-es -isual form to some of the ar#uments made in Rossi2s influential %ublication The Ar!hite!ture o" the Cit (1 //,. 1972 The 5useum of 5odern Art in New Eor6 %resents the e>hibition %tal @ The &ew Domesti! Lands!apeAA!hievements and Problems o" %talian Design. Architect 'ae Aulenti (born 1 3+, %artici%ates in the e>hibition desi#n. In 1 )+, she will transform the 'are d2Drsay in &aris into the 5us1e d2Drsay.

 1975 'ior#io Armani (born 1 ?.,, desi#ner of a successful line of men2s clothin# in 1 +., establishes a %o%ular line for women characteri$ed by tailorin# and fabrics based on men2s suits and other #arments. In 3!!!, Armani is the subFect of a retros%ecti-e e>hibition at the 'u##enheim 5useum in New Eor6. 1975 A confrontation between Corsican nationalists and French %olice in a winery near Al1ria ends in the deaths of two %olicemen and a wine;#rower. This e-ent is followed in 1 +/ by the establishment of the Front de 7ib1ration Nationale de la Corse, a se%aratist #rou%. 1976 Bemiotician and no-elist <mberto Eco (born 1 ?3, %ublishes A Theor o" Semioti!s, an influential wor6 that is his own translation and rewor6in# of his 1 /) boo6 La struttura assente. In 1 )!, Eco %ublishes his internationally %o%ular no-el %l nome della rosa (The &ame o" the Rose,, which is set in a fourteenth;century monastery. The settin# allows Eco to demonstrate his 6nowled#e of medie-al aesthetics. 1977 The Treaty of Dsimo is si#ned by Italy and Eu#osla-ia and resol-es the border between the two countries. The treaty also reAuires Italy to di-est itself of African and other landholdin#s. 1978 The Red @ri#ades (@ri#ate Rosse,, an ultraleft terrorist #rou%, 6idna%s and e-entually e>ecutes Italian %rime minister Aldo 5oro (1 1/*1 +),. 1979 No-elist and short;story writer Italo Cal-ino (1 3?*1 )", %ublishes Se una notte d'inverno un viaggiatore (%" on a Winter's &ight a Traveler,, which consists of a series of no-els that be#in but ne-er end. The wor6 reflects literary %ostmodernism but also Cal-ino2s interest in techniAues of storytellin# that run throu#h his writin#s. 1979 The Btudio Alchimia is founded in 5ilan by Alessandro 5endini (born 1 ?1, to transform consumer #oods with bri#ht colors, bold %atterns, and -i-id te>tures. It is %art of the 9Radical9 or 9Anti; 8esi#n9 mo-ement that o%%oses the austerity of modernist desi#n. 1980 Critic Achille @onito Dli-a (born 1 ? , coins the term transavanguardia (9transa-ant#arde9, to refer to the contem%orary fi#urati-e %aintin# of Bandro Chia (born 1 ./,, Francesco Clemente (born 1 "3,, En$o Cucchi (born 1 . ,, 5immo &aladino (born 1 .),, and others. The Transa-ant#arde is associated with the Neo;E>%ressionist mo-ement that arises throu#hout Euro%e and North America in the 1 )!s. 1981 The first e>hibition of the 5em%his desi#n #rou% is held at the 5ilan International Furniture Fair. 7ed by Ettore Bottsass (born 1 1+,, the #rou% o%%oses the austerity of modernist 9#ood desi#n9 with %ostmodern furnishin#s that incor%orate the materials and florid colors associated with 6itsch. The #rou%, whose name comes from the @ob 8ylan son# 9Btuc6 Inside of 5obile (with the 5em%his @lues A#ain,,9 is dissol-ed in 1 )). 1984 The 7ateran &acts with the 0atican end the status of Catholicism as the state reli#ion of Italy. 1986 8omenico 8olce (born 1 "), and Btefano 'abbana (born 1 /3, launch their first 8olce W 'abbana collection. Their %ro-ocati-e fashions are fa-ored by celebrities, cata%ultin# the desi#ners to %rominence. 1992 The 95ani &ulite9 (9Clean =ands9, in-esti#ation of %olitical and criminal corru%tion (Tan#ento%oli, be#ins. It leads to the demise of the Christian 8emocratic %arty and the declaration of the Becond Re%ublic. 1993 Fashion desi#ners 5iuccia &rada (born 1 . , and &atri$io @ertelli (born 1 ./, establish the Fonda$ione &rada, a s%ace for contem%orary scul%ture in 5ilan. The Fonda$ione Trussardi, a 5ilanese contem%orary art center, follows in 1 / and is su%%orted by desi#ner Nicola Trussardi (1 .?*1 ,. These and other institutions contribute to the #rowin# im%ortance of 5ilan as a center for contem%orary art in Italy.

 1994 5edia mo#ul Bil-io @erlusconi (born 1 ?/, founds the For$a Italia %olitical %arty and is elected %rime minister. =e ser-es only briefly before the coalition of %olitical %arties that su%%ort him be#ins to unra-el. 1997 The Minimalia e>hibition is held in 0enice and tra-els to New Eor6, to the &.B. 1 Contem%orary Art Center, in 1 . Curated by Achille @onito Dli-a (born 1 ? ,, the show demonstrates the central %lace of Italian artists in twentieth;century 5inimalist art. 1997 Fashion desi#ner 'ianni 0ersace (1 ./*1 +, is murdered in Florida. 0ersace is 6nown for his sta#e costumes desi#ned for the @ritish %erformer Elton Cohn (born 1 .+, and other celebrities, as well as for his flamboyant collections featurin# metallic fabrics and outra#eous details. 1998 The French %refect, or #o-ernmental re%resentati-e, Claude Eri#nac (1 ?+*1 ), is assassinated in Corsica. The murder is %art of the on#oin# stru##le for Corsican %olitical autonomy. In 3!!!, France a#rees to #i-e Corsica #reater autonomy if -iolence is curtailed.

BALKAN
This re#ion of former Austrian and Dttoman %ro-inces stru##les with inde%endence, with no set international borders or system for re%resentin# the different ethnic #rou%s found here. The countries of the @al6an &eninsula are ra-a#ed by wars and %olitical u%hea-als throu#hout the twentieth century, from the @al6an Wars of the century2s second decade throu#h the ethnic conflicts of the last. In between, re%ressi-e Communist re#imes in many countries create a chillin# climate for the arts. In many areas there e>ist local traditional cultures that are melded with international influences. In Tur6ey, for e>am%le, in the 1 ?!s, the 8 'rou% of %ainters and scul%tors see6 to synthesi$e Tur6ish tradition with elements of a-ant;#arde Euro%ean art. Followin# the colla%se of the Bo-iet <nion and of re%ressi-e re#imes in the @al6ans in the early 1 !s, o%%ortunities o%en u% for a less constrained art %ractice. Dn#oin# war, based on ethnic and other di-isions, is an im%ediment to artistic %ractice in many areas throu#h the 1 !s. 'reece remains stable, but the -arious 6in#doms and federations established in the @al6ans continually eru%t into -iolence.

19078 The Tele%hone E>chan#e buildin# is constructed in @el#rade. Its desi#n by @ran6o Tana$e-ic (born 1)+/, draws on the architecture of the 0ienna Becession. 1908 Austria;=un#ary anne>es @osnia, and @ul#aria becomes inde%endent as the %ower of Dttoman sultan AbdYlhamid II declines. The sultan will be de%osed the followin# year by the Committee of <nion and &ro#ress, or Eoun# Tur6s, who establish a %arliamentary #o-ernment in Tur6ey and #enerate a fer-ent sense of nationalism, stressin# cultural and lin#uistic unity. 1908 The Association of Dttoman &ainters is established by students of the Fine Arts Academy in Istanbul. 5any of the association2s members will also study in Euro%e and, u%on their return to Tur6ey, introduce the %ublic to Western art styles. The most influential member is Ibrahim Zalli (1))3*1 /!,, who brin#s new subFects to Tur6ish %aintin#, includin# multifi#ural and narrati-e com%ositions. 191213 The two @al6an Wars are fou#ht. The @al6an 7ea#ue:consistin# of troo%s from already free 5ontene#ro, later Foined by Berbian, @ul#arian, and 'ree6 forces:e>%el the Dttomans from Joso-o, 5acedonia, and Albania. The di-ision of the conAuered territory is contested and @ul#aria is forced to return a #reat deal of what had been %romised in the ori#inal scheme. The wars create %olitical tensions that contribute to the outbrea6 of World War I. 1914 'erman &rince Wilhelm ser-es briefly as head of a newly inde%endent Albania, but falls from %ower with the outbrea6 of World War I.

 1914 Berbia turns a#ainst its @al6an nei#hbors and occu%ies Joso-o and 5acedonia. When Archdu6e Fran$ Ferdinand (1)/?*1 1., of the Austro;=un#arian em%ire arri-es to %romote %eace in BaraFe-o, he is assassinated by a Berbian nationalist. World War I be#ins and Austria;=un#ary declares war on Berbia. Austria;=un#ary is ali#ned with 'ermany, Tur6ey, and @ul#aria as the A>is %owers a#ainst the AlliesN 'reat @ritain, France, Russia, Italy, and the <.B. 8urin# the war, Austria; =un#ary and @ul#aria occu%y different %arts of Berbia and 5ontene#ro. The war ends when the Armistice is si#ned in 1 1). 191516 The Tur6ish #o-ernment, led by the Eoun# Tur6s, e>ecutes ?!! Armenian nationalist leaders, then orchestrates the de%ortation of 1.) million Armenians from Anatolia to Byria and 5eso%otamia. It is estimated that in the %rocess, some 1." million Armenians are massacred or die of star-ation, disease, or e>haustion. 191922 After World War I, the Treaty of 0ersailles sets terms for the former %ro-inces of the defeated Austro;=un#arian and Dttoman em%ires. The Jin#dom of Berbs, Croats, and Blo-enes is foundedK its name is chan#ed in 1 3 to Eu#osla-ia, meanin# 9the land of the Bouthern Bla-s.9 The 'reco;Tur6ish War is fou#ht o-er %romises made to 'reece of former lands of the Dttoman em%ire, made by the Allies who wanted 'ree6 su%%ort in World War I. D-er the ne>t se-eral years, ethnic 'ree6s and Tur6s in both countries are forced to return to their land of ori#in. 191920 Re%resentati-es to the Treaty of &aris decide to di-ide Albania amon# 'reece, Italy, and Eu#osla-ia. The Albanians reFect the %lan and Albania is reco#ni$ed as an inde%endent state with its admission to the 7ea#ue of Nations. 1921 The a-ant;#arde 9Ienitism9 mo-ement is founded by 7Fubomir 5icic (1) "*1 +1,. Western Euro%ean culture is s%iritually ban6ru%t, accordin# to 5icic, but Ienitism, the embodiment of the @al6an 9barbaro;#enius,9 will re-itali$e it. The #rou%2s manifesto is %ublished in its ma#a$ine >enit (Ienith,, which, des%ite 5icic2s insistence on the su%eriority of 9@al6ani$ation,9 routinely re%roduces wor6 by Cubists, Futurists, 8adaists, and E>%ressionists. 1923 Jemal AtatYr6 (born 5ustafa Jemal, 1))1*1 ?), becomes the first %resident of the newly %roclaimed Re%ublic of Tur6ey, launchin# an ambitious cam%ai#n to moderni$e, seculari$e, and Westerni$e the country. =e re%laces Islamic shari!a law with Western le#al codes, thus se%aratin# church and stateK abolishes the cali%hate and theolo#ical schools, seculari$in# educationK #rants eAual ri#hts to womenK con-erts written Tur6ish from an Arabic to 7atin scri%tK and bans the fe$, encoura#in# Euro%ean dress. AtatYr6 is an enthusiastic %ro%onent of culture as an inte#ral element of national de-elo%ment, and encoura#es a synthesis of the nation2s creati-e le#acy, indi#enous cultures, and Western artistic %ractices. 1924 'ree6s -ote for the abolition of the monarchy and the Becond Re%ublic is born. The monarchy is restored in 1 ?"K the ne>t year, the 6in# establishes a ri#ht;win# dictatorshi% under the leadershi% of 'eneral Ioannis 5eta>as (1)+1*1 .1,. The monarchy is finally abolished only in 1 +.. 1925 @enito 5ussolini (1))?*1 .",, dictator of Italy, be#ins a cam%ai#n to ta6e o-er Albania, culminatin# in his 'erman;su%%orted occu%ation of the country in 1 ? . 192935 The 5ar>ist;oriented Croatian #rou% IemlFa (Earth, is acti-e in Ia#reb, es%ousin# a -ernacular culture based in the immediate social milieu, and reFectin# the im%orted styles of western Euro%e. Althou#h the #rou% is o%%osed to formalism, it does not su%%ort Bocialist Realism. 1931 The New Artists2 Bociety is founded in Bofia, @ul#aria, to foster a-ant;#arde trends in art allied with western Euro%ean mo-ements of the 1 3!s and 2?!s. The society o%erates until 1 .., when it is absorbed into the Communist;controlled <nion of @ul#arian Artists. 193239 The construction of the Church of Baint 5ar6, @el#rade, the desi#n of which is based loosely on the twelfth;century church of the 'racanica 5onastery, leads to a debate on historicism in contem%orary Berbian architecture.

 1933 Architect 0ladimir Bubic (1) .*1 ./, desi#ns the first Blo-enian s6yscra%er, in 7FublFana. Btandin# +!.?" meters in hei#ht, the buildin# is the tallest in Eu#osla-ia. 1933 The 8 'rou% is formed in Istanbul to %romote contem%orary Euro%ean aesthetic ideas in Tur6ey. 5ost of the #rou%2s members, includin# %ainter Zemal Tollu (1) *1 /), and scul%tor IYhtY 5Yrido#lu (1 !/*1 3,, are former students of the Istanbul Academy of Fine Arts who also recei-ed trainin# in Euro%e. 193641 The National <ni-ersity 7ibrary in the Blo-enian ca%ital of 7FublFana is constructed to the desi#n of architect Co$e &lecni6 (1)+3*1 "+,. The desi#n embodies &lecni62s modernist synthesis of classical and local -ernacular desi#n sources. 193944 8urin# the course of World War II, Italy in-ades Albania, 'reece, and Eu#osla-ia. The Italian forces are forced to retreat by local armies but are soon re%laced by the 'ermans, who remain until 1 ... 1941 The Albanian Communist &arty is founded with En-er =o>ha (1 !)*1 )", as its first secretary. =e will ser-e as %rime minister from 1 .. to 1 "., as well as minister of forei#n affairs between 1 ./ and 1 "?. Thereafter he is %resident, but in actuality a -irtual dictator until his semi;retirement in 1 )?. =o>ha is res%onsible for Albania2s industriali$ation, but also for its estran#ement from the Bo-iet <nion and %olitical ali#nment with China between 1 /+ and 1 +/. 1941 The A>is %owers, led by Adolf =itler (1)) *1 .",, attac6 Eu#osla-ia and 'reece durin# World War II. Eu#osla-ia is di-ided when 'ermany %roclaims a 9'reater Croatia,9 to which it anne>es most of @osnia and western Berbia. The fascist %u%%et #o-ernment, attem%tin# to create a Catholic, all; Croat re%ublic, sends hundreds of thousands of Cews, 'y%sies, and Berbs to death cam%s. Two se%arate mo-ements battle the forei#ners and each other for control of the country:the Communists, led by Cosi% @ro$ Tito (1) 3*1 )!,, and the ethnic Berbians, led by 8ra#olFub 5ihailo-ic (1) ?*1 ./,. 1941 Tur6ish %ainter Nuri Iyem (born 1 1", founds the Eeniler 'rubu (New 'rou%,, em%hasi$in# the e>%loration of aesthetic styles and social content rele-ant to the Tur6ish conte>t, in o%%osition to the Euro%ean;ins%ired formalism of the 8 'rou%. 1944 After the 'erman de%arture from 'reece, the e>iled monarchy returns, only to face a Communist insur#ency. The <nited Btates and @ritain bac6 the 6in#, and the ci-il war ends in 1 . . 1946 At the end of World War II, Tito and the Communists %re-ail, and the Federal &eo%le2s Re%ublic of Eu#osla-ia is %roclaimed. It consists of si> re%ublicsN Croatia, 5ontene#ro, Berbia, Blo-enia, @osnia;=er$e#o-ina, and 5acedoniaK and two autonomous %ro-incesN Joso-o and 0oF-odina. As each re%ublic de-elo%s with -aryin# de#rees of success, ethnic tensions rise. These are 6e%t in chec6 by Tito but e>%lode within a few years of his death in 1 )!. 1946 The monarchy is abolished in @ul#aria and the Communist %arty is elected to %ower. 'eor#i 8imitro- (1))3*1 . , becomes %rime minister. A Communist state or#ani$ed alon# the lines of the Bo-iet <nion is established in the followin# year. Its lon#;term leader is Todor Ihi-6o- (1 11*1 ),, who is head of the Communist %arty from 1 ". until 1 ) , as well as %resident from 1 +1 to 1 ) . 1946 'ree6 no-elist Ni6os Ja$ant$a6is (1))?*1 "+, %ublishes Ale*i >ormpa (>orba the 'ree5,. The no-el, which establishes Ja$ant$a6is2 international re%utation, concerns the encounter between a %assionate 8ionysian and a more contem%lati-e fi#ure. 1948 Ideolo#ical dis%utes between Eu#osla-ia and the Bo-iet Communist &arty result in the country2s e>%ulsion from the Cominform. Eu#osla-ia %ursues an inde%endent course in forei#n relations and economic %olicy, and, althou#h intellectual freedom is restricted, there is a #reater de#ree of o%enness than in other countries of the Eastern @loc. 1948 Art swindler Ante To%ic 5imara (1) )*1 )+, %resents a false list of 1// wor6s alle#edly stolen by the Na$is from Eu#osla-ia to authorities at the Central Collectin# &oint in 5unich. 5imara2s scam is

