High Strength Low Alloy Steel

Large diameter pipeline

High strength low alloy (HSLA) steels have been developed since the 1960s originally for large diameter oil and gas pipelines! "he re#$irement was high strength as compared to mild carbon steel% combined with improved to$ghness and good weldability! HSLA steel typically contains 0!0& to 0!1'( carbon% $p to '( manganese and small additions of niobi$m% vanadi$m and titani$m in ($s$ally ma)! 0!1()! in vario$s combinations! "he material is preferrably prod$ced by a thermomechanical rolling process% which ma)imi*es grain refinement as a basis for improved mechanical properties! +olybden$m has played an important role in the initial development! "he addition of 0!1 0!'( molybden$m prod$ces a fine grain str$ct$re of acic$lar ferrite and s$bstantially enhances the precipitation hardening effects achieved with the other alloying elements! ,onse#$ently% an estimated ' million tons of +o containing HSLA steels for pipelines have been prod$ced worldwide d$ring the 19&0s% within the following percent range of chemical compositions-

Composition range of HSLA steels (%)

C 0.06 - 0.12 Mn 1.4 - 1.8 Nb 0.02 - 0.05 V 0 - 0.06 Mo 0.2 - 0.35

.$ring the following years developments of the rolling and cooling techni#$es res$lted in improvements of the as rolled microstr$ct$re to the e)tent% that A/0 1&0 (&02si yield strength) re#$irements can largely be met witho$t the addition of molybden$m! However% for oil and gas transmission pipelines thro$gh regions with e)treme climate conditions s$bstantial #$antities of molybden$m contin$e to be $sed to meet the low temperat$re to$ghness re#$irements of the steel! Li2ewise% for applications where the wall thic2ness e)ceeds '0 mm the addition of molybden$m is common to obtain a $niform str$ct$re with the desired combination of strength and to$ghnes and good weldability properties! /resently% there is a strong trend towards increasing the operating press$re of the f$t$re long distance gas pipelines! "his will ta2e the re#$ired steel properties to 130 and higher! Steel prod$cers are ma2ing good progress to meet this challenge% and it is not $nli2ely% that molybden$m will see a comebac2 in HSLA steels in that the present base form$la ( e!g! 0!03 ,% 4b% "i) will be $pgraded again with 0!1 to 0!'( +o!

(wikipedia)High-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steel is a type of alloy steel that provides better mechanical properties or greater resistance to corrosion than carbon steel! HSLA steels vary from other steels in that they aren5t made to meet a specific chemical composition% b$t rather to specific mechanical properties! "hey have a carbon content between 0!0670!'6( to retain formability and weldability! 8ther alloying elements incl$de $p to '!0( manganese and small #$antities of copper% nic2el% niobi$m% nitrogen% vanadi$m% chromi$m% molybden$m% titani$m% calci$m%rare earth elements% or *irconi$m!91:9': ,opper% titani$m% vanadi$m% and niobi$m are added for

strengthening p$rposes!9': "hese elements are intended to alter the microstr$ct$re of carbon steels% which is $s$ally a ferrite pearlite aggregate% to prod$ce a very fine dispersion of alloycarbides in an almost p$re ferrite matri)! "his eliminates the to$ghness red$cing effect of a pearlitic vol$me fraction% yet maintains and increases the material5s strength by refining the grain si*e% which in the case of ferrite increases yield strength by 60( for every halving of the mean grain diameter! /recipitation strengthening plays a minor role% too! "heir yield strengths can be anywhere between '607690 megapascals (;6%000736%000 psi)! .$e to their higher strength and to$ghness HSLA steels $s$ally re#$ire '6 to ;0( more power to form% as compared to carbon steels!9': ,opper% silicon% nic2el% chromi$m% and phosphor$s are added to increase corrosion resistance! <irconi$m% calci$m% and rare earth elements are added for s$lfide incl$sion shape control which increases formability! "hese are needed beca$se most HSLA steels have directionally sensitive properties! =ormability and impact strength can vary significantly when tested longit$dinally and transversely to the grain! >ends that are parallel to the longit$dinal grain are more li2ely to crac2 aro$nd the o$ter edge beca$se it e)periences tensile loads! "his directional characteristic is s$bstantially red$ced in HSLA steels that have been treated for s$lfide shape control! 9': "hey are $sed in cars% tr$c2s% cranes% bridges% roller coasters and other str$ct$res that are designed to handle large amo$nts of stress or need a good strength to weight ratio!9': HSLA steels are $s$ally '0 to ;0( lighter than a carbon steel with the same strength! 9;: HSLA steels are also more resistant to r$st than most carbon steels% d$e to their lac2 of pearlite 7 the fine layers of ferrite (almost p$re iron) and cementite in pearlite! 9citation needed: "he Angel of the 4orth at ?ateshead% @ngland is a well 2nown e)ample of an $npainted HSLA str$ct$re (the act$al alloy $sed is called ,8A "@4 and incl$des a small amo$nt of copper)! HSLA steels $s$ally have densities of aro$nd &300 2gBmC!9D:

Classifications
Weathering steels- Steels which have better corrosion resistance! A common e)ample is ,8A "@4! Control-rolled steels- Hot rolled steels which have a highly deformed a$stenite str$ct$re that will transform to a very fine e#$ia)ed ferrite str$ct$re $pon cooling! Pearlite-reduced steels- Low carbon content steels which lead to little or no pearlite% b$t rather a very fine grain ferrite matri)! 0t is strengthened by precipitation hardening! Microalloyed steels- Steels which contain very small additions of niobi$m% vanadi$m% andBor titani$m to obtain a refined grain si*e andBor precipitation hardening! A common type of microalloyed steel is improved formability HSLA! 0t has a yield strength $p to 30%000 psi (660 +/a)% b$t only costs 'D( more than A;6 steel (;6%000 psi ('60 +/a))! 8ne of the disadvantages of this steel is that it is ;0 to D0( less d$ctile! 0n the ES% these steels are dictated by the AS"+ standards A1003BA1003+ and A1011BA1011+ for sheet metal and A666BA666+ for plates! "hese steels were developed for the a$tomotive ind$stry to red$ce weight witho$t losing strength! @)amples of $ses incl$de door intr$sion beams% chassis members% reinforcing and mo$nting brac2ets% steering and s$spension parts% b$mpers% and wheels!9':96:

Acicular errite steels- "hese steels are characteri*ed by a very fine high strength acic$lar ferrite str$ct$re% a very low carbon content% and good hardenability!

!ual-phase steels- "hese steels have a ferrite microstr$t$re that contain small% $niformly distrib$ted sections of martensite! "his microstr$ct$re gives the steels a low yield strength% high rate of wor2 hardening% and good formability! 91:

[edit]SAE

grades

"he Society of A$tomotive @ngineers (SA@) maintains standards for HSLA steel grades beca$se they are often $sed in a$tomotive applications! SAE HSLA steel grade compositions[6]

Grade

% Carbon (max)

% Manganese (max)

% !osp!or"s (max)

% S"lf"r (max)

% Silicon (max)

Notes

942X 0.21

1.35

0.04

0.05

0.90

Niobium or vanadium treated

945A 0.15

1.00

0.04

0.05

0.90

945C 0.23

1.40

0.04

0.05

0.90

945X 0.22

1.35

0.04

0.05

0.90

Niobium or vanadium treated

950A 0.15

1.30

0.04

0.05

0.90

950B 0.22

1.30

0.04

0.05

0.90

950C 0.25

1.60

0.04

0.05

0.90

950

0.15

1.00

0.15

0.05

0.90

950X 0.23

1.35

0.04

0.05

0.90

Niobium or vanadium treated

955X 0.25

1.35

0.04

0.05

0.90

Niobium! vanadium! or nitro"en treated

960X 0.26

1.45

0.04

0.05

0.90

Niobium! vanadium! or nitro"en treated

965X 0.26

1.45

0.04

0.05

0.90

Niobium! vanadium! or nitro"en treated

9#0X 0.26

1.65

0.04

0.05

0.90

Niobium! vanadium! or

nitro"en treated

980X 0.26

1.65

0.04

0.05

0.90

Niobium! vanadium! or nitro"en treated

SAE HSLA steel grade mec!anical properties[#]