later e>%osed, althou#h he and the wor6s of art disa%%ear. A 3!!1 re%ort re-eals that some do$en of the wor6s are in the collections of museums in @el#rade and Ia#reb. 1950s In @ul#aria, art %roduction and e>hibition are ti#htly controlled by the <nion of @ul#arian Artists, which enforces Bocialist Realism as the only a%%ro%riate mode of artistic e>%ression. 7imited artistic freedom is #ranted in se-eral brief 9thaws,9 notably the mid;1 /!s and late 2+!s. 1950 Ri#ht;win# #uerrillas, bac6ed by the <.B. and @ritain, unsuccessfully attem%t to o-erthrow the Communists in Albania. 195056 The #rou% ESAT "1 (short for 9e>%erimental atelier9, is formed in Ia#reb by Croatian %ainters and architects with a readin# of their manifesto at a meetin# of the Association of A%%lied Artists. The #rou% reFects Bocialist Realism, ar#uin# that the official condemnation of abstraction contradicts the tenets of socialism. @uildin# on the ideas of the @auhaus and Russian constructi-ism, ESAT "1 hel%s to free Eu#osla- artists from the strictures of Btalinist do#ma. 1953 After a stay in the <nited Btates and Canada (1 "1*"?,, Croatian %ainter and #ra%hic desi#ner Edo 5urtic (born 1 31, ma6es a definiti-e brea6 from Bocialist Realism in his solo e>hibition 7*perien!e o" Ameri!a, held in Ia#reb and @el#rade, in which he shows %aintin#s de%ictin# scenes of American cities in an Abstract E>%ressionist mode. 1955 The Warsaw &act is si#ned by Eastern Euro%ean Bo-iet @loc countries, includin# Albania and @ul#aria. The or#ani$ation is intended to balance the NATD alliance, within which the <nited Btates is a maFor force. 1955 Tur6ish writer Eashar Jemal (born 1 33, becomes a national celebrity with the %ublication of his no-el Memed8 M 2aw5. A %ro%onent of 90illa#e Fiction,9 a #enre dealin# with the star6 realities of %o-erty, Jemal is im%risoned after the 1 +1 military cou% for his tireless defense of human ri#hts. 195966 Ia#reb artists are in-ol-ed in the 'or#ona mo-ement. Amon# the leaders of 'or#ona, which shares the sensibility of Flu>us and other Neo;8ada mo-ements and antici%ates elements of Conce%tual Art, is Cosi% 0anista (born 1 3.,. Throu#h its %roFects and %ublications:the 9antima#a$ine9 'orgona:the #rou% establishes corres%ondence and contacts with international artists such as &iero 5an$oni, Robert Rauschenber#, and 7ucio Fontana. 1960 The film &ever on Sunda , by American director Cules 8assin (born 1 11,, is released, starrin# his wife, 'ree6 actress 5elina 5ercouri (1 3?*1 .,, as a 'ree6 %rostitute. 5ercouri will ser-e as 'ree6 5inister of Culture in 1 )1*) and 1 ?* .. 1961 I-o Andric (1) 3*1 +",, a renowned @osnian author, wins the Nobel &ri$e for 7iterature. Amon# his best;6nown wor6s is &a Drini !uprija (The -ridge on the Drina, 1 .",. In addition to writin#, Andric is a Eu#osla-ian di%lomat and member of %arliament. 1961 The 'allery of Contem%orary Art in Ia#reb launches its &ew Tenden!ies series of international e>hibitions, which continue until 1 +?. The first e>hibition, or#ani$ed by art historian 5at6o 5estro-ic (born 1 ??,, artist I-an &icelF (born 1 3.,, and others, includes wor6 by the 'rou%e de Recherche d2Art 0isuel of &aris, 'ru%%o N of &adua, and the Iero #rou% of 8Ysseldorf. 1964 The New 7eft %hiloso%hers, a #rou% of reform;minded socialists in @el#rade and Ia#reb, found the Fournal Pra*is, dedicated to critical analysis of Eu#osla- society. The Fournal acAuires a lar#e audience with its attac6s on censorshi%, bureaucracy, and -arious failures of economic %lannin#. Pra*is o%erates until 1 +", when it is su%%ressed as %art of a crac6down on intellectual dissent focused on the uni-ersities. 1966 The multimedia collecti-e D=D is formed in 7FublFana. D%eratin# until 1 +1, the #rou% %roduces the first Conce%tual -ideo wor6s in the re#ion.

 1967 8eclarin# Albania an atheist state, En-er =o>ha (1 !)*1 )", be#ins the seculari$ation of the country with the destruction or con-ersion of thousands of reli#ious buildin#s. 1967 The military sei$es %ower in 'reece in a cou% d21tat, establishin# the 9Re#ime of the Colonels.9 The Funta rules throu#h terror, its chief aim to %ur#e the country of left;win# dissidents. Elections are sus%ended, demonstrations and stri6es made ille#al, and s%eech critical of the #o-ernment criminali$ed. The dictatorshi% colla%ses in 1 +. and, followin# a referendum that abolishes the monarchy, a democratic re%ublic is established in 1 +". 1968 @ul#arian troo%s %artici%ate in the Bo-iet in-asion of C$echoslo-a6ia, while Albania withdraws from the Warsaw &act in %rotest. 1968 Btudents at @el#rade <ni-ersity occu%y all cam%us buildin#s for se-en days in Cune. The students demand further democrati$ation, reform of the uni-ersity system, and the elimination of social differences, bureaucratic %ri-ile#es, and unem%loyment, the latter %roblems caused by the introduction of laisse$;faire %olicies in 1 /". Tito initially %raises the students, then calls for a remo-al of the 9corru%tin#9 %rofessors who i#nited the %rotest. 1969 The film > by 'ree6 director Costa;'a-ras (born 1 ??, is released. The film is a thinly fictionali$ed reflection on the 1 /? assassination of 'ri#oris 7ambra6is (1 13*1 /?,:a leftist %olitician:and the subseAuent military cou% in 'reece. 196971 5assi-e demonstrations or#ani$ed by leftist #rou%s and trade unions %rom%t the im%osition of martial law in Istanbul. After -iolent street fi#htin# between students and %olice, the military sta#es a cou%, the second since 1 /!. 1978 @ul#arian dissident Fournalist 'eor#i 5ar6o- (1 3 *1 +), is assassinated by J'@ a#ents in 7ondon when stabbed by an umbrella ti%%ed with the %oison ricin. 5ar6o- had authored articles critical of the @ul#arian Communist re#ime. In 3!!!, 5ar6o- is %osthumously awarded the Drder of the Btara &lanina, the nation2s hi#hest honor. early 1980s In Eu#osla-ia, as the country descends into economic crisis, a cam%ai#n for #reater freedom of e>%ression is launched by uni-ersity %rofessors, includin# members of the &ra>is #rou%. The cam%ai#n #arners international su%%ort, es%ecially after the indictment of the 9@el#rade Bi>9 in 1 ). on char#es of sub-ersion. 1981 'reece Foins the Euro%ean <nion, the only member state on the @al6an &eninsula. 1983 The %olitical arts collecti-e Neue Blo-enische Junst (New Blo-enian Art, NBJ, is formed in Trbo-lFe, Blo-enia, unitin# cultural %roducers in -arious fields, includin# the industrial[techno music #rou% 7aibach and the %ainters2 collecti-e Irwin. NBJ2s dead%an %arody of totalitarianism:in its structure and its recyclin# of fascist, communist, ca%italist, and fol6 ima#ery:i#nites intense contro-ersy. 1984 @ul#aria be#ins a cam%ai#n to erase the national identity of the Tur6ish minority by forcin# them to ta6e Bla-ic names. @y 1 ) , there is a mass e>odus of @ul#arian Tur6s from the country. 1985 5uslim film director Emir Justurica (born 1 ".,, who wor6s in BaraFe-o, @osnia, ma6es When 6ather Was Awa on -usiness, which is nominated for an Academy Award. The film is notable for its multi;ethnic crew, which includes Berbs, 5uslims, and Croats. 198687 The Berbian Academy of Arts and Bciences issues a 5emorandum written by dissident intellectuals whose %ur%orted #oal is to halt the economic and social decline of Eu#osla-ia since Tito2s death, but which actually lays the #roundwor6 for the emer#ence of militant Berbian nationalism and re-i-es the -ision of a 9'reater Berbia.9 The authors blame Croatia and Blo-enia for the colla%se of Eu#osla-ian unity and alle#e a #enocide of Berbs %er%etrated by Albanians in Joso-o. Blobodan 5ilose-ic (born 1 .1,, leader of the Berbian section of the Eu#osla- Communist 7ea#ue, be#ins his rise to %ower by fannin# the flames of ethnic hostility. =is 1 )+ %ur#e of the two maFor Berbian

news%a%ers as well as Radio;T0 @el#rade consolidates his %ower, and he is elected %resident in 1 ) . 5ilose-ic and his cohorts will %lay a critical role in the dissolution of Eu#osla-ia after the fall of communism. 1990 Blobodan 5ilose-ic (born 1 .1, abolishes the autonomy of Joso-o and institutes a %ur#e of ethnic Albanians in the %ro-ince. 1991 Ismail Jadare (born 1 ?/,, a %rominent Albanian writer, defects to France Fust %rior to the fall of the Communist re#ime in his home country. Amon# the wor6s by Jadare that ser-e as somewhat -eiled critiAues of En-er =o>ha (1 !)*1 )", and his re#ime is The 'eneral o" the Dead Arm (1 /?,. 1991 The Eu#osla- wars eru%t when military forces controlled by the Berb Blobodan 5ilose-ic (born 1 .1, attem%t to %re-ent the secession from Eu#osla-ia of, first, Blo-enia, then Croatia, 5acedonia, and @osnia;=er$e#o-ina (the @osnia6 and Croat #rou%s in the latter state,. The Bie#e of BaraFe-o be#ins on A%ril ", 1 3, when thousands of %eace demonstrators are attac6ed by #unmenK for the ne>t three years, the city is relentlessly bombarded by the @osnian Berb Army. NATD enters the conflict in 1 . with the first air stri6es in its history, tar#eted at @osnian Berbs. The chaotic and bloody wars continue until 1 ", with casualties in the hundreds of thousands, wides%read use of ethnic cleansin#, and incalculable destruction to archaeolo#ical and cultural sites. 1992 Albania is the first former Warsaw &act country to reAuest NATD membershi%. The reAuest follows the brea6u% of the Bo-iet <nion and the colla%se of Communist re#imes in the @al6an states. 1994 The first 5c8onald2s in Eastern Euro%e o%ens in 0arna, @ul#aria. 1995 The 8ayton A#reement di-ides @osnia and =er$e#o-ina between the Federation of @osnia and =er$e#o-ina and the @osnian Berb Re%ubli6a Br%s6a. The a#reement ends a %eriod of conflict between the @osnia6s (5uslims, and Croats, who #ain @osnia;=er$e#o-ina, and the Berbs who are Auartered in the Re%ubli6a Br%s6a. It creates within @osnia two se%arate entities:the @osnian Berb Re%ublic and the 5uslim;Croat Federation:each with its own #o-ernment, %arliament, and army. In further military action, Croatia wins bac6 most of the land it has lost to Berbia, and many Berbs flee Croatia. The a#reement lea-es the status of Joso-o unresol-ed and Blobodan 5ilose-ic remains the de facto %ower bro6er in the re#ion. 1995 The o%enin# of the Rebecca Camhi 'allery near the central mar6et in Athens, 'reece, be#ins the establishment of a new district for the e>hibition of contem%orary art, adFacent to the city2s old Auarter, &sirri. 1995 Film director Emir Justurica (born 1 "., ma6es .nderground, the %lot of which centers on a munitions factory in @el#rade that be#ins durin# World War II and continues for a half;century. The film is a reflection on the tra#ic history of conflict in the @al6an &eninsula durin# the twentieth century. 1996 In the =a#ue, the International Criminal Tribunal related to the former Eu#osla-ia be#ins. @osnian Berb leader Rado-an Jarad$ic (born 1 .", is indicted for crimes committed in connection with the 1 3* " war. Rat6o 5ladic (born 1 .?,, the leader of the Berb military who is considered res%onsible for the murder of a%%ro>imately +,"!! 5uslims in Brebrenica, is also char#ed. 199699 The Joso-o 7iberation Army (J7A, fi#hts to restore the autonomy of Joso-o from the country of Berbia and 5ontene#roK &resident Blobodan 5ilose-ic is accused of atrocities by Joso-ar Albanian refu#ees esca%in# the fi#htin#. NATD inter-enes in the re#ion once a#ain in 1 , with air stri6es in @el#rade. Bhortly after, the Berbs withdraw from Joso-o and the J7A a#rees to disarm. 1997 Albania2s #o-ernment, led by the 8emocratic &arty, is forced to resi#n after the colla%se of a %yramid in-estment scheme in which thousands of Albanians lose their life sa-in#s. After a %eriod of ci-il disorder in which some 3,!!! Albanians die, a Bocialist;led coalition swee%s the elections. 1997 @el#rade;born %erformance artist 5arina Abramo-ic (born 1 ./, is selected to show in the Eu#osla-ian %a-ilion at the 0enice @iennale. =er selection is contested by the 5ontene#rin 5inister of

Culture, who obFects to Abramo-ic2s confrontational art. E-entually, her -ideo installation -al5an -aro4ue is shown in the e>hibition s%ace curated by 'ermano Celant (born 1 .!, and the artist wins the International 0enice @iennale Award. 1999 BaraFe-o author =a$im A6mad$ic (born 1 "., %ublishes the no-el Mislio sam da je mese! )ut (I Thou#ht It Was a Eellow 5oon,, which draws com%arisons between the =olocaust and the recent atrocities in @osnia. 1999 Btudents and faculty at the A%%lied Arts and 8esi#n Academy in @el#rade underta6e a series of e>hibitions called Art Rat (Art War, durin# the NATD bombin# of Eu#osla-ia. The e>hibitions include %osters and other wor6s desi#ned to %romote antiwar acti-ism. 2000 %nside?0utside, an e>hibition of recent Eu#osla-ian art, is held in Warsaw, &oland, at the Iacheta 'allery. Included are artists associated with the resur#ence of an a-ant;#arde art scene in Joso-o followin# the war. 2000 The new nation of Berbia and 5ontene#ro re%laces the old one of Eu#osla-ia. When Blobodan 5ilose-ic (born 1 .1, does not acce%t his defeat in the elections, he is forced out by mass %rotests. In 3!!?, he is handed o-er to the <nited Nations War Crimes Tribunal at the =a#ue, and Joso-o becomes a <nited Nations %rotectorate. 2000 A com%etition be#ins to select the architect of the New Acro%olis 5useum in Athens, 'reece, intended to facilitate the e>hibition of &arthenon scul%tures to be returned from the @ritish 5useum in 7ondon. New;Eor6 based architect @ernard Tschumi (born 1 .., wins the com%etition.

BRITANY
The @ritish Isles in the twentieth century are mar6ed by se-eral warsN the An#lo;@oer War that o%ens the century, and the two world wars that follow. The first of these conflicts is %art of the %rocess of decoloni$ation that other Euro%ean nations also under#o early in the century. 7ater, World Wars I and II are se%arated by two decades that witness the rise of fascism and a worldwide economic de%ression. In the %ostwar %eriod, as elsewhere in Western Euro%e and North America, demand for consumer #oods that has #one unsatisfied durin# years of wartime de%ri-ation fuels the %roduction of commodities. A %eriod of relati-e o%timism crescendos when 7ondon becomes an icon of the 9Bwin#in# Bi>ties.9 It is durin# that decade that @ritish desi#n, fashion, and music ta6e on international %reeminence. The late 1 /!s and 2+!s are a time of economic and %olitical instability that result in a return to conser-ati-e %olicies durin# the 9Thatcher Eears9 of the 1 )!s. From the -anta#e %oints of art, desi#n, and architecture, the early decades of the century are characteri$ed by %roFects that %ursue the desi#n reform be#un in the nineteenth century by William 5orris, a leader of the Arts and Crafts mo-ement, and others. Bomewhat isolated from mainstream modernist tendencies of the early twentieth century, @ritain is nonetheless touched by such %redominantly Continental mo-ements as Cubism and Burrealism. 5oreo-er, @ritish artists %lay an im%ortant role in the de-elo%ment of &o% Art at mid;century. 8urin# the 1 )!s, @ritain reemer#es as an im%ortant center for the %roduction of a-ant;#arde art and architecture.

18991902 The An#lo;@oer War eru%ts from the lon#;standin# conflict between the @ritish and the @oers (Bouth Africans of 8utch descent,. 1900 The Central 7ine of the 7ondon <nder#round o%ens. In 1 !/, Fran6 &ic6 (1)+)*1 .1, becomes mana#in# director of the <nder#round and su%%orts the de-elo%ment of a consistent -isual identity for all elements of the system, from its buildin#s to its #ra%hics. &ic6 commissions Edward Cohnston (1)+3*1 .., to desi#n a sim%le and le#ible ty%eface that becomes identified with the <nder#round.

 1900 In 'las#ow, Bcotland, architect Charles Rennie 5ac6intosh (1)/)*1 3), desi#ns buildin#s, interiors, and furnishin#s that embody a concern with the total domestic en-ironment. =is aesthetic stems from the Arts and Crafts mo-ement and includes naturalistic forms, often crafted from Industrial A#e materials li6e iron, associated with Art Nou-eau. 5ac6intosh himself sha%es an entire house with its furnishin#s when he is commissioned in 1 !3 to desi#n =ill =ouse in the 'las#ow suburb of =elensbur#h. 1901 Queen 0ictoria (1)1 *1 !1, dies and is succeeded by Edward, &rince of Wales (1).1*1 1!,. Edward 0II will rei#n until his death in 1 1!, when he is succeeded by 'eor#e 0 (1)/"*1 ?/,. 8es%ite the short duration of his rei#n, the term 9Edwardian9 is widely used to describe a tendency toward o%ulent ele#ance in the -isual arts of the %eriod. 1901 'u#lielmo 5arconi (1)+.*1 ?+, transmits the first tele#ra%hic radio messa#es from Cornwall, En#land, to Newfoundland, Canada. The tele#ra%h is one of the in-entions that transforms communications in the twentieth century. 1903 Archibald Jno> (1)/.*1 ??, creates desi#ns for the Tudric line of %ewterware %roduced by 7iberty W Co., in which he uses Runic %atterns ins%ired by Celtic art. D-er the ne>t decade, Jno> will create hundreds of te>tile, sil-er, %ottery, and Fewelry desi#ns for 7iberty, a com%any founded by merchant Arthur 7asenby 7iberty (1).?*1 1+, in the 1)+!s and a trendsetter in interior decoration. 1903 Emmeline &an6hurst (1)")*1 3), forms the Women2s Bocial and &olitical <nion in @ritain. In 1 3), the EAual Franchise Act #rants the ri#ht to -ote to all women and men o-er the a#e of twenty; one. 1904 Construction be#ins on 7etchworth, the first 'arden City, desi#ned by the architecture and urban;%lannin# firm of &ar6er W <nwin. The 'arden City mo-ement, founded by social reformer Ebene$er =oward (1)"!*1 3), in 1) , ad-ocates a marria#e of town and country to sol-e the %roblems of o-ercrowdin#, %ollution, and substandard li-in# conditions in the modern industriali$ed city. 1906 The 7abour &arty is formed. The first 7abour #o-ernment is or#ani$ed in 1 3., the second in 1 3 , when 7abour becomes the lar#est %arty. Alon# with the Conser-ati-es, 7abour is one of the two maFor %arties in @ritish %olitics. 191030 Bir Edwin 7andseer 7utyens (1)/ *1 .., desi#ns Castle 8ro#o in 8rewstei#nton for Culius 8rewe, a founder of the =ome and Colonial Btores. Althou#h 7utyens2 architecture is #enerally classical in feelin# after 1 !!, Castle 8ro#o2s medie-al;ins%ired elements har6en bac6 to his earlier Arts and Crafts houses. At Castle 8ro#o, as elsewhere, 7utyens collaborates with #arden desi#ner 'ertrude Ce6yll (1).?*1 ?3,. 1912 The Irish =ome Rule crisis intensifies in @ritain. In 1 1?, when the Third Irish =ome Rule @ill is reFected by =ouse of 7ords, ci-il war is threatened in Ireland. In 1 1/, the Easter Risin# in 8ublin is a failed attem%t by an armed Irish force of between 1,!!! and 1,"!! to sei$e the city and destroy @ritish rule. In 1 31, the Irish Free Btate and Northern Ireland are formed, althou#h this di-ision hardly resol-es the %olitical conflict o-er @ritish in-ol-ement in Ireland. In 1 / , ci-il disturbances in <lster %rom%t the @ritish to send troo%s to su%%ort the ci-il authorities. 1913 The Dme#a Wor6sho%s are founded at Fit$roy BAuare, @loomsbury, by art critic Ro#er Fry (1)//*1 ?.,, artist 0anessa @ell (1)+ *1 /1,, and 8uncan 'rant (1))"*1 +),. 5embers include many fi#ures associated with the @ohemian 9@loomsbury9 literary #rou%. Ins%ired by William 5orris (1)?.*1) /,, &ost;Im%ressionism, and African art, the members desi#n bri#htly colored furnishin#s and other obFects that are an antidote to staid late;0ictorian desi#n. 1914 &ainter and writer Wyndham 7ewis (1))3*1 "+, founds 0orticism:the first art mo-ement in En#land committed to abstraction:alon# with other members of the Rebel Art Centre, a s%linter #rou% from the Dme#a Wor6sho%s. 0orticists include %ainter and illustrator Cessica 8ismorr (1))"*1 ? ,, %ainter and desi#ner Cuthbert =amilton (1)).*1 " ,, and scul%tor Cacob E%stein (1))!*1 " ,. The

#rou%2s ideas are a-idly su%%orted by %oet E$ra &ound (1))"*1 +3,. Influenced es%ecially by Italian Futurism, 0orticism celebrates industrial and technolo#ical %ro#ress and the machine a#e, and stri-es to ca%ture the dynamic flu> of urban life. The 0orticist manifesto is %ublished in the first issue of the #rou%2s Fournal, -last (Cune 1 1.,. 1915 American;born #ra%hic artist Edward 5cJni#ht Jauffer (1) !*1 "., recei-es his first maFor commission, a %oster for the 7ondon <nder#round. Influenced by 0orticism and Burrealism, Jauffer will create hundreds of attention;#rabbin# %osters for %ublic and %ri-ate entities, %rimarily in @ritain, o-er the ne>t three decades. 1916 Irish author Cames Coyce (1))3*1 .1, %ublishes the autobio#ra%hical no-el Portrait o" the Artist as a 1oung Man. Coyce2s modernist no-el .l sses is %ublished in &aris in 1 33 and challen#es many of the narrati-e con-entions of the #enre. 1919 American;born Nancy Witcher 7an#horne, 0iscountess Astor (1)+ *1 /.,, becomes the first woman member of the =ouse of Commons and ser-es until 1 .". 1920 The first roadside #as station o%ens in @ritain, in Aldermaston on the @ath Road. Not until 1 " will the first section of the 51 motorway (or hi#hway, o%en. As in other %arts of the industriali$ed world, in 'reat @ritain the landsca%e will be transformed by the ad-ent of wides%read automobile ownershi%. 1922 T. B. Eliot (1)))*1 /", %ublishes The Waste Land. Althou#h born in the <nited Btates, Eliot li-es in En#land from 1 1. and obtains @ritish citi$enshi% in 1 3+. In The Waste Land, Eliot is credited with radically rein-entin# the %oetic form. 1922 The @ritish @roadcastin# Com%any (@@C, be#ins radio transmissions and in 1 3 launches tele-ision %ro#rammin# on an e>%erimental basis. The state;su%%orted @@C will %lay an im%ortant role internationally in %ro-idin# hi#h;Auality radio and tele-ision %ro#rams throu#hout the century. 1922 @ritish E#y%tolo#ist =oward Carter (1)+?*1 ? , disco-ers Jin# Tutan6hamun2s tomb. The disco-ery launches an enormous -o#ue for E#y%tian;ins%ired desi#n in Fewelry, furniture, and other decorati-e arts. 1923 @ritish economist Cohn 5aynard Jeynes (1))?*1 ./, %ublishes A Tra!t on Monetar Re"orm. =is most influential wor6, The 'eneral Theor o" 7mplo ment8 %nterest8 and Mone , will be %ublished in 1 ?/. Jeynes is credited with the ori#ination of the 9New Economics.9 1928 @ritish scul%tor =enry 5oore (1) )*1 )/, recei-es his first %ublic commission, a relief to be installed in a 7ondon Trans%ort facility. From di-erse influences includin# Abstraction, Burrealism, and &rimiti-ism, 5oore de-elo%s a uniAue aesthetic that e-entually ma6es him one of the most well 6nown and admired scul%tors of the twentieth century. 1928 8. =. 7awrence (1))"*1 ?!, %ublishes Lad Chatterle 's Lover, one of the wor6s in which he su##ests that se>uality, the subconscious, and nature can ease human bein#s2 relationshi% to the modern world. 1931 'erman;born %hoto#ra%her @ill @randt (1 !.*1 )?,, whose wor6 is informed by contact with the Burrealists, settles in 7ondon, where he becomes the %reeminent @ritish %hoto#ra%her of the twentieth century. 1932 The @ritish <nion of Fascists is founded by Bir Dswald 5osley (1) /*1 )!, to im%lement a %ro#ram of social, %olitical, and economic reconstruction in 'reat @ritain modeled on Fascist Italy, outlined in his boo6 The 'reater -ritain (1 ?3,. 1934 Russian 1mi#r1 architect @erthold 7ubet6in (1 !1*1 !, desi#ns the &en#uin &ool at the 7ondon Ioo in which he e>%lores the e>%ressi-e %ossibilities of reinforced concrete.

 1936 'eor#e 0 (1)/"*1 ?/, dies on Canuary 3! and Edward 0III (1) .*1 +3, succeeds him as 6in#. Edward 0III abdicates on 8ecember " to marry American socialite @essie Wallis Bim%son (1) /* 1 )/,. =e is succeeded by his brother 'eor#e 0I (1) "*1 "3,. 1936 The ocean liner Bueen Mar ma6es her maiden -oya#e. The Bueen 7li)abeth, at that time the lar#est ocean liner e-er built, is launched in 1 ?+. 1937 Ne-ille Chamberlain (1)/ *1 .!, becomes %rime minister of @ritain and %ursues a %olicy of a%%easement toward Adolf =itler (1)) *1 .",. In the followin# year (1 ?),, @ritain and France si#n the 5unich &act acce%tin# =itler2s claims to %redominantly 'erman territories in C$echoslo-a6ia. 1939 World War II be#ins when 'erman troo%s in-ade &oland. France and @ritain declare war on 'ermany. In 1 .!, Italy declares war on @ritain and France. A National 'o-ernment is formed under the leadershi% of Winston Churchill (1)+.*1 /",. The 9@lit$9 bombin# of @ritain by 'ermany be#ins. 1941 Followin# the bombin# of the American military installation at &earl =arbor, =awaii, on 8ecember +, 1 .1, the <.B. and @ritain declare war on Ca%an. In 1 .?, the <.B. and @ritain Foin forces in North Africa, leadin# to the surrender of 'ermany in Tunisia. In 5ay 1 .", Allied troo%s surround @erlin and 'ermany is forced to surrender. In Au#ust 1 .", the <.B. dro%s atomic bombs on Na#asa6i and =iroshimaK Ca%an surrenders shortly afterward. 1941 No\l Coward2s (1) *1 +?, %lay -lithe Spirit %remiers in 7ondon. It is one of the wor6s in which the actor, %laywri#ht, and son#writer satiri$es the En#lish u%%er class. 1942 Alan Turin# (1 13*1 "., and 5. =. A. Newman (1) +*1 )., de-elo% the world2s first %ro#rammable com%uter, which is used to crac6 'erman codes durin# the war. The com%uter will ha-e enormous im%lications for business, leisure, and the arts in the %ostwar %eriod. 1944 Francis @acon (1 ! *1 3, %aints Three Studies "or 6igures at the -ase o" a Cru!i"i*ion (Tate 'allery, 7ondon,, a rumination on the sa-a#ery of World War II. @acon2s renowned fi#ure %aintin#s, %roduced u% to the time of his death in 1 3, will %ro-ocati-ely blend reli#ious, -iolent, and homoerotic themes. 1945 'eor#e Drwell (1 !?*1 "!, %ublishes Animal 6arm, a satire of the Russian Re-olution set in a barnyard. In 1 . , Drwell2s no-el &ineteen 7ight C6our is %ublished. The boo6 con-eys the author2s fear of both ri#ht; and left;win# ideolo#ies and the totalitarian states he belie-es they ha-e the %otential to %roduce. 1946 The first 'eneral Assembly of the new <nited Nations Dr#ani$ation con-enes in Central =all, Westminster, 7ondon, with fifty;one nations sendin# re%resentati-es. It is intended to %romote international coo%eration and %eace. 1946 Winston Churchill (1)+.*1 /", uses the term 9Iron Curtain9 for the first time to describe the influence of the Bo-iet <nion o-er Eastern Euro%e. The term is used durin# the Cold War to su##est an ima#inary barrier between the Bo-iet;dominated East, and the West in which the <nited Btates is the maFor %ower. 1946 The New Towns Act is %assed. E-entually, twenty;ei#ht New Towns will be built to house %eo%le who had been dis%laced by the destruction of World War II. 1947 India #ains inde%endence from @ritain and the subcontinent is %artitioned to form India and &a6istan. 1949 Nancy 5itford (1 !.*1 +?, %ublishes Love in a Cold Climate, one of se-eral no-els in which she satiri$es her own u%%er;class family and En#lish social life more #enerally.

 1951 The Festi-al of @ritain is held in 7ondon to celebrate the centennial of the #reat Crystal &alace e>hibition of 1)"1. Amon# the structures included in the fair#rounds are the saucer;sha%ed 8ome of 8isco-ery desi#ned by Ral%h Tubbs (1 13*1 /, and the needle;sha%ed B6ylon desi#ned by &hili% &owell (1 31*3!!?, and =idal#o 5oya (1 3!*1 .,. These structures are li6ely intended to recall the famous Trylon and &eris%here of the 1 ? New Eor6 World2s Fair. 1951 7ucian Freud (born 1 33, wins a %ri$e at the Festi-al of @ritain for his %aintin# %nterior at Paddington (Wal6er Art 'allery, 7i-er%ool,, which si#nals his emer#ence as one of the foremost @ritish fi#ural %ainters of the %ostwar %eriod. 1952 'eor#e 0I (1) "*1 "3, dies and Eli$abeth II (born 1 3/, is coronated Cune 3, 1 "?. =er rei#n will continue throu#h the end of the century. Eli$abeth2s son, Charles (born 1 .),, is made &rince of Wales in 1 "). 1953 The structure of 8NA is disco-ered by two <ni-ersity of Cambrid#e scientists, the American Cames Watson (born 1 3), and the @ritish Francis Cric6 (1 1/*3!!.,. Their disco-ery will transform science and medicine durin# the second half of the century. 1953 Architects Alison (1 3)*1 ?, and &eter (born 1 3?, Bmithson brin# about the establishment of Team S. This #rou% of youn# architects de-elo%s a critical %ers%ecti-e on modernist architecture in antici%ation of the tenth CIA5 (Con#rGs Internationau> de l2Architecture 5oderne, conference of 1 "/. 1953 Ian Flemin# (1 !)*1 /., %ublishes the first Cames @ond no-el, Casino Ro ale. The sua-e @ond is the %erfect %ostwar characterN a debonair %layboy who battles the forces of e-il with the assistance of %re%osterous futuristic #ad#etry. 1954 Food rationin#, be#un durin# World War II, officially ends in @ritain. An era of material de%ri-ation is thus comin# to an end. 1955 Fashion desi#ner 5ary Quant (born 1 ?., o%ens a sho% called @a$aar, which is %atroni$ed by the 9Chelsea Bet9 of 9Bwin#in# Bi>ties9 7ondon. The city e-entually su%ercedes &aris as the center of fashion desi#n as Quant, whose s6irt desi#ns start #ettin# shorter in 1 "), is credited by some with in-entin# the minis6irt. 1956 Loo5 -a!5 in Anger, a %lay by Cohn Dsborne (1 3 *1 .,, o%ens in 7ondon. Dsborne2s wor6 is at the center of a literary mo-ement that includes no-elists Jin#sley Amis (1 33*1 ",, Cohn @raine (1 33*1 )/,, Alan Billitoe (born 1 3),, and others, collecti-ely referred to as the 9an#ry youn# men.9 In wor6s such as Lu!5 (im (Amis, 1 "?,, Room at the Top (@raine, 1 "+,, and Saturda &ight and Sunda Morning (Billitoe, 1 " ,, they challen#e bour#eois elitism and cham%ion the wor6in# classes. 5any of their wor6s are translated to film by members of the Free Cinema mo-ement, ins%ired by Italian Neorealism. 1956 @ritain and France in-ade Bue$ to defend Israeli interests in the Canal, which had been nationali$ed by E#y%t. The Bue$;Binai War ends with the withdrawal of @ritain and France under %ressure from the <nited Nations and the Bo-iet <nion. 1956 The Inde%endent 'rou% or#ani$es its e>hibition This %s Tomorrow at Whitecha%el Art 'allery, 7ondon. Amon# the wor6s included is member Richard =amilton2s (born 1 33, colla#e entitled (ust what is it that ma5es toda 's homes so di""erent8 so appealingD (Junsthalle, TYbin#en,. This %arody of the %ostwar mar6etin# of household #oods is a 6ey wor6 in the de-elo%ment of &o% Art. 1961 The 1oung Contemporaries e>hibition in 7ondon brin#s further %ublic awareness of &o% Art. &ainter 8a-id =oc6ney (born 1 ?+, #ains reco#nition with this e>hibition. 1962 @ritish musicians re-itali$e roc6 2n2 roll when the @eatles release their first sin#le, 97o-e 5e 8o9 and the #rou% becomes an international sensation. Alon# with the Rollin# Btones, the Jin6s, the @irds, Cream, 8ono-an, 0an 5orrison, the Who, and do$ens of others, their arri-al on the <.B. music scene constitutes a 9@ritish In-asion.9