Grade

#orm

$ield strengt! (min) %psi (M a)&

'ltimate tensile strengt! (min) %psi (M a)&

942X

$%ate&! &'a(e& ) bar& u( to 4 in. 42!000 *290+

60!000 *414+

,'eet ) &tri(

45!000 *310+

60!000 *414+

$%ate&! &'a(e& ) bar&-

945A! C

0.0.5 in. 45!000 *310+

65!000 *448+

0.5.1.5 in. 42!000 *290+

62!000 *42#+

1.5.3 in. 40!000 *2#6+

62!000 *42#+

945X

,'eet! &tri(! (%ate&! &'a(e& ) bar& u( to 1.5 in.

45!000 *310+

60!000 *414+

,'eet ) &tri(

50!000 *345+

#0!000 *483+

$%ate&! &'a(e& ) bar&-

950A! B! C!

0.0.5 in. 50!000 *345+

#0!000 *483+

0.5.1.5 in. 45!000 *310+

6#!000 *462+

1.5.3 in. 42!000 *290+

63!000 *434+

950X

,'eet! &tri(! (%ate&! &'a(e& ) bar& u( to 1.5 in.

50!000 *345+

65!000 *448+

955X

,'eet! &tri(! (%ate&! &'a(e& ) bar& u( to 1.5 in.

55!000 *3#9+

#0!000 *483+

960X

,'eet! &tri(! (%ate&! &'a(e& )

60!000 *414+

#5!000 *51#+

bar& u( to 1.5 in.

965X

,'eet! &tri(! (%ate&! &'a(e& ) bar& u( to 0.#5 in.

65!000 *448+

80!000 *552+

9#0X

,'eet! &tri(! (%ate&! &'a(e& ) bar& u( to 0.#5 in.

#0!000 *483+

85!000 *586+

980X

,'eet! &tri( ) (%ate& u( to 0.3#5 80!000 *552+ in.

95!000 *655+

(an)ing of *ario"s properties for SAE HSLA steel grades[8]

(an)

+eldabilit,

#ormabilit,

-o"g!ness

/or&t 980X

980X

980X

9#0X

9#0X

9#0X

965X

965X

965X

960X

960X

960X

955X! 950C! 942X 955X

955X

945C

950C

945C! 950C! 942X

950B! 950X

950

945X! 950X

945X

950B! 950X! 942X 950

950

945C! 945X

950B

950A

950A

950A

Be&t 945A [edit]References "edit#$otes

945A

945A

1.

F a b Classification of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels% retrieved '003 10 06

'! F a b c d e f HSLA Steel% '00' 11 16% archived from the original on '010 01 0;% retrieved '003 10 11! ;! % .egarmo% p! 116!

D! % GStainless steel properties for str$ct$ral a$tomotive applicationsG (/.=)! @$ro 0no)! H$ne '000! Aetrieved '00& 03 1D! 6! % Cold rolled sheet steel% archived from the original on '003 0D ;0% retrieved '003 10 11 6! % 8berg% pp! DD0 DD1! &! % 8berg% p! DD1! 3! % 8berg% p! DD'!

"edit#&i'liography .egarmo% @! /a$lI >lac2% H "!I Johser% Aonald A! ('00;)% Materials and Processes in Manufacturing (9th ed!)% Kiley% 0S>4 0 D&1 6666; D! 8berg% @!I et al! (1996)% Machinery's Handbook ('6th ed!)% 0nd$strial /ress 0nc