 1962 0arious Flu>us artists or#ani$e the 6estival o" Mis"its e>hibition at 'allery Dne in 7ondon. The hi#hli#ht of the show is the installation[%erformance %iece Living S!ulpture, in which the artist @en 0autier (born 1 ?", mo-es into the dis%lay window of the #allery for two wee6s and offers himself for sale for the %rice of ]3"!. 1963 Jenya #ains inde%endence from @ritain as %art of a #eneral mo-e of former @ritish colonies toward %olitical autonomy. 1964 The Centre for Contem%orary Cultural Btudies o%ens at the <ni-ersity of @irmin#ham. Throu#h the wor6 of scholars such as Raymond Williams (1 31*1 )), and Btuart =all (born 1 ?3,, the Centre will %ioneer an interdisci%linary a%%roach to the study of media and %o%ular culture, drawin# from the disci%lines of history, sociolo#y, and ethno#ra%hy, and the theoretical models of 5ar>ism, %oststructuralism, feminism, and critical race theory. 1965 @ritain enacts the Race Relations Act, which %rohibits discrimination on the basis of race in %ublic %laces such as restaurants and on %ublic trans%ortation. The sco%e of the %rohibitions is e>%anded in amendments made in 1 /) and 1 +/. 1968 7ondon @rid#e is sold and mo-ed to Ari$ona. Bince the 1 3!s, Americans had been a-id %urchasers of En#lish houses, barns, and other architectural monuments. 1968 Art W 7an#ua#e is formed by Terry At6inson (born 1 ? ,, 8a-id @ainbrid#e (born 1 .1,, 5ichael @aldwin (born 1 .",, and =arold =urrell (born 1 .!,, who %roduce collaborati-e wor6s under the #rou% name addressin# in %articular the relationshi% between art, society, and the mar6et. 7ater Foined by American Cose%h Josuth (born 1 .", and Australian Ian @urn (1 ? *1 ?,, amon# others, the #rou% has a si#nificant influence on the %roduction of Conce%tual art in @ritain and the <nited Btates throu#h its Fournal ArtCLanguage. 1970 As in other Euro%ean countries and in North America, art mo-ements that challen#e traditional definitions of the media ha-e an im%act in the @ritish Isles. Conce%tual Art, =a%%enin#s, and &erformance Art will all find resonance in the collaborati-e wor6s of 'ilbert (&roesch, and 'eor#e (&assmore, (born 1 .? and 1 .3 res%ecti-ely,. Dne of their first wor6s is The Singing S!ulpture (1 +!,, in which they stand on a table with their faces %ainted and ma6e mo-ements for %eriods as lon# as ei#ht hours. 1971 &arliament -otes to Foin the Common 5ar6et. @ritish membershi% is %art of a lar#er mo-ement toward Euro%ean economic coo%eration. 1972 In 8erry, Ireland, @ritish soldiers o%en fire on a ci-il ri#hts %rotest, 6illin# thirteen demonstrators and woundin# many others. The e-ent becomes 6nown as 9@loody Bunday.9 1973 The Arab Dil Embar#o a#ainst the <.B. brin#s +! %ercent %rice hi6es to 'reat @ritain. The resultin# oil crisis and a miners2 stri6e leads the #o-ernment to enact a three;day wee6 from 8ecember 1 +? to 5arch 1 +.. 1976 The Be> &istols2 first sin#le, 9Anarchy in the <.J.,9 launches the %un6 roc6 %henomenon. ReFectin# the commercialism and fa6e sentimentality of early 2+!s %o% music, the %un6 roc6 sound is abrasi-e and dissonant, the lyrics antiromantic and often %olitical. The music, as well as the se-ere hairstyles and bar#ain;bin fashions associated with %un6 roc6ers, will influence <.B. youth. 1976 Norman Foster (born 1 ?", desi#ns the 7loyds @uildin#, 7ondon, which embodies the architect2s 9hi#h;tech9 a%%roach to modern architecture. 1978 The first test;tube baby, 7ouise @rown, is born in the <nited Jin#dom. The new technolo#y will be e>tensi-ely used by the end of the century to remedy infertility. 1979 The Conser-ati-e %arty wins the #eneral election and 5ar#aret Thatcher (born 1 3", becomes %rime minister, the first woman to hold that office. Bhe will ser-e until 1 !, ma6in# her the lon#est

continually ser-in# %rime minister in 1"! years. Thatcher will for#e close ties to <.B. &resident Ronald Rea#an (born 1 11, and, li6ehim, will su%%ort a re#ime of conser-ati-e %olicy ma6in#. 1980 Bi> Iranian dissidents, o%%osed to the Ayatollah Jhomeini, hold twenty;si> %eo%le hosta#e in the Iranian embassy in 7ondon. The @ritish BAB storms the embassy and frees the hosta#es. 1981 &rince Charles (born 1 .), marries 7ady 8iana B%encer (1 /1*1 +, in 7ondon. 8iana will ha-e an im%ortant influence on desi#n in the last two decades of the twentieth century as a %atron of youn# @ritish couturiers, includin# Catherine Wal6er (born 1 .",, @ruce Dldfield (born 1 "!,, and others. In 1 +, 8iana is 6illed in a car crash in &aris. 1981 A &ew Spirit in Painting, an e>hibition held at the Royal Academy in 7ondon, showcases Neo; E>%ressionist wor6s that are richly te>tural and directly con-ey the subFecti-ity of the artists2 -isions. 1981 Israeli;born architect and desi#ner Ron Arad (born 1 "1, establishes Dne Dff in 7ondon, a studio and showroom where he %roduces 9art furniture9 in a =i#h;Tech style. Two of his most inno-ati-e desi#ns are the Tom 0ac -acuum;formed aluminum chair and the Fantastic &lastic Elastic chair (both 1 ),. 1982 The Fal6lands War between 'reat @ritain and Ar#entina ta6es %lace when Ar#entina in-ades and ta6es control of the Fal6land Islands followin# se-enteen years of ne#otiations. 1987 The stoc6 mar6et crashes in 7ondon on Dctober 1 , 9@lac6 5onday.9 This is %art of a worldwide %reci%itous decline in stoc6 -alues that si#nals the end of a %eriod of %ros%erity and the be#innin# of a recession. 1993 The 5aastricht Treaty establishin# the Euro%ean <nion (E<, is ratified, leadin# to the creation of the Euro as a common currency. 'reat @ritain retains the use of the %ound sterlin# as its unit of currency. 1993 Construction be#ins on &oundbury New Town, desi#ned by architect 7eon Jrier (born 1 ./, to embody the traditionalist %ositions of &rince Charles on %lannin# and architecture. 1994 Com%letion of the 9Chunnel9 under the En#lish Channel, connectin# En#land and France. The Chunnel facilitates trans%ortation between 'reat @ritain and the Continent and contributes to a new %an;Euro%ean interconnectedness. 1997 The 7abour &arty wins in a landslide -ictory, ta6in# .1) seats in &arliament in the #eneral elections. The %arty2s leader, Tony @lair (born 1 "?,, becomes %rime minister. 1997 Bcottish #eneticists successfully clone a shee% named 8olly. While offerin# the %ossibility of s%ecies %reser-ation in a %eriod of dwindlin# biodi-ersity, clonin# also becomes morally contro-ersial to some. 1997 The Sensation e>hibition of the collection of Charles Baatchi (born 1 .?, at the Royal Academy of Arts introduces 9Eoun# @ritish Art9 to the %ublic. It is lar#ely the wor6 of artists trained at 'oldsmiths2 Colle#e in Bouth 7ondon in the late 1 )!s who went on to %ractice in 7ondon and 'las#ow, includin# 8amien =irst (born 1 /",. The e>hibition will later tra-el to New Eor6, where some of the wor6s #enerate %ublic contro-ersy. 1998 Actress Jate Winslet (born 1 +", wears the Titani! dress desi#ned by Ale>ander 5cQueen (born 1 / , to the Academy Awards Ceremony in 7os An#eles. 8urin# the 1 !s, 5cQueen emer#es as one of the foremost @ritish a-ant;#arde desi#ners of women2s fashion. 2000 The 5illennium 8ome at 'reenwich, the 5illennium Wheel, and the 5illennium Footbrid#e o-er the Thames in 7ondon are o%ened. The dome, considered the lar#est in the world, is desi#ned by architect Richard Ro#ers (born 1 ??,.

CE
'ermany, Bwit$erland, and Austria are all dee%ly touched by world wars, althou#h Bwit$erland maintains its neutrality throu#hout. The se-ere %enalties %laced on 'ermany by the Allies after World War I create harsh economic conditions that fuel the rise to %ower of Adolf =itler (1)) *1 .",, who will lead 'ermany into fascism and World War II in 1 ? . =itler also heads a re#ime that orchestrates the =olocaust, a horrific le#acy with which subseAuent #enerations will stru##le to come to terms. The %eriod immediately followin# World War II is occu%ied with rebuildin# the de-astated country, which is now s%lit into two se%arate entities, the Federal Re%ublic of 'ermany (West 'ermany, and the 'erman 8emocratic Re%ublic (East 'ermany,, the latter a member of the Warsaw &act allied with the Bo-iet <nion. Austria is amon# the states occu%ied by Na$i 'ermany, and after World War II by the Allies, until it becomes inde%endent a#ain in 1 "". The %ostwar %eriod in 'ermany is colored by the Cold War between Communist and 8emocratic states, with which East and West 'ermany are res%ecti-ely ali#ned. At the end of the twentieth century, the Bo-iet <nion colla%ses. As a conseAuence of this e-ent, 'ermany is reunified. The reunification brin#s to#ether countries with two -astly different economies, the industriali$ed and %ros%erous West 'ermany and the com%arati-ely im%o-erished East 'ermany. @y the mid;1 !s, the rise of su%%ort for far;ri#ht %olitical %arties in Bwit$erland, Austria, and 'ermany is accom%anied by an escalation of -iolence a#ainst immi#rants and o%%osition to membershi% in the Euro%ean <nion. Throu#hout the century, the re#ion is at the forefront of all fields of the arts. The turn of the century witnesses an efflorescence of intellectual and artistic life in 0ienna. There and in 'ermany, artists en#a#e new conce%tions of the inner self formulated by Bi#mund FreudK at the same time, they res%ond to industriali$ation with %ro#rams for reformin# the desi#n and %roduction of architecture and furnishin#s. The rise of fascism %olitici$es artma6in# as the Na$i re#ime eAuates modernism with de#eneracy and dri-es many a-ant;#arde artists out of 'ermany. After the war, many 'erman artists :East and West:%roduce wor6s that reflect their %ersonal e>%eriences of its attendant horrors. Cultural %roduction in East 'ermany is subFect to the %olitical climate, fluctuatin# between %eriods of -i#ilant ideolo#ical scrutiny and liberal thaws. Reunification of the nation, and %articularly of the city of @erlin, occasions an enormous buildin# cam%ai#n by internationally reco#ni$ed architects, %roducin# im%ortant %ostmodern monuments.

18981905 E>hibitions of modernist desi#n by the 0ienna Becession are held in the #rou%2s buildin#, desi#ned by Cose%h 5aria Dlbrich (1)/+*1 !),. At the head of the #rou%, founded in 1) +, is 'ustaJlimt (1)/3*1 1),. Cosef =offmann (1)+!*1 "/, is also a foundin# member. In 1 !+*), Jlimt will %aint one of his best;6nown wor6s, The Eiss (^sterreichische 'alerie @el-edere, 0ienna,. 1900 'erman %hysicist 5a> &lanc6 (1)")*1 .+, formulates Auantum theory. =is wor6 mar6s a turnin# %oint in the de-elo%ment of %hysics in the twentieth century. In 1 1), &lanc6 recei-es the Nobel &ri$e for %hysics. 1900 Bi#mund Freud2s (Austrian, 1)"/*1 ? , %nterpretation o" Dreams is %ublished, followed in 1 !" by Three 7ssa s on Se*ualit . These are amon# the te>ts in which Freud de-elo%s the new disci%line of %sychoanalysis. 1903 The Weiner Wer6st_tte is founded in 0ienna by Cosef =offmann (1)+!*1 "/, and Jolo 5oser (1)/)*1 1),, embracin# both machine %roduction and the Arts and Crafts %rinci%les of William 5orris (1)?.*1) /,. 1904 Construction of the &ostal Ba-in#s @an6, desi#ned by Dtto Wa#ner (1).1*1 1),, is be#un in 0ienna. The buildin# re%resents the architect2s incor%oration of rationalist elements, such as fran6ly e>%ressed modern materials li6e steel, within an o-erall conce%tion that is classical in ins%iration.

 1905 8ie @rYc6e (The @rid#e,, a #rou% of %ainters and %rintma6ers who contribute to the de-elo%ment of E>%ressionism, is founded in 8resden, continuin# there and in @erlin until 1 1?. 5embers include Ernst 7udwi# Jirchner (1))!*1 ?),, Erich =ec6el (1))?*1 +!,, and Emil Nolde (1)/+*1 "/,. <nli6e the French a-ant;#arde, E>%ressionists %ri-ile#e the artist2s inner emotional state, focusin# on the an>ieties of modern life and taboo subFects such as se>uality, e>%ressed in bri#ht, unnatural colors and distorted forms. 19057 The &alais Btoclet in @russels is constructed by 'erman architect Cosef =offmann (1)+!* 1 "/,, embodyin# the contem%orary 'erman conce%t of the 'esamt5unstwer5 (9total wor6 of art9, with furnishin#s desi#ned by the architect and murals by 'usta- Jlimt (1)/3*1 1),. 1907 The 8eutscher Wer6bund, %redecessor of the @auhaus, is founded in 5unich, led by Friedrich Naumann (1)/!*1 1 ,, Jarl Bchmidt (1)+?*1 ".,, and =ermann 5uthesius (1)/1*1 3+,. 8edicated to combinin# the s6ills of art, craft, and industry, the Wer6bund2s membershi% includes architects, industrialists, economists, artists, and craftsmen. Its initial #oals are modest ornamentation and functionalism in all as%ects of the decorati-e arts, but a ra%idly e>%andin# membershi% will lead to dis%utes o-er mass %roduction and standardi$ation. In 1 1., the Deuts!her Wer5bund Ausstellung e>hibition of modern decorati-e arts is held in Colo#ne. 1908 0iennese architect Adolf 7oos (1)+!*1 ??,, an early %ro%onent of Functionalism, writes the essay 9Drnament and Crime.9 It will be ta6en u% by some modernist architects as a manifesto and a denunciation of the su%%osedly decorati-e traditional architecture they des%ise. In 1 1!, 7oos com%letes the Bteiner =ouse in 0ienna, which, des%ite its unornamented facade, includes Arts and Crafts elements such as %anelin# and lar#e fire%laces in the interior. 1908 The =och$eitsturm (9weddin# tower9, at 8armstadt, the focal %oint of the artists2 colony founded there by Archdu6e Ernst 7udwi# of =esse (1)/)*1 ?+,, is com%leted by Cose%h 5aria Dlbrich (1)/+*1 !),. 8armstadt becomes the center of the Cu#endstil, the 'erman eAui-alent of the Art Nou-eau mo-ement. 1909 &eter @ehrens (1)/)*1 .!, com%letes the AE' Turbine Factory, @erlin. @ehrens also desi#ns some of the %roducts manufactured by the AE', as well as the com%any2s %ublicity materials. In this connection, as well as throu#h trainin# a number of modernist architects, @ehrens %lays a central role in desi#n and architecture in the first Auarter of the twentieth century. 1910 The Fournal Der Sturm be#ins %ublication in @erlin, combinin# essays on to%ical issues such as women2s ri#hts and nationalism, cuttin#;ed#e art criticism, and wor6 by leadin# Euro%ean a-ant;#arde artists and writers. Editor =erwarth Walden (1)+)*1 .1, o%ens 'alerie Bturm in 1 11. 1911 The arri-al of the 'erman #unboat Panther in A#adir, 5orocco, which re%resents a threat to French interests there, creates an international crisis. War is a-erted when the 'ermans relinAuish claims to 5orocco in e>chan#e for French;controlled land in the Con#o with access to the sea. 1911 The %aintin#s of Austrian artist Ds6ar Jo6osch6a (1))/*1 )!, are included in the =a#enbund e>hibition in 0ienna. Critic Arthur Roessler (1)++*1 "", refers to them as 9massacres in %aint.9 Jo6osch6a is the leadin# e>%onent of Austrian E>%ressionism, alon# with E#on Bchiele (1) !*1 1),, whose erotically char#ed fi#urati-e wor6s cause a sensation. 1911 The @laue Reiter (@lue Rider, #rou% of a-ant;#arde artists is founded in 5unich and will continue until 1 1.. Amon# its members are Russian artist Wassily Jandins6y (1)//*1 ..,, the title of whose %aintin# #i-es the #rou% its name, as well as 'erman artists Fran$ 5arc (1))!*1 1/,, &aul Jlee (1)+ *1 .!,, and Au#ust 5ac6e (1))+*1 1.,. The #rou% is united, not by a sin#le style or theme, but by a search for aesthetic forms throu#h which to con-ey s%iritual ideals. 1913 A concert of atonal musical wor6s by Arnold Bchoenber# (1)+.*1 "1, and followers Alban @er# (1))"*1 ?",, and Anton Webern (1))?*1 .",, held in 0ienna, so incenses the audience that fi#hts brea6 out and %olice are called in to subdue the fracas. After World War I, Bchoenber# will

de-elo% the twel-e;tone methodK he and his followers, who com%rise the Becond 0iennese Bchool of com%osers, are dee%ly influenced by the E>%ressionist mo-ement. 1914 The assassination of Archdu6e Fran$ Ferdinand (1)/?*1 1., and his wife in BaraFe-o sets off World War I. Austria;=un#ary attac6s Berbia, and 'ermany in-ades @el#ium. The 'ermans defeat the Russians in the @attle of Tannenber# and the Russians defeat the Austrians at the @attle of 7ember#. Also in 1 1., the First @attle of the 5arne is fou#ht. Althou#h 'erman troo%s are %re-ented from enterin# &aris, the successful 'erman retreat means that the war will be %rolon#ed. The 'ermans are en#a#ed in bloody battles in @el#ium, France, and elsewhere from 1 1" until 1 1), when the Allies are -ictorious and Armistice is si#ned, thus mar6in# the demise of the 'erman and =absbur# em%ires. 1916 The 8ada mo-ement be#ins in Iurich at the Cabaret 0oltaire:a #atherin# %lace for artists, %erformers, and intellectuals:and flourishes in France, Bwit$erland, and 'ermany until about 1 3!. Romanian;born %oet Tristan T$ara (1) /*1 /?, writes the foundin# manifesto. A%%alled by the destruction of World War I and the nationalist and materialist -alues that %roduced it, 8adaists celebrate irrationality and anarchy in wor6s of -isual art and sta#ed e-ents. Austrian artist Raoul =ausmann (1))/*1 +1, and 'erman artists Jurt Bchwitters (1))+*1 .), and =annah =`ch (1)) * 1 +), are amon# those associated with the mo-ement. 1918 'erman artist Christian Bchad (1) .*1 )3, creates his first 9Bchado#ra%h,9 a cameraless %hoto#ra%h that re%roduces the ne#ati-e ima#e of te>tures %laced on %hotosensiti-e %a%er. 191819 The No-ember ('erman, Re-olution is tri##ered by a mutiny of sailors in Jiel who set u% Bo-iet;style wor6ers2 councils. The 6aiser abdicates and the Bocial;8emocratic &arty (B&8, heads the new #o-ernment, fracturin# left unity by allyin# with conser-ati-e forces. The rebellion s%reads to maFor %orts and cities, includin# @erlin, where the B%artacist <%risin# is led by socialists Rosa 7u>embur# (1)+!*1 1 , and Jarl 7ieb6necht (1)+1*1 1 ,, both of whom are assassinated by #o-ernment militia. The re-olt is ultimately su%%ressed and the Weimar Re%ublic %roclaimed. 1918 Allied with the No-ember Re-olution and its ideals, artists and architects form the No-ember#ru%%e (No-ember 'rou%, and the Arbeitsrat fYr Junst (Wor6ers2 Council for Art, in @erlin. Their %ro#rams for state su%%ort of art and other %roFects are later ta6en u% at the Weimar @auhaus, founded in 1 1 by Walter 'ro%ius (1))?*1 / ,. The educational %ro#ram is based on the inte#ration of the arts and crafts and aims at nothin# less than a re-olution in 'erman culture, from bour#eois %arochialism to a socially transformati-e art. 191834 9Red 0ienna,9 the stron#hold of the Bocial 8emocratic &arty in Austria, becomes an internationally acclaimed model of socialist munici%al #o-ernment. Embar6in# on a radical %ro#ram of democrati$ation and redistribution, the administration focuses on the %ro-ision of housin# eAui%%ed with modern amenities, #reen s%ace, and community infrastructure such as libraries and 6inder#artens. The %ro#ram2s as%irations are e>em%lified by the =eili#enstadt =ouses (Jarl 5ar> =of, 1 3+*?!,, desi#ned by Jarl Ehn (1)).*1 "+,, a student of Dtto Wa#ner. 1919 'erman architect and urban %lanner @runo Taut (1))!*1 ?),, a member of the No-ember#ru%%e, %ublishes his uto%ian drawin#s, Alpine Ar!hite!ture, in which he rein-ents architecture in res%onse to the de-astation of World War I and demonstrates his E>%ressionist a%%roach to desi#n. Taut2s ability to use modern materials to achie-e E>%ressionistic effects is also a%%arent in his 'lass &a-ilion at the 1 1. Wer6bund E>hibition. 1919 The 'erman E>%ressionist film The Cabinet o" DrF Caligari is directed by Robert Wiene (1))!* 1 ?),. The unner-in# effect of the film is a conseAuence of its multilayered %lot and its sets, which con-ey the feelin# of a twisted and distorted medie-al -illa#e. 1920s The Weimar Re%ublic %ro-es more hos%itable to elements of the old military;industrial re#ime than socialists and other %ro%onents of radical chan#e. Artists res%ond with increasin#ly harsh %ictorial attac6s on the 9New 'ermany9 throu#h %rints, broadsides, and illustrated ma#a$ines. @erlin 8adaists 'eor#e 'ros$ (1) ?*1 " , and Cohn =eartfield (1) 1*1 /),, both members of the Communist %arty, collaborate on -arious %ublications featurin# bitter caricatures of the 9%illars of bour#eois society9:

corru%t ca%italists, the military, and the cler#y:for which they incur the wrath of authorities. @oth artists are also early and -ociferous critics of the Na$is, who or#ani$e as a %arty in 1 3!. 1920 The 7ea#ue of Nations is established in &aris, with Bwit$erland as one of the ori#inal members. Austria becomes a member later in the same year. 1920 Bwiss %sychiatrist =ermann Rorschach (1)).*1 33, de-ises the 9in6blot9 test. =is boo6 Ps !hodiagnosti5 is %ublished in 1 31 and Auic6ly becomes a classic %sychoanalytic te>t. 1920 Erwin &iscator (1) ?*1 //, o%ens the &roletarian Theater in @erlin. &ioneerin# the use of mechani$ed sets and films in his dramatic %roductions, &iscator en-isions an a#itational, %ro%a#andistic theater whose socio%olitical conte>t su%ersedes emoti-e content or aesthetics. 1920 'erman;born choreo#ra%her 5ary Wi#man (1))/*1 +?,, creator of E>%ressionist dance, o%ens a school in 8resden. Em%loyin# s%ontaneous mo-ement, re%etiti-e %attern, and often musicless choreo#ra%hy, Wi#man2s inno-ations will influence Euro%ean and American modern dance for decades. 1921 'erman astronomer 5a> Wolf (1)/?*1 ?3, shows the true structure of the 5il6y Way for the first time. 1922 Naum 'abo (1) !*1 ++, brin#s Constructi-ism from his nati-e Russia to 'ermany, where he li-es until 1 ?3. 1923 Adolf =itler (1)) *1 .", ma6es his first attem%t to sei$e %ower, in the @eer =all &utsch in 5unich. 8urin# a brief im%risonment for treason, he writes Mein Eamp". The -alue of the 'erman mar6 dro%s dramatically and the ensuin# economic instability contributes to the %o%ularity of the Na$i %arty, which =itler reor#ani$es in 1 3". 1924 'erman artist Dtto 8i> (1) 1*1 / , records the horrors of trench warfare in a boo6 of etchin#s called The War. 7i6e fellow -eteran 'eor#e 'ros$, 8i> de-otes his art to stin#in# social commentary, focusin# on the social ne#ation of disabled e>;soldiers in %aintin#s such as War Cripples (1 3!,. When The Tren!h (1 3?,, a de%iction of decom%osed cor%ses, is shown at the Wallraf;Richart$; 5useum in Colo#ne, %ublic outcry forces the museum2s director to resi#n. 1925 Austrian;born industrial and #ra%hic desi#ner =erbert @ayer (1 !!*1 )", becomes director of %rintin# and ad-ertisin# at the @auhaus. In 1 ?), @ayer will emi#rate to the <nited Btates, where he will e>ercise a %rofound influence on #ra%hic and industrial art. 1925 The Neue Bachlich6eit (New DbFecti-ity, e>hibition o%ens in 5annheim. The socially en#a#ed mo-ement is based on the use of star6 realism to con-ey the sense of disillusionment en#endered by the 'reat War and the failures of the Weimar Re%ublic. Amon# the artists associated with the mo-ement is 5a> @ec6mann (1)).*1 "!,. 1926 'ermany is admitted to the 7ea#ue of Nations but withdraws in 1 ??, the year in which Adolf =itler (1)) *1 .", is declared chancellor, combinin# that %osition with that of %resident in 1 ?. to become FYhrer (97eader9,. In 1 ?), =itler declares himself war minister. 1926 The @auhaus school buildin#, desi#ned by Walter 'ro%ius (1))?*1 / ,, is com%leted in 8essau, 'ermany. First established in Weimar in 1 1 , the @auhaus relocates to 8essau in 1 3", then to @erlin in 1 ?3. It will be closed by the Na$is in 1 ?? because its %ro#ressi-e education %ro#ram and modernist aesthetics are considered threats to the re#ime. Amon# the teachers at the @auhaus is %ainter &aul Jlee (1)+ *1 .!,, who Foined in 1 31 and teaches in a -ariety of fields, includin# boo6bindin#, %aintin#, and wea-in#, throu#h 1 ?1. 1926 The film Metropolis by 'erman director Frit$ 7an# (1) !*1 +/, %remieres in @erlin. The %o%ular futuristic film ima#ines a world transformed by modern %roduction methods in which ca%italists li-e comfortably on the surface of the Earth while wor6ers toil in de%ri-ation below #round.

 1927 -erlin8 S mphon o" a Cit , a film directed by Walter Ruttmann (1))+*1 .1,, %remieres. The film documents one day in the life of contem%orary @erlin and uses a -ariety of effects to ca%ture the e>citement, s%eed, and -ibrancy of the 'erman ca%ital. 1927 The Weissenhofsiedlun# model housin# e>hibit, directed by architect 7udwi# 5ies -an der Rohe (1))/*1 / ,, o%ens in Btutt#art. In 1 3 , 5ies e>hibits his 9@arcelona9 chair in the 'erman &a-ilion (also of his desi#n, at the @arcelona International E>%osition. The buildin# is com%osed of abstract %lanes that intersect under its flat roof. 8es%ite its manifest modernism, the structure em%loys materials, such as tra-ertine marble, associated with traditional monumental %ublic buildin#s. In 1 ?+, 5ies lea-es 'ermany for Chica#o, where he heads the Architecture 8e%artment at the Armour Institute of Technolo#y (later the Illinois Institute of Technolo#y, from 1 ?) to 1 "). 1927 EAuatin# modernism with de#eneracy, and de#eneracy with Cews and @olshe-i6s, Na$i ideolo#ist Alfred Rosenber# (1) ?*1 ./, founds the Jam%fbund fYr 8eutsche Jultur (5ilitant 7ea#ue for 'erman Culture, to %ur#e the arts of 9corru%t9 elements. 1928 @ertolt @recht (1) )*1 "/, writes The Threepenn 0pera with com%oser Jurt Weill (1 !!* 1 "!,, in which he em%loys 9alienatin# effects9 intended to destroy theatrical illusion and maintain the audience2s critical detachment. The %lay is the #reatest theatrical 9hit9 of 1 3!s @erlin. With the rise to %ower of the Na$i %arty, @recht will become a %rominent member of the antifascist mo-ement. 1928 The Jello##;@riand &act declarin# an end to war is si#ned by si>ty;fi-e countries, includin# 'ermany. Althou#h the %act does not %re-ent World War II, it does establish the le#al conce%t of crimes committed a#ainst %eace, for which a number of defendants in the Nurember# Trials (1 ."*./, are con-icted. 1928 CIA5 (Con#rGs Internationau> daArchitecture 5oderne, is founded at the Chbteau de 7a Barra$ in Bwit$erland by twenty;ei#ht Euro%ean architects or#ani$ed by 7e Corbusier (1))+*1 /", and historian Bie#fried 'iedion (1)))*1 /), to formali$e the %rinci%les of modern architecture and %romote functionalist desi#n in urban %lannin#. CIA52s ideas are widely ado%ted by city %lanners in the rebuildin# of Euro%e followin# World War II. 1929 The 8eutscher Wer6bund or#ani$es the #roundbrea6in# 6ilm und 6oto e>hibition in Btutt#art, an international showcase for a-ant;#arde %hoto#ra%hy and film. 1929 Erich 5aria RemarAue (1) )*1 +!, %ublishes All Quiet on the Western Front, a boo6 later banned and burned by the Na$is. In the late 1 ?!s, RemarAue flees 'ermany for Bwit$erland, then the <.B. 1930 A %eriod of worldwide economic de%ression and unem%loyment be#ins. In 1 ?1, the Austrian ban6 Creditanstalt crashes, causin# a financial %anic in Austria and 'ermany. 1930 'erman artist Cohn =eartfield (1) 1*1 /), be#ins an ei#ht;year association with the ArbeiterC %llustrierte >eitung (Wor6ers2 Illustrated News%a%er, or A%>,, for which he creates do$ens of %hotomonta#es, often ruthless satires of =itler and the Na$is. 5any of these %hotomonta#es:a techniAue in which =eartfield has become a master:will be featured in his solo e>hibition 0ne Man's War Against 2itler, mounted in 1 .! at the Arcade 'allery in 7ondon. 1930 The 'erman %roduction of The -lue Angel, directed by Cosef -on Bternber# (1) .*1 / , and starrin# 5arlene 8ietrich (1 !1*1 3,, is released. The film, in which 8ietrich %lays 7ola, a cabaret sin#er, and famously %erforms the son# 9Fallin# in 7o-e A#ain9 which will become her trademar6, ma6es the star2s career. 1933 The Nobel &ri$e for %hysics is awarded to the Bwiss;En#lish &aul 8irac (1 !3*1 )., and the Austrian Erwin Bchr`din#er (1))+*1 /1, for the disco-ery of new forms of atomic ener#y. 193345 Adolf =itler (1)) *1 .", becomes chancellor of 'ermany and creates a one;%arty state under the National Bocialist (Na$i, re#ime. The doctrine of an Aryan 9master race,9 central to Na$i

ideolo#y, is translated into concrete %olicies desi#ned to e>terminate 'erman Cews. In 5arch 1 ??, the first concentration cam% o%ens at 8achau. In 1 ?", the Nurember# 7aws de%ri-e 'erman Cews of citi$enshi%. @efore the end of World War II, some si> million Cews in Na$i;occu%ied Euro%e will be de%orted and murdered in a systematic %ro#ram of #enocide. 'y%sies, homose>uals, communists, the mentally ill, and other #rou%s will also be tar#eted. 1934 In Austria, a clerical;fascist dictatorshi% is established in a cou% d21tat orchestrated by Chancellor En#elber# 8ollfuss. &arliament is dismissed and all %olitical %arties are banned e>ce%t for the Fatherland Front. 1934 The 0ol6swa#en @eetle is introduced in 'ermany. D-er the ne>t se-en decades, 31 million of the economical 9%eo%le2s car9 will be %roduced. In the 1 /!s, the @eetle becomes the -ehicle of choice for counterculture members. 1935 'erman director 7eni Riefenstahl2s (1 !3*3!!?, film Triumph o" the Will %remieres, a #lorification of =itler and his re#ime. The ne>t year, her film of the Dlym%ics in @erlin, titled 0l mpia, is a %aean to 9Aryan su%eriority.9 Riefenstahl2s willin#ness to %ro%a#andi$e for the Na$is ma6es her a contro-ersial fi#ure after World War II. 1936 'erman 5ar>ist social and cultural critic Walter @enFamin (1) 3*1 .!, writes the essay 9The Wor6 of Art in the A#e of Its Technolo#ical Re%roducibility9 (also commonly translated as 9The Wor6 of Art in the A#e of 5echanical Re%roduction9,. In this influential essay, @enFamin theori$es the loss of the aura of the ori#inal artwor6 in the a#e of %hoto#ra%hy and film. In 1 .!, he commits suicide at the French;B%anish border while fleein# the Na$is. 1937 The National Bocialist (Na$i, #o-ernment or#ani$es the e>hibition 7ntartete Eunst (Degenerate Art,, which includes the wor6 of many modernist artists. D%enin# in 5unich, the e>hibition is attended by literally millions of -isitors in its do$en 'erman and Austrian -enues. The show includes only a fraction of the 1/,!!! artwor6s confiscated from 'erman museums by order of 5inister of &ro%a#anda Cose%h 'oebbels (1) +*1 .",K thousands of these wor6s are burned, the rest auctioned off. Amon# the artists deemed 9de#enerate9 are the E>%ressionists Jirchner, 5arc, Jo6osch6a, and Nolde, as well as @ec6mann, Jlee, Cha#all, 8i>, 'ros$, &icasso, 0an 'o#h, and Jandins6y. Dther cultural forms are subFected to the same rites of 9%urification.9 For instance, a Degenerate Musi! e>hibit is mounted in 1 ?) to educate the listenin# %ublic on the dan#ers of atonalism and Fa$$. 1937 'ermans %artici%ate in the bombin# of the @asAue town of 'uernica by fascist forces, an e-ent memoriali$ed the same year in a lar#e;scale %aintin# ( 'uerni!a, by B%anish artist &ablo &icasso (1))1*1 +?,. In 1 , the 'erman #o-ernment officially a%olo#i$es to the citi$ens of 'uernica for its %art in the bombin#. 193845 Austria is anne>ed by 'ermany. In 1 ? , World War II starts when 'erman troo%s in-ade &oland, and France and @ritain declare war on 'ermany. =itler (1)) *1 .", and 5ussolini (1))?* 1 .", si#n a ten;year 9&act of Bteel.9 The same year, the =itler;Btalin &act of nona##ression between 'ermany and the Bo-iet <nion is si#ned. In 1 .!, 'ermany in-ades Norway, 8enmar6, =olland, @el#ium, and 7u>embour#. 'ermany in-ades Russia in 1 .1 and 'ermany and Italy declare war on the <.B. In 1 .?, Cews in the Warsaw 'hetto, established by the 'ermans after the in-asion of &oland in 1 ? , rise u% a#ainst their Na$i ca%tors. In 1 .?, the 'erman military surrender at Btalin#rad and in TunisiaK Italy declares war on 'ermany. In 1 .., &aris and Rome are liberated from 'erman occu%ation and 'erman forces retreat from Russia. In 1 .", World War II ends with 'erman surrender and the suicide of Adolf =itler. 'ermany is di-ided into four $ones of Allied military occu%ationN French, @ritish, American, and Bo-iet. 194146 Bcul%tor Alberto 'iacometti (1 !1*1 //,, earlier associated with the Cubist and Burrealist mo-ements in &aris, returns to his nati-e Bwit$erland for the duration of the war. 1942 Bwit$erland closes its boarders to Cewish refu#ees. 8urin# the war, Bwiss neutrality ensures that its im%ortant financial institutions will continue to function and to be used by both sides of the conflict.