,ategories- Steels

0i"'-,tren"t' ,tru1tura% and 0i"'-,tren"t' 2o3-A%%o4 ,tee%&

Abstract.
0i"'-&tren"t' 1arbon and %o3-a%%o4 &tee%& 'ave 4ie%d &tren"t'& "reater t'an 2#5 5$a and 1an be more or %e&& divided into 6our 1%a&&e&A&-ro%%ed 1arbon-man"ane&e &tee%& A&-ro%%ed 'i"'-&tren"t' %o3-a%%o4 *0,2A+ &tee%& *3'i1' are a%&o 7no3n a& mi1ro a%%o4ed &tee%&+ 0eat-treated *norma%i8ed or 9uen1'ed and tem(ered+ 1arbon &tee%& 0eat-treated %o3-a%%o4 &tee%&. :'e&e 6our t4(e& o6 &tee%& 'ave 'i"'er 4ie%d &tren"t'& t'an mi%d 1arbon &tee% in t'e a&-'ot-ro%%ed 1ondition. :'e 'eat-treated %o3-a%%o4 &tee%& and t'e a&-ro%%ed 0,2A &tee%& a%&o (rovide %o3er du1ti%e-to-britt%e tran&ition tem(erature& t'an do 1arbon &tee%&.

0i"'-&tren"t' 1arbon and %o3-a%%o4 &tee%& 'ave 4ie%d &tren"t'& "reater t'an 2#5 5$a and 1an be more or %e&& divided into 6our 1%a&&e&A&-ro%%ed 1arbon-man"ane&e &tee%& A&-ro%%ed 'i"'-&tren"t' %o3-a%%o4 *0,2A+ &tee%& *3'i1' are a%&o 7no3n a& mi1ro a%%o4ed &tee%&+ 0eat-treated *norma%i8ed or 9uen1'ed and tem(ered+ 1arbon &tee%& 0eat-treated %o3-a%%o4 &tee%&. :'e&e 6our t4(e& o6 &tee%& 'ave 'i"'er 4ie%d &tren"t'& t'an mi%d 1arbon &tee% in t'e a&-'ot-ro%%ed 1ondition. :'e 'eattreated %o3-a%%o4 &tee%& and t'e a&-ro%%ed 0,2A &tee%& a%&o (rovide %o3er du1ti%e-to-britt%e tran&ition tem(erature& t'an do 1arbon &tee%&. :'e&e 6our t4(e& o6 'i"'-&tren"t' &tee%& 'ave &ome ba&i1 di66eren1e& in me1'ani1a% (ro(ertie& and avai%ab%e (rodu1t 6orm&. ;n term& o6 me1'ani1a% (ro(ertie&! t'e 'eat-treated *9uen1'ed and tem(ered+ %o3-a%%o4 &tee%& o66er t'e be&t 1ombination o6 &tren"t' and tou"'ne&&. Structural Car'on Steels ,tru1tura% 1arbon &tee%& in1%ude mi%d &tee%&! 'ot-ro%%ed 1arbon-man"ane&e &tee%&! and 'eat-treated 1arbon &tee%&. 5i%d &tee%& and 1arbon-man"ane&e &tee%& are avai%ab%e in a%% t'e &tandard 3rou"'t 6orm&- &'eet! &tri(! (%ate! &tru1tura% &'a(e&! bar! bar-&i8e &'a(e&! and &(e1ia% &e1tion&. :'e 'eat-treated "rade& are avai%ab%e a& (%ate! bar and. o11a&iona%%4! &'eet and &tru1tura% &'a(e&. 5i%d *%o3-1arbon+ &tee%& are norma%%4 1on&idered to 'ave 1arbon 1ontent& u( to 0.25< C 3it' about 0.4 to 0.#< Mn! 0.1 to 0.5< Si and &ome re&idua%& o6 &u%6ur! ('o&('oru&! and ot'er e%ement&. :'e&e &tee%& are not de%iberate%4 &tren"t'ened b4 a%%o4in" e%ement& ot'er t'an 1arbon= t'e4 1ontain &ome man"ane&e 6or &u%6ur &tabi%i8ation and &i%i1on 6or deo>idation. 5i%d &tee%& are mo&t%4 u&ed in t'e a&-ro%%ed! 6or"ed! or annea%ed 1ondition and are &e%dom 9uen1'ed and tem(ered. :'e %ar"e&t 1ate"or4 o6 mi%d &tee%& i& t'e %o3-1arbon *?0.08< C! 3it' ?0.4< Mn+ mi%d &tee%& u&ed 6or 6ormin" and (a17a"in". 5i%d &tee%& 3it' 'i"'er 1arbon and man"ane&e 1ontent& 'ave a%&o been u&ed 6or &tru1tura% (rodu1t& &u1' a& (%ate! &'eet! bar! and &tru1tura% &e1tion&. 0i"'-&tren"t' &tru1tura% 1arbon &tee%& 'ave 4ie%d &tren"t'& "reater t'an 2#5 5$a and are avai%ab%e in variou& (rodu1t 6orm&Co%d-ro%%ed &tru1tura% &'eet