 1946 The Art Club is founded in 0ienna by a #rou% of modern %ainters*some of whom had been in e>ile durin# the war:as a s%ace for reco-erin# and redisco-erin# Euro%ean a-ant;#arde art. The club becomes the center of %ro#ressi-e tendencies in Austrian culture for the ne>t decade. 194849 The Bo-iet <nion sto%s road and rail traffic between @erlin and the West. In a 6ey e-ent in the Cold War, Western %owers be#in the @erlin Airlift of necessary su%%lies to the city, which is surrounded by the Bo-iet $one of 'ermany. 1949 'ermany is %artitioned. The Federal Re%ublic of 'ermany (West 'ermany,, com%rised of the sectors occu%ied by France, @ritain, and the <.B., is %roclaimed in 5ay. The remainin# Bo-iet $one becomes the 'erman 8emocratic Re%ublic (East 'ermany, in Dctober. @erlin is similarly di-ided between East and West, althou#h it is a detached encla-e 11! miles from West 'ermany. 1949 The Fourth 'ene-a Con-ention re-ises and ratifies standards established by earlier 'ene-a Con-entions (1)/., 1 !/, 1 3 , relati-e to the treatment of battlefield wounded, %risoners of war, ci-ilians in wartime, and other related matters. 1949 After wartime e>ile in the <nited Btates, @ertolt @recht (1) )*1 "/, settles in East @erlin, where he is #i-en a theater in which to %erform his wor6s. 5any other artists and intellectuals who had fled the Na$is return to East 'ermany, attracted by its antifascist stance and the %ossibility of reali$in# their socialist ideals. Within a few years, the mi#ration will be re-ersed, from East to West. 1951 East 'ermany2s #o-ernin# Bocialist <nity &arty (BE8, launches a cam%ai#n a#ainst formalism and 9decadence9 in art, literature, and architecture. The 5inistry of Culture %rescribes Bocialist Realism as the only a%%ro%riate form of aesthetic e>%ression. Artists enFoy a %ri-ile#ed status in the '8R, includin# freedom to tra-el from East to West, as lon# as they follow the #o-ernment %olicy of #lorifyin# socialism and %roletarian stru##leK otherwise, they ris6 censorshi%, forced immi#ration, or im%risonment. Within these constraints, se-eral %ainters of the 7ei%$i# Bchool create a distincti-e body of wor6 in the Bocialist Realist mode, includin# Werner TYb6e (born 1 3 ,, @ernhard =eisi# (born 1 3",, and Wolf#an# 5attheuer (born 1 3+,. 1953 7udwi# Witt#enstein2s (1)) *1 "1, Philosophi!al %nvestigations is %ublished %osthumously. Witt#enstein is influential in usin# lin#uistics to resol-e %hiloso%hical issues. 1953 A wor6ers2 u%risin# a#ainst increased %roduction Auotas results in wor6 sto%%a#es throu#hout East 'ermany. The wor6ers demand the #o-ernment2s resi#nation. The rebellion is su%%ressed by Bo-iet military forces and hundreds of wor6ers are wounded or 6illed. 1955 West 'ermany Foins NATD and %artici%ates in the establishment of the Euro%ean <nion alon# with Italy and France. This increasin# coordination amon# the Western %owers is balanced by the Bo-iet;ali#ned Warsaw &act with East 'ermany as one of its ori#inal members. 1955 The first documenta e>hibition of contem%orary art is held in Jassel, 'ermany. 1955 The Btate Treaty of Austria declares the country 9%ermanently neutral.9 1957 'ermany is amon# the si#ners of the 9Rome Treaty,9 which launches the Euro%ean Economic Community (the EEC or Common 5ar6etK later renamed the Euro%ean Community TECU,. The other si#ners are France, Italy, @el#ium, the Netherlands, and 7u>embour#. 1957 The Iero #rou% is founded in 8Ysseldorf by Dtto &iene (born 1 3), and =ein$ 5ac6 (born 1 ?1, to e>%lore the %ossibilities of li#ht;based art. 195859 The Wiener 'ru%%e (0iennese 'rou%,, a collecti-e of e>%erimental %oets interested in transformin# the written word into action and music, sta#e their Literar Cabarets in 0ienna. A %recursor to the ha%%enin#s of the 1 /!s, these 9total theater9 e-ents include %erformances of 9sound %oetry,9 s6etches, and son#s, and attract hu#e crowds.

 1959 The @itterfeld Conference formulates a%%ro%riate artistic subFect matter and the obli#ations of artists in East 'ermany. Artists[writers and wor6ers should 9e>chan#e their tools,9 so that the former can better understand and de%ict the life of the %roletariat. 1959 West 'erman writer 'Ynter 'rass (born 1 3+, %ublishes the no-el Die -le!htrommel (The Tin Drum,, a %icaresAue account of one man2s Fourney throu#h the ni#htmare of Na$i 'ermany and the country2s %ostwar 9economic miracle.9 1960 Bwiss artist Cean Tin#uely (1 3"*1 1, is amon# the si#ners of a 9Constituti-e 8eclaration of the New Realism.9 The mo-ement su%%orts wor6 that embraces realism throu#h assembla#es of found obFects. Dne out#rowth of Nou-eau R1alisme (New Realism, is 6inetic scul%ture, by artists such as Tin#uely, and it is the subFect of e>hibitions throu#hout Euro%e. 1961 The construction of the @erlin Wall di-ides the city into Communist East @erlin and 8emocratic West @erlin. The wall stands for nearly thirty years. 196162 The Flu>us Internationale Fests%iele, held in Wiesbaden, 'ermany, mar6s the official launch of the Flu>us mo-ement, or#ani$ed by American artist 'eor#e 5aciunas (1 ?1*1 +),. Flu>us continues into the 1 +!s, based %rimarily in 'ermany but ha-in# adherents throu#hout Euro%e and North America. Closely related to the 8ada mo-ement, Flu>us artists aim for a 9total art9 that trans#resses traditional aesthetic boundaries, combinin# -isual art, music, %oetry, and electronic media into sta#ed e-ents or 9ha%%enin#s.9 &artici%ants in 'ermany include -ideo artist Nam Cune &ai6 (born 1 ?3, and Cose%h @euys (1 31*1 )/,. In the 1 +!s, @euys %resents %erformance wor6s concernin# national history and %ersonal bio#ra%hy. 1963 'erhard Richter (born 1 ?3,, Bi#mar &ol6e (born 1 .1,, and Jonrad 7ue# (1 ? *1 /, res%ond to American &o% with the formation of the #rou% Ca%italist Realism in 8Ysseldorf. 7ue# and Richter (who, li6e &ol6e, immi#rated from East 'ermany, or#ani$e their first e-ent, Li"e with Pop@ A Demonstration "or Capitalist Realism, in a de%artment store, in-itin# friends to -iew the artists sittin# on furniture from the store2s in-entory dis%layed as wor6s of art. 1963 The @erlin &hilharmonic =all is com%leted by =ans Bcharoun (1) ?*1 +3,, who has lon# been affiliated with the E>%ressionist mo-ement. This first maFor wor6 by the architect leads to commissions in the last decade of his life. 196566 8urin# a liberali$ation in cultural %olicy, the East 'erman film com%any 8EFA %roduces a number of films critical of contem%orary socialist life, includin# % Am a Rabbit by Jurt 5aet$i# (born 1 11, and Tra!es o" Stone by Fran6 @eyer (born 1 ?3,. Althou#h both films are banned in a subseAuent crac6down, they are ultimately -oted amon# the to% 1!! 'erman films of all time by an international Fury. 1968 Construction is com%leted on the Neue National#alerie, @erlin, desi#ned by 7udwi# 5ies -an der Rohe (1))/*1 / ,. The minimalist sensibility of 5ies2 buildin# stands in shar% contrast to the other structures in the Julturforum com%le>, all desi#ned in an e>%ressionist mode by =ans Bcharoun (1) ?*1 +3,. 1969 When Attitudes -e!ome 6orm, a landmar6 e>hibition of Conce%tual Art, o%ens at the Junsthalle @ern in Bwit$erland. The show %ro-o6es a national scandal and curator =arald B$eemann (born 1 ??, is forced to resi#n. late 1960s'70s 0arious manifestations of Conce%tual Art flourish in East 'ermany, %articularly 5ail Art, in which official e>hibition -enues (and censors, are by%assed in fa-or of distributin# wor6 -ia the %ostal system in the form of illustrated letters, %ostcards, $ines, and stam%s. Amon# the %ractitioners are Robert Rehfeldt (1 ?1*1 ?,, who establishes an archi-e of Conce%tual Art in East @erlin, and Cose%h W. =uber (1 "1*3!!1,, whose %roFect &ature %s Li"eASave %t (1 ++, consists of mailin# sunflower seeds to artists all o-er the world for %lantin#.

 1970 'erman %ainter Anselm Jiefer (born 1 .", %roduces a watercolor entitled 7ver one Stands .nder 2is 0wn Dome o" 2eaven (1 ".1...,, in which he de%icts himself enactin# a %arody of the 9=eil =itler9 salute. An early wor6 by Jiefer, it illustrates his on#oin# concern to come to #ri%s with the Na$i le#acy, an obFecti-e shared with other %ainters associated with Neo;E>%ressionism and Neo; Abstraction in 'ermany in the 1 +!s and 2)!s, amon# them 'eor# @aselit$ (born 1 ?), and 5ar6us 7Y%ert$ (born 1 .1,. 1971 In most Bwiss cantons, women are #ranted the ri#ht to hold federal office and -ote in national elections, but are still barred from -otin# in many local elections. 1973 Renowned East 'erman writer Btefan =eym (1 1?*3!!1, %ublishes The Eing David Report, a no-elistic e>%loration of the intellectual2s role in a socialist society. =eym2s uncom%romisin# %ro; socialist but anti;Btalinist Fournalism and literary wor6s land him in constant trouble with authorities. 1974 The West 'erman a-ant;#arde #rou% Jraftwer6, the first electronic band, release the classic album Autobahn. Jraftwer6 ('erman for 9%ower %lant9,, whose wholly synthetic sound influences American New Wa-e, de-elo% techniAues and eAui%ment that become standard in contem%orary music. 1975 West 'erman %hoto#ra%hers @ernd (born 1 ?1, and =illa (born 1 ?., @echer %ublish Anon me S5ulpturen (Anonymous Bcul%tures,. The @echers2 blac6;and;white %hotodocumentation of :often derelict:industrial architecture such as water towers, coal silos, blast furnaces, #rain ele-ators, and oil refineries, ta6en throu#hout Euro%e and North America, is allied to the %ractice of a number of American landsca%e %hoto#ra%hers who, eschewin# traditional notions of untainted beauty, record the im%act of industrial culture on the land. This %ractice is labeled the 9New To%o#ra%hics9 in a seminal 1 +" e>hibition held at the International 5useum of &hoto#ra%hy in Rochester, New Eor6. 1976 &o%ular sin#er;son#writer Wolf @iermann (born 1 ?/, is stri%%ed of East 'erman citi$enshi% and e>%elled from the country for his -ocal ad-ocacy of democrati$ation. The e-ent, endin# a %eriod of relati-e o%timism amon# cultural wor6ers in the '8R, sets off a flurry of %rotests, %rom%tin# a #o-ernment crac6down on more than a hundred dissident writers. 1978 Austrian architect =ans =ollein (born 1 ?., com%letes the Tourist Dffice in 0ienna. This is followed by other %roFects in Austria and 'ermany, and =ollein2s recei%t of the &rit$6er Architecture &ri$e in 1 )". 1978 The Marriage o" Maria -raun, the first film in 'erman director Rainer Werner Fassbinder2s (1 ."*1 )3, %ostwar trilo#y, %remieres. Fassbinder is associated with the New 'erman Cinema. late 1970s The 'erman 'reen &arty (8ie 'rYhnen, is founded by en-ironmentalists and %eace acti-ists, includin# &etra Jelly (1 .+*1 3, and artist Cose%h @euys (1 31*1 )/,. In 1 )?, the 'reens win twenty;ei#ht seats in the federal %arliament, the first Euro%ean 'reen &arty to #ain a stron# %resence in national #o-ernment. 1981 Bwiss architect 5ario @otta (born 1 .?, desi#ns the Casa Rotonda in Btabio, Bwit$erland, in his trademar6 star6, #eometric styleN a concrete drum %unctuated with o%enin#s to admit li#ht into the interior. Amon# @otta2s international %roFects is the Ban Francisco 5useum of 5odern Art, com%leted in 1 .. 1983 The Neue Btaats#alerie in Btutt#art, by @ritish architect Cames Btirlin# (1 3/*1 com%leted. It is an im%ortant monument of %ostmodern architecture. 3,, is

1987 Wim Wenders2 (born 1 .", film 8er =immel Yber @erlin (Win#s of 8esire, is released. The film ca%tures life in West @erlin immediately %rior to unification of the city and the two 'ermanys. 1989 The Communist re#imes in Eastern Euro%e colla%se. This e-ent is followed in 1 ! by the destruction of the @erlin Wall and the reunification of East and West 'ermany. <nified 'ermany then becomes a member of NATD.

 1990 7ondon;based, IraAi;born architect Iaha =adid (born 1 "!, com%letes the 5usic 0ideo &a-ilion in 'r`nin#en, 'ermany. =er 0itra Fire Btation is built in Weil am Rhein, 'ermany, from 1 1 to 1 ?, and her E>hibition =all in the same city is com%leted in 1 . =adid2s re%utation as one of the foremost %ractitioners of 8econstruction in architecture is based as much on her drawin#s as on her e>ecuted buildin#s. 1992 The 5aastricht Treaty, creatin# the Euro%ean <nion, is si#ned. Amon# the si#natories is 'ermany. Austria enters the Euro%ean <nion in 1 ". 1995 Christo and Ceanne;Claude (both born 1 ?", wra% the Reichsta# in @erlin. It is the culmination of a %lannin# effort that be#an in 1 +1. The buildin# is wra%%ed with 1!!,!!! sAuare meters of %oly%ro%ylene fabric with an aluminum finish. 1997 =ans =aac6e (born 1 ?/,, 6nown for socially critical installation art, e>hibits at documenta S in Jassel his Shapols5 et alF Manhattan Real 7state 2oldings8 a RealCTime S stem8 as o" Ma :8 :G<: , a wor6 that %rom%ted the cancellation of his 1 +1 solo e>hibition at the 'u##enheim 5useum in New Eor6. 1999 Austria and 'ermany are amon# the Euro%ean nations that ado%t the Euro as a unit of currency for electronic transactions. 1999 In Bwit$erland, the ri#ht;win# &eo%le2s &arty recei-es one;Auarter of the total -ote in national elections, becomin# the second stron#est %olitical force in the country. 1999 The Cewish 5useum in @erlin, desi#ned by architect 8aniel 7ibes6ind (born 1 ./,, is com%leted. The metal;clad, $i#$a#;form buildin# demonstrates 7ibes6ind2s association with 8econstructi-ist architecture. 1999 American architect &eter Eisenman (born 1 ?3, wins the com%etition for the =olocaust 5emorial in @erlin. The memorial consists %rimarily of thousands of concrete columns. The %roFect illustrates the on#oin# 'erman need to deal historically and %sycholo#ically with the =olocaust. 2000 The e>treme ri#ht Austrian Freedom &arty, led by C`r# =aider (born 1 "!,, enters #o-ernment in a rulin# coalition with the conser-ati-e &eo%le2s &arty. Alarmed by the rise of fascist elements, the Euro%ean <nion im%oses di%lomatic sanctions on the country, but these are lifted se-en months later. The re#ion is characteri$ed by #reat %olitical and ideolo#ical conflict durin# the twentieth century. =un#ary, ali#ned with Austria, %lays a maFor role in World War I. Followin# the conflict, C$echoslo-a6ia is established as a %olitical entity. It %ossesses +!*)! %ercent of the industry of the former Austria;=un#ary. With the e>ce%tion of 7iechtenstein, all of the nations in this re#ion are in-ol-ed in World War II. In the %ostwar %eriod, all are dominated by o%%ressi-e %olitical re#imes that do not fall until around 1 !, to be re%laced by more o%en, democratic #o-ernments. The domination of the re#ion by Communist and other re%ressi-e re#imes has a chillin# effect on what had %re-iously been a -ibrant international culture. In =un#ary, around the turn of the century, Art Nou-eau flourished in architecture and the other arts. In &ra#ue, Fust before World War I, #rou%s of artists combined their interests in local traditions with a fascination for &arisian Cubism to de-elo% their own uniAue Cubist style. That style is seen in wor6s of %aintin# and scul%ture, but also, most distincti-ely, in architecture and the decorati-e arts. 8urin# the years of Communist re#imes, throu#h most of the century, the early connections with Western Euro%ean art are mostly lost. It is only with the fall of the re%ressi-e #o-ernments that the artistic communities in these countries are re-itali$ed, and Western Euro%eans become more con-ersant with the histories of a-ant;#arde mo-ements in =un#ary and C$echoslo-a6ia.

 1900 C$ech;born artist Al%honse 5ucha (1)/!*1 ? ,, 6nown %rimarily for his %osters in the Art Nou-eau style, desi#ns the @osnia;=er$e#o-ina &a-ilion at the 1 !! World2s Fair in &aris. In 1 ! , he be#ins a series of murals, The Slav 7pi!, commissioned for the 7ord 5ayor2s =all in &ra#ue. The twenty can-ases, measurin# about 3. > ?! feet, are not com%leted until 1 3). 1901 Ins%ired by the Arts and Crafts mo-ement, as well as Tolstoy2s heroic de%ictions of the %easantry, the '`d`ll` artists2 colony is founded outside @uda%est to foster a modern national style in the decorati-e arts by ada%tin# elements of =un#ary2s -ernacular art and architecture. '`d`ll`2s wor6sho%s, which are o%en to the rural %oor, include wea-in#, te>tile and wall%a%er desi#n, furniture ma6in#, stained #lass, scul%ture, #ra%hics, and ceramics. <ntil the colony disbands in 1 31, its desi#ners and craftsmen e>hibit at international salons to much acclaim and recei-e commissions for im%ortant %ublic %roFects. 1903 The Cifra &alace in @uda%est, desi#ned by '1$a 5Pr6us (1)+3*1 13,, is com%leted. With its or#anic forms, %olychrome tile roof, and floral ornamentation on the e>terior, it e>em%lifies the =un#arian Art Nou-eau. The sim%le #eometry of the buildin#2s massin# also demonstrates the influence in =un#ary of the 0ienna Becession. 190314 &ra#ue;born 5aria Jirschner is the %rinci%al staff desi#ner for the @ohemian 7oet$ #lasswor6s. Jirschner and other desi#ners, such as 8a#obert &eche (1))+*1 3?, and Cosef =offmann (1)+!*1 "/,, contribute to the hi#h Auality of 7oet$ wares. Their desi#ns reflect the influence of both French Art Nou-eau #lassma6in# and 0iennese modernism. 1904 Romanian scul%tor Constantin @rancusi (1)+/*1 "+, tra-els from @ucharest, where he had studied at the Bchool of Fine Arts, to &aris, where he will %roduce im%ortant modernist wor6s, startin# with The Eiss in 1 !). 19046 The 'resham &alace =otel is constructed in @uda%est, an im%ortant e>am%le of the =un#arian Art Nou-eau style in architecture. 8esi#ned by Isi#mond Quittner (1)"+*1 1),, the hotel is built by the 'resham 7ife Assurance Com%any of @ritain, and ori#inally caters %rimarily to a @ritish clientele. 1905 An e>hibition in &ra#ue of %aintin#s by Norwe#ian artist Ed-ard 5unch (1)/?*1 .., is a catalyst for the formation of Dsma (the Ei#ht,, the first s%ecifically modernist @ohemian #rou%. 5embers, includin# Emil Filla (1))3*1 "?, and @ohumil Jubista (1)).*1 1),, create an aesthetic -ocabulary meldin# e>%ressionism and %rimiti-ism to e>%lore a sense of alienation en#endered by the socio%olitical conditions of a 6in#dom on the -er#e of colla%se. 5any of the Ei#ht will be instrumental in the de-elo%ment of C$ech Cubism. 1905 &olish writer =enry6 Bien6iewic$ (1)./*1 1/, recei-es the Nobel &ri$e in literature for his no-el Buo $adis. 1908 The Association of Architects of the 5Pnes <nion of Artists (B%ole6 0yt-arnych <melcu 5Pnes, is founded in &ra#ue. Amon# its members are &a-el CanP6 (1))3*1 "/,, Dta6ar No-otny (1))!* 1 " ,, and Cosef 'ocPr (1))!*1 .",, who, ins%ired by the buildin#s and writin#s of 0iennese architect Dtto Wa#ner (1).1*1 1),, formulate an aesthetic for architecture and the decorati-e arts that incor%orates as%ects of Cubist %aintin#. In 1 13, CanP6 and 'ocPr establish the &ra#ue Art Wor6sho%s for crafts and furniture desi#n, throu#h which they %roduce Cubist;ins%ired utilitarian household items. 1908 En#lish 6in# Edward 0II (r. 1 !1*1!, orders a set of crystal drin6in# -essels from 5oser W Bons, the @ohemian #lass manufactory established by 7udwi# 5oser (1)??*1 1/,. The firm2s hi#h; Auality %roduct then becomes 6nown as the 9'lass of Jin#s.9 1911 The 'rou% of &lastic Artists (B6u%ina 0yt-arnych <melcu, is founded in &ra#ue, its members embracin# Cubism as a means of establishin# a national C$ech style in %aintin# and other -isual arts. Three wor6s %roduced by scul%tor member Dtto 'utfreund (1)) *1 3+, in 1 11 ( An*iet , 2amlet, and

Don Bui*ote, embody the #rou%2s 9Cubo;E>%ressionist9 style. @y 1 13, howe-er, a s%lit will de-elo% between %ractitioners of this 9%luralism9 and the more 9concentrated9 de-otees of &arisian Cubism. 1912 C$ech;born %ainter and #ra%hic artist Frantise6 Ju%6a (1)+1*1 "+, e>hibits Amorpha@ 6ugue in Two Colors at the Balon d2Automne in &aris. A %ioneer of abstract art, that same year Ju%6a creates $erti!al S!hemes %, which will later be described as the first %urely #eometric wor6 in modern %aintin#. 1914 Austria;=un#ary declares war on Berbia, thus be#innin# World War I. Austria;=un#ary will be ali#ned with Tur6ey, @ul#aria, and 'ermany as the Central &owers a#ainst the AlliesN 'reat @ritain, France, Russia, Italy, and the <.B. In 1 1/, Romania enters the war on the Allied side. 191416 =un#arian %ianist and com%oser @1la @artO6 (1))1*1 .", achie-es international renown with his score for the ballet The Wooden Prin!e. When his ballet The Mira!ulous Mandarin is %oorly recei-ed in 1 1 , he #i-es u% %erformin# in =un#ary and later mo-es to the <.B. @artO6 is 6nown for %reser-in# =un#arian fol6 music and incor%oratin# as%ects of it into his own com%ositions. 1915 9The 5etamor%hosis,9 a short story by C$ech writer Fran$ Jaf6a (1))?*1 3.,, recounts the sa#a of tra-elin# salesman 're#or Bamsa, who metamor%hoses o-erni#ht into a #iant insect. Dne of the few wor6s by Jaf6a to be %ublished durin# his brief life, it enca%sulates the hauntin# narrati-e more fully elaborated in no-els such as The TrialN the alienated indi-idual %ersecuted by unseen forces. 1915 The first issue of the Fournal A Tett (The Act, is %ublished in @uda%est. Edited by writer and artist 7aFos JassP6 (1))+*1 /+,, A Tett is a forum for the a-ant;#arde #rou% A6ti-ismus (Acti-ism,, whose members include 7Ps$lO 5oholy;Na#y (1) "*1 ./, and @1la <it$ (1))+*1 +3,. Ins%ired by the international a-ant;#arde, %articularly E>%ressionism and Constructi-ism, the Acti-ists2 re-olutionary %olitics and cultural ideas attract official condemnation. When A Tett is banned for its socialist, antimilitarist stance, JassP6 and <it$ found Ma (Today, to %romote modernist art, international and =un#arian. In 1 3!, Ma is banned and JassP6 mo-es to 0ienna, where he continues to %roduce the Fournal for a =un#arian audience until 1 3/. 191618 Ed-ard @enes (1)).*1 .),, 5ilan BtefPni6 (1))!*1 1 ,, and TomPs 5asary6 (1)"!* 1 ?+, lead the mo-ement for C$ech inde%endence. With the su%%ort of the Allied forces of World War I, the C$echoslo-a6 Re%ublic (C$echoslo-a6ia, is created in 1 1) and 5asary6 is elected its first %resident. The end of the war also brin#s the dissolution of the Austro;=un#arian em%ire, and =un#ary becomes an inde%endent re%ublic, as does &oland. 19171920s 0arious currents in &olish a-ant;#arde art are embodied in a number of #rou%s acti-e after World War I. Ins%ired by E>%ressionism, the Formisci (Formists, 1 1+*33, of Jra6Ow attem%t to articulate a new national style com%arable to Italian Futurism or French Cubism. @unt (Re-olt,, a #rou% of %ainters, #ra%hic artists, and %oets in &o$nan (1 1)*3!,, ha-e stron# ties to the 'erman E>%ressionists as well. The 1 3? 7*hibition o" &ew Art in Wilno (now 0ilnius, 7ithuania,, or#ani$ed by Wladyslaw Btr$emins6i (1) ?*1 "3,, functions as a manifesto for &olish Constructi-ism, ins%ired by the Bo-iet a-ant;#arde. Btr$emins6i will co;found se-eral Constructi-ist #rou%s*@lo6 (@loc6, 1 3.*3/,, a.r. (artysci rewolucyFni, 9re-olutionary artists,9 1 3/*? ,, and &raesens (1 3 *?/,:that ad-ance the cause of modernism throu#h e>hibitions, %ublications, and the International 5useum of 5odern Art, established in 7Od$ in 1 ?1. 191920 Communist rule in =un#ary under the leadershi% of @1la Jun (1))/*1 ? , is halted by Admiral 5i6lOs =orthy (1)/)*1 "+,, aided by Romanian troo%s. =orthy establishes a dictatorial re#ime (1 3!*..,, launchin# a 9white terror9 aimed at riddin# the country of leftists and Cews. Bome ",!!! %eo%le are e>ecuted, another 1!!,!!! forced to emi#rate. In the inhos%itable %olitical en-ironment of hy%ernationalism and risin# fascism, many artists and intellectuals lea-e the country, amon# them se-eral =un#arians who will ha-e a %rofound im%act on #ra%hic desi#n and %hoto#ra%hy in their ado%ted homes, includin# 7Ps$lO 5oholy;Na#y (1) "*1 ./,, Andr1 Jert1s$ (1) .*1 )",, 'yula =alPs$ (later called @rassac, 1) *1 ).,, 'y`r#y Je%es (1 !/*3!!1,, 5artin 5un6acsi (1) /* 1 /?,, and Robert Ca%a (1 1?:1 ".,.

 1920 The C$ech a-ant;#arde #rou% 8e-etsil (9nine forces9, is founded in &ra#ue to ad-ocate the fusion of Constructi-ism and 9%oetism9 in architecture, literature, the arts, film, and %hoto#ra%hy. The #rou%2s leader, Jarel Tei#e (1 !!*1 "1,, ma6es maFor contributions in boo6 desi#n and ty%o#ra%hy, %articularly throu#h the house or#an ReD (Revue Devetsilu,, and becomes an internationally reco#ni$ed architectural theorist whose conce%t of the 9minimum dwellin#,9 a model of Functionalist desi#n, will be incor%orated into Communist;era housin#. 1920 Romanian com%oser 'eor#es Enescu (1))1*1 "", be#ins the wor6 that is considered his master%iece and which establishes his re%utation as one of the country2s #reatest musicians of the century, 0edip@ Traged in 6our A!ts and Si* Tables. 1922 Romanian;born writer Eu#Gne Ionesco (1 ! *1 ., returns from &aris (where he had li-ed with his family since shortly after his birth, to Romania, where he will be educated in @ucharest and be#in his career as a critic, before returnin# to France for #ood in 1 .3. Ionesco will become a well; 6nown %laywri#ht associated with the Theater of the Absurd. 1923 C$ech satirist Carosla- =ase6 (1))?*1 3?, dies before com%letin# his multi-olume masterwor6, The 'ood Soldier S!hwei5, an absurdist antiwar no-el that will become a world classic. 1924 The C$ech &hoto#ra%hic Bociety is founded to o%%ose the romantici$ed aesthetics of &ictorialism and %romote a-ant;#ardism. Its leadin# %ro%onents, includin# CaromLr Fun6e (1) /*1 .", and Cosef Bude6 (1) /*1 +/,, brin# %reciseness and obFecti-ity to %hoto#ra%hs of architecture, city scenes, the artifacts of technolo#y and industry, and e-eryday obFects, usin# bold cuts, shar% dia#onals, uncon-entional o-er-iews and under-iews, and dia#onal com%ositions. 1924 &olish writer Wladyslaw Btanislaw Reymont (1)/+*1 3", recei-es the Nobel &ri$e in literature for his no-el Chlo%i (The &easants,. 1925 =un#arian;born architect and furniture desi#ner 5arcel @reuer (1 !3*1 )1, becomes head of the car%entry wor6sho% at the @auhaus in 8essau, where he be#ins to e>%eriment with tubular steel in -arious chair desi#ns (i.e., the Wassily, and de-elo%s a line of modular furnishin#s. @reuer will ta% new technolo#ies and unusual materials:%lywood, cane, mortared rubble, concrete, aluminum: throu#hout his career in 'ermany and the <nited Btates, where he emi#rates in 1 ?+. 1926 5arshal CO$ef &ilsuds6i (1)/+*1 ?", sta#es a cou% and inau#urates the BanacFa (9sanitation9, re#ime in &oland. Autocratic rule will continue under the military after &ilsuds6i2s death. 1930s The Iron 'uard, a fascist mass mo-ement, is a maFor social and %olitical force committed to the 9Christian and racial9 restoration of Romania. 193339 The Jra6Ow 'rou% ('ru%a Jra6ows6a, of a-ant;#arde artists forms in res%onse to the conser-ati-e teachin# methods of the Academy of Fine Arts as well as the rise of fascism in &olish %olitics. 7ed by scul%tor =enry6 Wicins6i (1 !)*1 .?,, the #rou% is affiliated with the (banned, Communist %arty and defines its %ro#ram as %ro;%roletarian and antinationalist. 5ost members2 wor6s are destroyed durin# the Na$i Dccu%ation. 1937 Constantin @rancusi (1)+/*1 "+, erects the %n"inite Column, a scul%ture more than / feet tall and constructed of cast iron beads on a steel framewor6, in Tdr#u;Ciu, Romania, near his birth%lace. Dne of a series of similar wor6s be#un in 1 1), the %n"inite Column commemorates those 6illed in a battle a#ainst the 'erman Army in World War I. 1938 &rince Fran$ Cosef II (1 !/*1 ) , is the first %rince of 7iechtenstein to reside in the country, where he rules from the ca%ital city of 0adu$ until his death in 1 ) . 193945 Na$i 'ermany in-ades &oland. World War II be#ins when @ritain declares war on 'ermany in res%onse to the in-asion. In 1 .!, the Cewish Auarter of Warsaw is cordoned off. In 1 .1, 'ermany be#ins buildin# concentration cam%s in &oland (Auschwit$ and Treblin6a,. In 1 .?, Cewish resistance eru%ts in the Warsaw 'hettoK the u%risin# lasts nearly four wee6s before the 'ermans ra$e the #hetto.

In 1 .., &olish resistance forces ca%ture Warsaw, but the 'ermans reca%ture the city and burn it to the #round. In 1 .", the Bo-iet Red Army dri-es the 'ermans from &oland. 193945 The Na$i occu%ation of C$echoslo-a6ia be#ins. The country is %artitioned and Blo-a6ia declared an inde%endent state. C$echoslo-a6ian Cews are sent to a #hetto at Tere$Ln, and then to cam%s in &oland, where they are e>terminated. A 1 ." u%risin# a#ainst the 'ermans in &ra#ue %recedes the end of World War II in that year. 7iechtenstein remains neutral, while =un#ary and Romania are ali#ned with the A>is %owers ('ermany, Italy, Ca%an,. In 1 .., 5i6lOs =orthy (1)/)* 1 "+, is de%osed by =un#arian Na$is after he attem%ts to ne#otiate an armistice with the Bo-ietsK a %u%%et #o-ernment is installed and =un#arian Cews and #y%sies are de%orted to death cam%s. 1945 A Bo-iet;bac6ed #o-ernment is installed in Romania. The Romanian &eo%le2s Re%ublic is %roclaimed in 1 .+. The ne>t year, Bocialist Realism is im%osed on artistsK all a-ant;#arde forms of e>%ression are banned. 194549 'erman troo%s are dri-en from =un#ary by the Bo-iet Red Army. The new #o-ernment introduces a land reform bill, redistributin# land from lar#e estate owners to %easants. @y 1 . , the Communist =un#arian Wor6ers &arty dominates the #o-ernment and the country becomes %art of the Bo-iet bloc. 1947 In elections widely re#arded as ri##ed, Communists consolidate %ower in &oland and the country becomes a Bo-iet satellite. From 1 . until 1 "., the doctrine of Bocialist Realism %re-ails in the artsK inde%endent artistic formations are discoura#ed, and inde%endent #alleries are re%laced by lar#e, state;s%onsored e>hibitions held in Warsaw. 194849 A %olitical crisis in C$echoslo-a6ia is followed by the establishment of a #o-ernment dominated by members of the Communist %arty and modeled on the Bo-iet <nion, of which it becomes a satellite state. The <nion of Artists is established to %romote Bocialist Realism and the a-ant;#arde art community withers. 1948 In @ucharest, Romanian %ainter Corneliu @aba (1 !/*1 +, e>hibits The Chess Pla er, amon# the wor6s that will establish his re%utation as one of the foremost %ainters in his country durin# the twentieth century. The %aintin# will be shown at the 0enice @iennale in 1 "/ and later in 5oscow, &ra#ue, and elsewhere. 1948 The National 5useum of Art in @ucharest is founded to house the former Royal Collection, as well as those of other museums in the Romanian ca%ital. The collection includes Romanian traditional and modern art, but also em%hasi$es French art of the turn of the twentieth century. 1953 Bo-iet control o-er the Eastern @loc be#ins to loosen after the death of Cose%h Btalin. Bo-iet %remier Ni6ita Jhrushche-2s official denunciation of Btalin at the SS &arty Con#ress in 1 "/ is the first ste% in a #radual %rocess of 9destalini$ation9 in the Bo-iet satellites. 1955 C$echoslo-a6ia, =un#ary, &oland, and Romania are foundin# member of the Warsaw &act, a military alliance of Bo-iet @loc countries or#ani$ed a#ainst the %ercei-ed threat of the NATD alliance of Western nations. 1955 &olish theater director and %ainter Tadeus$ Jantor (1 1"*1 #arde collecti-e of artists and theoreticians, in Warsaw. !, founds Cricot 3, an a-ant;

1955 In &oland, a critical brea6 with the tenets of Bocialist Realism occurs with the state;s%onsored Polish 7*hibition o" 1oung Artists. =eld at the Arsenal in Warsaw, the show features e>%ressionistic can-ases and #al-ani$es %ublic discussion of the state of contem%orary art. In the aftermath, new artistic formations dedicated to abstraction and Art Informel s%rin# u% around the country and new -enues showcase contem%orary Euro%ean art (East and West,, includin# Warsaw2s 'aleria Jr$ywe Jolo (o%ens 1 "/,, Jr$ys$tofory 'allery in Jra6Ow (1 " ,, and El 'allery in Elbla# (1 /!,, the first s%ace in &oland dedicated to e>%erimental art.