0ot-ro%%ed 1arbon-man"ane&e &tee%& in t'e 6orm o6 &'eet! (%ate! bar! and &tru1tura% &'a(e& 0eat-treated *norma%i8ed or 9uen1'ed and tem(ered+ 1arbon &tee%& in t'e 6orm o6 (%ate! bar! and o11a&iona%%4! &'eet and &tru1tura% &'a(e&. :'e 'eat treatment o6 1arbon &tee%&! 3'i1' t4(i1a%%4 attain 4ie%d &tren"t'& o6 290 to 690 5$a! 1on&i&t& o6 eit'er norma%i8in" or 9uen1'in" and tem(erin". :'e&e 'eat treatment& 1an be u&ed to im(rove t'e me1'ani1a% (ro(ertie& o6 &tru1tura% (%ate! bar! and o11a&iona%%4! &tru1tura% &'a(e&. Norma%i8in" invo%ve& air-1oo%in" 6rom au&teniti8in" tem(erature& and (rodu1e& e&&entia%%4 t'e &ame 6errite-(ear%ite mi1ro&tru1ture a& t'at o6 'ot-ro%%ed 1arbon &tee%! e>1e(t t'at t'e 'eat treatment (rodu1e& a 6iner "rain &i8e. :'i& "rain re6inement ma7e& t'e &tee% &tron"er! tou"'er! and more uni6orm t'rou"'out. @uen1'in" and tem(erin"! t'at i& 'eatin" to about 900oC! 3ater 9uen1'in"! and tem(erin" at tem(erature& o6 480 to 600oC or 'i"'er! 1an (rovide a tem(ered marten&iti1 or bainiti1 mi1ro&tru1ture t'at re&u%t& in better 1ombination& o6 &tren"t' and tou"'ne&&. An in1rea&e in t'e 1arbon 1ontent to about 0.5<! u&ua%%4 a11om(anied b4 an in1rea&e in man"ane&e! a%%o3& t'e &tee%& to be u&ed in t'e 9uen1'ed and tem(ered 1ondition. (uenched and )empered Low-Alloy Steel A%%o4 &tee%& are de6ined a& t'o&e &tee%& t'at1ontain man"ane&e! &i%i1on! or 1o((er in 9uantitie& "reater t'an t'e ma>imum %imit& *1.65< Mn! 0.60< Si! and 0.60< C"+ o6 1arbon &tee%= or t'at 'ave &(e1i6ied ran"e& or minimum& 6or one or more ot'er a%%o4in" addition&. :'e %o3-a%%o4 &tee%& are t'o&e &tee%& 1ontainin" a%%o4 e%ement&! in1%udin" 1arbon! u( to a tota% a%%o4 1ontent o6 about 8.0<. A>1e(t 6or (%ain 1arbon &tee%& t'at are mi1ro a%%o4ed 3it' Bu&t vanadium! niobium! andCor titanium! mo&t %o3-a%%o4 &tee%& are &uitab%e a& en"ineerin" 9uen1'ed and tem(ered &tee%& and are "enera%%4 'eat treated 6or en"ineerin" u&e. 2o3-a%%o4 &tee%& 3it' &uitab%e a%%o4 1om(o&ition& 'ave "reater 'ardenabi%it4 t'an &tru1tura% 1arbon &tee% and! t'u&! 1an (rovide 'i"' &tren"t' and "ood tou"'ne&& in t'i17er &e1tion& b4 'eat treatment. :'eir a%%o4 1ontent& ma4 a%&o (rovide im(roved 'eat and 1orro&ion re&i&tan1e. 0o3ever! a& t'e a%%o4 1ontent& in1rea&e! a%%o4 &tee%& be1ome more e>(en&ive and more di66i1u%t to 3e%d. @uen1'ed and tem(ered &tru1tura% &tee%& are (rimari%4 avai%ab%e in t'e 6orm o6 (%ate or bar (rodu1t&. Allo,ing Elements and -!eir Effect on Hardenabilit, and -empering/ @uen1'ed and tem(ered &tee%& 'ave 1arbon 1ontent& in t'e ran"e o6 0.10 to 0.45<! 3it' a%%o4 1ontent&! eit'er &in"%4 or in 1ombination! o6 u( to 1.5< Mn! 5< Ni! 3< Cr! 1< Mo! 0.5< V! 0.10< Nb= in &ome 1a&e& t'e4 1ontain &ma%% addition& o6 titanium! 8ir1onium andCor boron. Denera%%4! t'e 'i"'er t'e a%%o4 1ontent! t'e "reater t'e 'ardenabi%it4 and t'e 'i"'er t'e 1arbon 1ontent! t'e "reater t'e avai%ab%e &tren"t'. :'e re&(on&e to 'eat treatment i& t'e mo&t im(ortant 6un1tion o6 t'e a%%o4in" e%ement& in t'e&e &tee%&. 5i1roa%%o4ed @uen1'ed and :em(ered Drade&. A%t'ou"' 6ittin"& 3it' 0.69< Mn and indu1tion bend& u&e 9uen1'in" and tem(erin" a& a &tandard (ra1ti1e! mi%d &tee%& *(%ain! %o3-1arbon &tee%& 3it' %e&& t'an 0.#< Mn+ 3it' mi1roa%%o4in" addition& o6 vanadium! niobium! or titanium are &e%dom u&ed a& 9uen1'ed and tem(ered &tee%&. 0o3ever! e%ement& &u1' a& boron and vanadium are 1on&idered a& &ub&titute& 6or ot'er e%ement& t'at en'an1e 'ardenabi%it4. :'e titanium 3a& added in order to 6orm titanium nitride! t'ereb4 retainin" an in1rea&ed amount o6 vanadium in &o%ution. :'i& (rovided 6or a more e66i1ient u&e o6 vanadium a& a 'ardenabi%it4 a"ent. ,ome &1ienti&t inve&ti"ated 1om(%ete%4 E-&ub&tituted variant& o6 4140 ba&e &erie& *0.4C-1Cr+ 3it' titanium addition&! a& 3e%% a& (artia%%4 E-&ub&tituted variant& 3it' and 3it'out titanium addition&. :'e&e &tudie& 1on1%uded t'atCom(%ete &ub&titution o6 mo%4bdenum b4 vanadium doe& not in1rea&e t'e 'ardenabi%it4 over &tandard 4140 *0.20< Mo+ even 3'en a%% t'e vanadium i& di&&o%ved durin" au&teniti8ation ,tee%& 1ontainin" 0.1 to 0.2< V and 0.04< -i are 1'ara1teri8ed b4 &i"ni6i1ant%4 in1rea&ed 'ardenabi%it4 *10 to 25< in 1+ over &tandard 4140 5i1roa%%o4 1ombination& o6 V 0 Mo 0 -i *F0.06-0.06-0.04<+ (rovide ver4 'i"' 'ardenabi%it4 3it' 1 bein" u( to 60< "reater t'an t'e 1! in &tandard 4140 3it' 0.20< 5o. :'i& e66e1t i& 1om(%ete%4 ab&ent in (artia%%4 &ub&tituted &tee% 3it'out titanium. :'e (ronoun1ed e66e1t on 'ardenabi%it4 o6 mo%4bdenum-vanadium 1ombination& 3it'out titanium a& ob&erved b4 5an"anon in 4330 &tee%&! 1an (robab%4 be re1on1i%ed 3it' t'e t'ird re&u%t o6 ,andber" in t'at t'e %atter &tudied &tee%& 1ontainin" 0.06< Al! 3'i1' 3ou%d be e>(e1ted to remove nitro"en to about t'e &ame e>tent a& 0.04< -i. @uen1'ed and tem(ered a%%o4 &tee%& 1an o66er a 1ombination o6 'i"' &tren"t' and "ood tou"'ne&&. ;n addition! 9uen1'ed and tem(ered a%%o4 &tee% (%ate i& avai%ab%e 3it' u%tra'i"' &tren"t'& and en'an1ed tou"'ne&&. An'an1ed tou"'ne&& and 'i"' &tren"t' are a1'ieved in t'e ni17e%-1'romium-mo%4bdenum a%%o4&! 3'i1' in1%ude &tee%& &u1' a& A,:5 A 543! 0G-80! 0G-100 and 0G-130. :'e&e &tee%& u&e ni17e% to im(rove tou"'ne&&. Hig!1Nic)el Steels for Lo21-emperat"re Ser*ice/ Hor a((%i1ation& invo%vin" e>(o&ure to tem(erature& 6rom 0 to -195oC! t'e 6erriti1 &tee%& 3it' 'i"' ni17e% 1ontent& are t4(i1a%%4 u&ed. ,u1' a((%i1ation& in1%ude &tora"e tan7& 6or %i9ue6ied '4dro1arbon "a&e& and &tru1ture& and ma1'iner4 de&i"ned 6or u&e in 1o%d re"ion&. :'e&e &tee%& uti%i8e t'e e66e1t o6 ni17e% 1ontent in redu1in" t'e im(a1t tran&ition tem(erature! t'ereb4 im(rovin" tou"'ne&& at %o3 tem(erature&. Carbon and a%%o4 &tee% 1a&tin"& 6or &ub8ero-tem(erature &ervi1e are 1overed b4 A,:5 &tandard &(e1i6i1ation A #5#. :'e 5< Ni a%%o4& 6or %o3-tem(erature &ervi1e in1%ude 0G-130 and A,:5 A 645. Hor &tee% (ur1'a&ed a11ordin" to A,:5 A 645 minimum C'ar(4 E-not1' im(a1t re9uirement& 6or 25 mm (%ate are de&i"nated at -1#0 oC 6or 'ardened! tem(ered! and rever&ion-annea%ed (%ate.