 195558 The %ostwar trilo#y of filmma6er Andr$eF WaFda (born 1 3/,: A 'eneration (1 "",, Eanal (1 "+,, and Ashes and Diamonds (1 "),:brin#s international renown to the 9&olish Bchool9 of cinema, which flourishes in the more liberal %ost;Btalinist climate of the years 1 "/ to 1 /?. WadFa is a #raduate of the 7Od$ Film Bchool, a state;o%erated institution that o%ened in 1 .). D-er the years, its students will include Jry$ys$tof Ianussi (born 1 ? ,, Cer$y B6olimows6i (born 1 ?),, and Jr$ys$tof Jieslows6i (1 .1*1 /,, amon# other famed filmma6ers. 1956 A demonstration by =un#arian students and wor6ers escalates into a full;scale u%risin# a#ainst Btalinism and interference from 5oscow. Thousands are 6illed in street fi#htin# before the rebellion is crushed by Bo-iet troo%s. &rime 5inister Imre Na#y (1) /*1 "), is remo-ed from office and later e>ecuted, alon# with some .!! freedom fi#hters and sym%athetic %oliticians. 1956 &olish wor6ers riot in &o$nan o-er social and economic conditions, and more than fifty %eo%le are 6illed. In res%onse, the &olish Communist %arty:o-er 5oscow2s obFections*selects the more liberal Wladyslaw 'omul6a (1 !/:1 )3, as its new chief. 'omul6a initiates modest reforms but sto%s short of full;scale destalini$ation. 195758 Wor6in# in C$echoslo-a6ia2s collecti-i$ed #lass industry ma6in# utilitarian obFects, desi#ners such as Ren1 RoubLce6 (born 1 33,, Carosla-a @rychto-P (born 1 3.,, and Btanisla7ibens6y (1 31*3!!3, create a new art formN monumental #lass scul%ture. Their astonishin# wor6s are introduced to the West at the 5ilan Triennale in 1 "+ and E>%o 2") in @russels, 1959 The @1la @alP$s Btudio for youn# e>%erimental filmma6ers o%ens in @uda%est. The studio will nurture a renaissance in =un#arian documentary and feature films in the 1 /!s, and %ro-ide a sym%atico wor6in# en-ironment for a-ant;#arde film and -ideo artists in the 1 +!s. 1959 Cer$y 'rotows6i (1 ??*1 , founds the 7aboratory Theater (Teatr 7aboratorium, in D%ole, &oland, where he transforms the relationshi% between actors and audience by incor%oratin# audience members into dramatic %roductions. 'rotows6i2s Towards a Poor Theater (1 /), becomes the bible of e>%loratory theater in the 1 +!s. 1963 Tadeus$ Jantor (1 1"*1 !, or#ani$es an 9anti;e>hibition9 at Jr$ys$tofory 'allery in Jra6Ow, &oland, consistin# of ?+ obFects of e-eryday life. Jantor2s theatrical en-ironments and ha%%enin#s (the first in 1 /", lay the #roundwor6 for much of &oland2s e>%erimental art in the 1 /!s and 2+!s. 196466 Aimin# for a total synthesis of art and life, C$ech and Blo-a6 artists ta6e to the streets in Flu>us;style actions and ha%%enin#s. Amon# their numerous e%hemeral acti-itiesN Btano Fil6o (born 1 ?+,, Ale> 5lynPrci6 (born 1 ?.,, and Iita Jostro-P release their =a%%soc (9ha%%enin#s9 %lus 9society9, manifestos declarin# the city of @ratisla-a and all its inhabitants a wor6 of art. 5ilan JnL$P6 (born 1 .!, and members of the A6tual 'rou% or#ani$e wal6s throu#h &ra#ue sta#ed as ha%%enin#s and deli-er %ac6a#es filled with art to randomly chosen mailbo>es. 1965 The Ist-Pn JirPly 5useum in B$16esfeh1r-Pr becomes a hub of contem%orary culture with its series of e>hibitions documentin# the history of modernist =un#arian art and shows of a-ant;#arde artists unable to e>hibit in @uda%est. In 1 /)*/ , the museum or#ani$es landmar6 e>hibitions of the wor6 of 7Ps$lO 5oholy;Na#y (1) "*1 ./, and the lon#;ne#lected %ioneer 7aFos JassP6 (1))+*1 /+,. 1965 Nicolae Ceausescu (1 1)*1 ) , becomes leader of the Communist %arty in Romania. Althou#h he challen#es Bo-iet domination:lar#ely because of his o%%osition to destalini$ation: Ceausescu rules the country with an iron fist, notable for e>treme cruelty and the e>%loitation of wor6ers. Internal dissent is swiftly su%%ressed. 1965 &olish artist 5a#dalena Aba6anowic$ (born 1 ?!, recei-es the 'rand &ri> at the BVo &aulo @ienal for her fiber scul%tures called Aba5ans, three;dimensional relief wea-in#s sus%ended from the ceilin#. In the 1 +!s, Aba6anowic$ e>%ands her re%ertoire of materials, usin# sisal, burla%, and resin o-er %laster casts to create installations of fi#ures and body %arts (i.e., -a!5s, 1 +/*)3,, each installation containin# do$ens of scul%tures.

 1965 &olish %ainter and Conce%tual artist Roman D%al6a (born 1 ?1, be#ins the series Counted Paintings, a lifelon# %roFect that consists of %aintin# rows of tiny numbers from $ero to infinity in shades of #ray on uniformly si$ed rectan#ular can-ases. 1965 The First @iennial of B%atial Forms is or#ani$ed in Elbla#, &oland. B%onsored by Iamech, the local industrial %lant, the %roFect commissions artists to %artner with %lant wor6ers in creatin# %ublic scul%tures from scra% material. The Elbla# biennials continue throu#h 1 +., in-ol-in# artists such as =enry6 5orel (died 1 /), and Andr$eF 5atus$ews6i (born 1 3.,. The 9%lein;air9 mo-ement clima>es with the S mposium Wro!law '<,, in which =enry6 Bta$ews6i (1) .*1 )), %resents his 9li#ht scul%ture9 drawn in the s6y with anti;aircraft s%otli#hts. Bta$ews6i2s career stretches bac6 to the first &olish a-ant;#arde formations in the 1 3!s, when he belon#ed to the Constructi-ist #rou%s @lo6 and a.r. 196566 The state;s%onsored 'aleria Fo6sal o%ens in Warsaw and Auic6ly becomes a %ro#ressi-e -enue for Conce%tual and other ty%es of e>%erimental art. Amon# the artists who con#re#ate at the #allery is Jr$ys$tof Wodic$6o (born 1 .?,, whose early installation wor6s:ironic comments on modern technolo#y:in-ite -iewer %artici%ation. In the 1 )!s, Wodic$6o will or#ani$e Publi! Proje!tions:#i#antic ima#es %roFected onto %ublic buildin#s:in New Eor6 and other cities. 1966 Romania bans contrace%ti-es and mandates a fi-e;child Auota %er family. 1966 5i6lOs Erd1ly (1 3)*1 )/,, 'Pbor AltorFay (born 1 ..,, and TamPs B$entFOby (born 1 .., or#ani$e =un#ary2s first 9ha%%enin#,9 The Lun!h@ %n Memoriam -atu Ehan. B%urred by the radical %olitics of the student mo-ement, Conce%tual Art flourishes durin# the late 1 /!s and into the 2+!s, encom%assin# all media. Erd1ly %roduces 9te>tual actions9 and %hoto;te>t series. B$entFOby2s wor6 %recedes from the idea that art is what is forbidden, hence his 9@e &rohibited9 slo#an. 8Ora 5aurer (born 1 ?+, be#ins her %ioneerin# wor6 with the %hoto#ram. Endre TOt (born 1 ?+, renounces %aintin# and be#ins his %urely -erbal wor6s, %articularly in boo6 form, for instance, M .npainted Canvases and the % Am 'lad %" H series. Bcul%tor 'y`r#y Co-Pno-ics (born 1 ? ,, e>%lorin# -arious lo#ical systems on which to base his wor6, reconstructs a 1 1/ chess match between 7enin and Tristan T$ara. &erformance artist Tibor =aFas (1 ./*1 )!, uses a camera flash to illuminate essential moments of the action. 5any of these artists are included in the #roundbrea6in# e>hibitions held in 1 /)*/ at the architectural %lannin# office I&ARTER0 in @uda%est, or#ani$ed to draw attention to and ener#i$e =un#arian a-ant;#arde art. 1966 Closel Wat!hed Trains, a film by CirL 5en$el (born 1 ?),, becomes the first international hit of C$ech New Wa-e cinema. The film is ada%ted from a no-el by @ohumil =rabal (1 1.*1 +,, whose tales of ordinary %eo%le ins%ire many New Wa-e directors. 1967 C$ech writer and o%%osition leader 5ilan Jundera (born 1 3 , %ublishes his first no-el, >ert (The Co6e,, a satirical account of e-eryday life under Btalinism in the 1 "!s. JanuaryAugust 1968 The &ra#ue B%rin#. =ardline C$ech %arty leader AntonLn No-otny is re%laced by liberal Ale>ander 8ubce6 (1 31*1 3,, who im%lements %olitical, economic, and cultural reforms intended to create a new model of socialism. Censorshi% is liftedK #uidelines are drafted for democrati$in# the electoral system, and freedom of assembly and e>%ression are to be constitutionally #uaranteed. As the mo-ement to democrati$e socialism becomes more wides%read, antireformists a%%eal to 5oscow and Warsaw &act troo%s in-ade C$echoslo-a6ia in Au#ust. The e>traordinary %o%ular resistance to the in-asion is ca%tured by %hoto#ra%her Cosef Joudel6a (born 1 ?), in stirrin# ima#es smu##led out of the country and %ublished around the world. 1968 &olish authorities ban the theater %roduction of 8$iady by Adam 5ic6iewic$ (1+ )*1)"", at Warsaw <ni-ersity, claimin# the %lay is anti;Bo-iet. The action, ta6en at a time of simmerin# discontent o-er the restoration of strict communist doctrine to school curricula, tri##ers student %rotests that are met with se-ere re%risals. 1968 The =un#arian Communist %arty introduces a %ac6a#e of reforms called the New Economic 5echanism, coincidin# with a %eriod of liberali$ation that be#ins in the mid;1 /!s.

 1969 An e>hibition of wor6s by Romanian scul%tor and Conce%tual artist &aul Nea#u (1 ?)*3!!., is held at the 8emarco 'allery in Edinbur#h. Nea#u settles in 7ondon, where he founds the 'enerati-e Arts 'rou% ('A',, with &hili% =oneysuc6le, =usney @elmood, and others. The members are actually fictitious %ersonas in-ented by Nea#u, throu#h which he creates wor6 in a -ariety of styles. 1970 Romanian te>tile and installation artist Ana 7u%as (born 1 .!, creates an earthwor6 with the women of 5ar#au, a -illa#e in Transyl-ania, by han#in# do$ens of white sheets on laundry lines e>tended across a #reen hillside. 7u%as, who refers to the %rocess of her art as 9social thera%eutics,9 will influence a #eneration of Romanian artists as a teacher at the academy in CluF. 197073 @alatonbo#lPr Cha%el 'allery, an alternati-e s%ace established by Conce%tual artist 'y`r#y 'alPntai (born 1 .1, outside @uda%est, hosts li-ely #atherin#s of the a-ant;#arde. Re#ularly harassed by authorities, the #allery is closed by %olice in 1 +? as %art of renewed restrictions on culture and the arts after 5oscow halts the New Economic 5echanism. 1972 Romanian leader Nicolae Ceausescu (1 1)*1 ) , launches a %ro#ram of demolition and reconstruction in town and country. 5uch of historic central @ucharest, once 6nown as the 9&aris of the East,9 is destroyed to ma6e way for a new ci-ic center, which will include the %resident2s %alace, the third lar#est buildin# in the world (%o%ularly referred to as the 5adman2s =ouse,. 1977 Charter ++ circulates in &ra#ue. 8rafted by a #rou% of dissidents includin# 0Pcla- =a-el (born 1 ?/, and Can &atoc6a (1 !+*1 ++,, and si#ned by 3.! intellectuals and acti-ists, the document demands the restoration of ci-il ri#hts. =a-el and &atoc6a are arrestedK &atoc6a dies as a result of %olice abuse durin# interro#ation. 1978 =un#arian Conce%tualist 'yula &auer (born 1 .1, creates A 6orest o" Demonstrating -oards, an installation of 1?1 %lacards with slo#ans and inscri%tions, for a scul%ture e>hibition in Na#yatPd. Authorities confiscate and destroy the wor6. 1978 Romanian intelli#ence officer Ion 5ihai &ace%a (born 1 3), defects to the West. In 1 )/, he %ublishes Red 2ori)ons@ Chroni!les o" a Communist Sp Chie", which is a condemnation of the Ceausescu re#ime. 1978 7iechtenstein initiates #reater inte#ration into Euro%e by becomin# a member of the Council of Euro%e. In 1 !, 7iechtenstein will Foin the <nited Nations and in 1 " the World Trade Dr#ani$ation. 1979 =usband;and;wife team 'y`r#y 'alPntai and Celia Jlanic$ay establish Art%ool in @uda%est as an archi-e for alternati-e art, collectin# and catalo#uin# documents of the nonofficial art scene from the 1 /!s to the %resent. 1980 &olish 1mi#r1 %oet and literary critic C$eslaw 5ilos$ (born 1 11, recei-es the Nobel &ri$e in literature. 1980 C$echoslo-a6ia, =un#ary, &oland, and the Bo-iet <nion boycott the 0enice @iennale when the director refuses to cancel an e>hibit of Eastern Euro%ean and Bo-iet dissident art. 198090 The trade union Bolidarnosc (Bolidarity, emer#es in the tumult of stri6es and other disturbances at the 7enin Bhi%yards in 'dans6, &oland, under the leadershi% of 7ech Walesa (born 1 .?,. Within a year, 1!,!!! &oles ha-e Foined the union. Authorities res%ond by im%osin# martial law, outlawin# Bolidarity, and Failin# many of its leaders. In 1 )?, martial law is lifted and Walesa recei-es the Nobel &ri$e for &eace. Bolidarity is le#ali$ed in 1 )) and hel%s to form a coalition #o-ernment. In the 1 ) elections, Bolidarity candidates defeat the CommunistsK Walesa becomes %resident the ne>t year and immediately introduces mar6et reforms, includin# lar#e;scale %ri-ati$ation, in what becomes 6nown as the 9bi# ban#.9 1984 C$ech colla#ist and %oet CirL JolPr2s &ewsreel :GI;, com%osed of fifty;two colla#es each de-oted to a wee6 in 1 /), is e>hibited at Junsthalle Nurember#. The #ra%hic diary combines

documents of %ri-ate and %ublic life:news%a%ers, letters, manifestos, %etitions, obituaries:and short commentaries by JolPr (1 1.*3!!3,. 1986 'rou% Inconnu in-ites =un#arian and forei#n artists to submit mementos of the 1 "/ Re-olution for an e>hibition entitled The 6ighting Cit , to be held in the a%artment of Inconnu member Tibor &hili%% in @uda%est. The entire collection of wor6s is confiscated by the %olice before the e>hibition o%ens. 1987 Romanian wor6ers storm Communist %arty headAuarters to %rotest the mass star-ation caused by &resident Ceausescu2s brutal economic %olicies. 1989 Communist %ower in C$echoslo-a6ia comes to an end with the 0el-et Re-olution. As mass %rotests and stri6es #ain momentum, a broad anti#o-ernment coalition forms, called the Ci-ic Forum. The Communist leadershi% resi#ns and lon#time dissident 0Pcla- =a-el (born 1 ?/, is elected %resident. 1989 Romanian security forces fire on demonstrators in Timisoara, tri##erin# a rebellion that s%reads to @ucharest and into the armed forces. &resident Ceausescu attem%ts to flee, but is ca%tured by the military. Char#ed with a number of crimes, includin# #enocide, Ceausescu is e>ecuted on Christmas 8ay. The leader of the re-olution, Ion Iliescu (born 1 ?!,, is elected %resident in 1 !. 1990 5ilan JnL$P6 (born 1 .!,, an artist associated with the earlier Flu>us mo-ement, is a%%ointed %rofessor at the Academy of Fine Arts in &ra#ue. In 1 , he is made 'eneral 8irector of the National 'allery in &ra#ue and in that ca%acity underta6es its financial, curatorial, and %hysical reor#ani$ation, %lacin# #reater em%hasis on modern and contem%orary art. 1991 The colla%se of the Bo-iet <nion leads =un#ary, which had been mo-in# toward a free;mar6et economy and democratic %olitical institutions durin# the 1 )!s, to establish closer ties to Western Euro%e. =un#ary will Foin NATD in 1 . 1993 C$echoslo-a6ia is di-ided into two inde%endent countries, the C$ech Re%ublic and Blo-a6ia, an e-ent called the 0el-et 8i-orce. 0ladimLr 5eciar (born 1 .3, becomes %rime minister of Blo-a6ia. =is re#ime is characteri$ed by resistance to economic reform in the %ost;Communist era and %olitical distance from the rest of Euro%e. When 5i6ulPs 8$urinda (born 1 "", becomes %rime minister in 1 ), he leads Blo-a6ia toward Euro%ean <nion and NATD membershi%. 1993 &oland and the C$ech Re%ublic ban abortion. 1999 The C$ech Re%ublic #ains membershi% in NATD. The Re%ublic2s future membershi% is threatened when Austrians %rotest the C$ech start;u% of a nuclear %ower %lant at Temelin. 2000 The 5useum of Fine Arts (Junstmuseum, of 7iechtenstein, in 0adu$, o%ens a new buildin# desi#ned by the Bwiss firm of 5or#er, 8e#elo W Jere$. The museum e>hibits wor6s %roduced since 1 !! and em%hasi$es scul%ture and installation art.