oub%e norma%i8ed and tem(ered 9< ni17e% &tee% i& 1overed b4 A,:5 A 353! and 9uen1'ed and tem(ered 8< and 9< ni17e% &tee%& are 1overed b4 A,:5 A 553 *t4(e& ; and ;;+. Hor 9uen1'ed and tem(ered materia%! t'e minimum %atera% e>(an&ion in C'ar(4 E-not1' im(a1t te&t& i& 0.38 mm. :e&tin" o6 t4(i1a% ten&i%e (ro(ertie& o6 5< and 9< Ni &tee%& at room tem(erature and at &ub8ero tem(erature& &'o3& t'at 4ie%d and ten&i%e &tren"t'& in1rea&e a& te&tin" tem(erature i& de1rea&ed. :'e&e &tee%& remain du1ti%e at t'e %o3e&t re&tin" tem(erature&. Herriti1 ni17e% &tee%& are too tou"' at room tem(erature 6or va%id 6ra1ture tou"'ne&& *I ;1+ data to be obtained on &(e1imen& o6 rea&onab%e &i8e! but %imited 6ra1ture tou"'ne&& data 'ave been obtained on t'e&e &tee%& at &ub8ero tem(erature& b4 t'e J-inte"ra% met'od. :'e 5< Ni&tee% retain& re%ative%4 'i"' 6ra1ture tou"'ne&& at -162 oC and t'e 9< Ni &tee% retain& re%ative%4 'i"' 6ra1ture tou"'ne&& at -196 oC. :'e&e tem(erature& a((ro>imate t'e minimum tem(erature& at 3'i1' t'e&e &tee%& ma4 be u&ed. 2i&t o6 Arti1%e& - Ino3%ed"e Ba&e